======================================================================== THE HISTORICAL BIBLE - VOLUME 1 by Charles Foster Kent ======================================================================== Kent's scholarly introduction to studying the Bible as a library of ancient texts written by diverse authors over centuries, distinguishing older historical records from later additions and arranging biblical materials chronologically to trace Israel's religious development. Chapters: 99 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ TABLE OF CONTENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. 001. Volume 1: The Heroes and Crises of Early Hebrew History: From the Creation to the Death of M... 2. 002. Preface 3. 003. Introduction 4. 004. I. The Old Testament World 5. 005. II. The Babylonian Background Of Early Hebrew History 6. 006. III. The Egyptian Background 7. 007. IV. The Early Palestinian Background 8. 008. V. Israel’s Religious Heritage 9. 009. VI. The Oldest History Of Israel 10. 010. VII. The Later Parallel Histories 11. 011. The Beginnings Of Human History 12. 012. I. The Story Of Man’s Creation 13. 013. II. Man’s Sin And Its Consequences 14. 014. III. The Story Of Cain And Abel 15. 015. IV. The Traditional Origin Of Early Semitic Institutions 16. 016. V. The Story Of The Great Flood 17. 017. VI. The Traditional Origin Of The Nations 18. 018. The Traditional Ancestors Of The Hebrews 19. 019. VII. Abraham’s Call And Settlement In Canaan 20. 020. VIII. The Promise Of A Son To Sarah 21. 021. IX. The Destruction of Sodom 22. 022. X. Birth And Sacrifice of Isaac 23. 023. XI. Securing A Wife For Isaac 24. 024. XII. Jacob And His Brother Esau 25. 025. XIII. Jacob’s Experiences As A Fugitive 26. 026. XIV. Jacob’s Return to Canaan 27. 027. XV. Joseph Sold By His Brothers Into Egypt 28. 028. XVI. Joseph Made Governor Of Egypt 29. 029. XVII. Joseph And His Brothers 30. 030. XVIII. Joseph’s Loyalty To His Kinsmen 31. 031. The Bondage And Deliverance From Egypt 32. 032. XIX. The Oppression Of The Hebrews In Egypt 33. 033. XX. Moses’s Childhood And Training 34. 034. XXI. Moses’s Call To Deliver The Hebrews 35. 035. XXII. The Egyptian Plagues 36. 036. The Exodus 37. 037. XXIII. The Exodus 38. 038. XXIV. The Revelation And Covenant At Sinai 39. 039. XXV. Man’s Individual Duties To God And Man 40. 040. XXVI. Moses’s Work As Judge And Prophet 41. 041. XXVII. The Life Of The Hebrews In The Wilderness 42. 042. XXVIII. The Attempt To Enter Canaan From The South 43. 043. XXIX. The Journey From The Wilderness And Balaam’s Prophecy 44. 044. XXX. East-Jordan Conquests And Moses’s Farewell 45. 045. Appendix I: The Late Priestly Story Of Creation 46. 046. Appendix II: A Practical Biblical Reference Library 47. 047. Appendix III: General Questions And Subjects For Special Research 48. 048. Volume 2: The Founders And Rulers Of United Israel: From The Death of Moses To The Division ... 49. 049. Preface 50. 050. The Settlement And Conquest Of Canaan 51. 051. XXXI. The Crossing Of The Jordan 52. 052. XXXII. Capture Of Jericho And AI 53. 053. XXXIII. Conditions And Conquests In Canaan 54. 054. XXXIV. The Establishment Of The Danite Tribe And Sanctuary 55. 055. XXXV. Experiences Of The Different Tribes 56. 056. XXXVI. The Great Victory Over The Canaanites 57. 057. XXXVII. Reigns Of Gideon And His Son Abimelech 58. 058. XXXVIII. Jephthah’s Victory Over The Ammonites 59. 059. XXXIX. Samson’s Birth And Marriage 60. 060. The Founding Of The Hebrew Kingdom 61. 061. XL. The Philistine Victories And The Fortunes Of The Ark 62. 062. XLI. Saul’s Call And Election To The Kingship 63. 063. XLII. The Great Victory Over The Philistines 64. 064. The Decline Of Saul And The Rise Of David 65. 065. XLIII. David’s Introduction To Public Life 66. 066. XLIV. David As A Fugitive 67. 067. XLV. David’s Life As An Outlaw 68. 068. XLVI. David Among The Philistines 69. 069. XLVII. Saul’s Defeat And Death 70. 070. The Political Events Of David’s Reign 71. 071. XLVIII. The Two Hebrew Kingdoms Under David And Ishbaal 72. 072. XLIX. The Liberation And Consolidation Of All Israel 73. 073. L. The Internal Events Of David’s Reign 74. 074. LI. David’s Foreign Wars And Conquests 75. 075. LII. David’s Crimes And Their Punishment 76. 076. LIII. The Crimes Of David’s Sons 77. 077. LIV. Absalom’s Rebellion 78. 078. LV. Solomon’s Election As King 79. 079. The Splendors Of Solomon’s Reign 80. 080. LVI. Solomon’s Policy And Fame 81. 081. LVII. Solomon’s Temple 82. 082. LVIII. The Splendor And Weakness Of Solomon’s Reign 83. 083. LIX. Law And Society In Early Israel 84. 084. LX. Moral And Religious Standards In Early Israel 85. 085. Appendix I: A Practical Biblical Reference Library 86. 086. Appendix II: General Questions And Subjects For Special Research 87. 086. Volume 3: The Kings And Prophets Of Israel And Judah: From The Division Of The Kingdom To Th... 88. 087. Preface 89. 088. The History Of Northern Israel 90. 089. LXI. The Division Of The Hebrew Empire 91. 090. LXII. The Military Dynasties Of Northern Israel 92. 091. LXIII. Elijah’s Work As A Religious And Social Reformer 93. 092. LXIV. The Decline Of The House Of Ahab 94. 093. LXV. Jehu’s Revolution And Its Consequences 95. 094. LXVI. Amos’s Arraignment Of Northern Israel 96. 095. LXVII. The Fatal Errors And Crimes Of The Israelites 97. 096. LXVIII. The Inevitable Consequences Of Israel’s Crimes 98. 097. LXIX. The Beginning Of Jehovah’s Revelation By Hosea 99. 098. LXX. Jehovah’s Charges Against Guilty Israel ======================================================================== CHAPTER 1: 001. VOLUME 1: THE HEROES AND CRISES OF EARLY HEBREW HISTORY: FROM THE CREATION TO THE DEATH OF M... ======================================================================== The Historical Bible THE HEROES AND CRISES OF EARLY HEBREW HISTORY FROM THE CREATION TO THE DEATH OF MOSES BY CHARLES FOSTER KENT,PH.D. WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY WITH MAPS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS COPYRIGHT 1908 ======================================================================== CHAPTER 2: 002. PREFACE ======================================================================== PREFACE Every man consciously or unconsciously makes his own working canon of the Bible. Sometimes this working canon includes everything that is found in the Scriptures, irrespective of relative values; sometimes it is pitiably limited, and fails to include many exceedingly important passages. To use the Bible intelligently and profitably it is important to realize that it is a great library, containing many different books, written by a great variety of authors, who lived in periods widely remote, and who wrote with diverse aims and points of view. Over twelve centuries lie between Moses and Paul, and each century contributed its part to the gradually growing records of God’s revelation of his character and will in the experiences, the hearts and the minds of men. The men of later ages, who have given us our present canons of the Old and the New Testaments, in their zeal to preserve all the existing records, included certain writings, which possess only a secondary historical and religious value. Sometimes, as in the case of the Gospels, they have also preserved three or four distinct yet parallel records of the same events; and sometimes, as in the case of the opening books of the Old Testament, they have closely blended together the older and later records into one continuous narrative. The great service of modem, constructive biblical scholarship has been to distinguish and to restore the older records to their original form, and to make it possible again to study the heroic characters and stirring events in Israel’s history as recorded by the earliest historians. In simplicity, literary beauty and historical value, the oldest history of Israel far surpasses the work of the later biblical historians. It includes practically all of the peerless narratives which have commanded the attention and moulded the faith and morals of humanity. When the later distracting parallels, the genealogical tables, the later Jewish traditions regarding the origin of institutions, and the popular legendary material have been removed, there remains the heart of the Bible—clear, consistent, the earliest and noblest record of God’s revelation of himself in the life of humanity. The aim of the Historical Bible is to make this older, vital record available for popular reading and study. It also aims to arrange and combine with the earliest historical record the more important songs, prophetic addresses, laws, psalms, proverbs and epistles, so that the biblical writers will present in their own language the literature, history and religious belief of each succeeding age. This arrangement makes it possible to study the character, work and message of each great prophet, sage, or apostle in the full light of the events and conditions amidst which he lived and labored. The translation is based on the oldest and best readings of the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac and Latin texts, and seeks to embody the constructive results of modem scholarship and discovery. It also aims to retain all that is best in the classic Authorized Version. It is hoped that by the means of a simple, dignified idiomatic translation the student may be directly introduced to the thought of the original writers and thus be largely relieved from the necessity of constantly referring to commentaries. The textual basis and the reasons for the different renderings adopted will be found in the corresponding sections of the author’s Student’s Old Testament. The earlier system of dividing the text into sections and paragraphs has been adopted. The chapter and verse references, first added in the sixteenth century A.D., have been omitted because they distract the attention of the reader, and because they often make misleading divisions of the text. Those teachers and readers who desire to verify the chapter and verse references will find them printed in connection with the text in the corresponding sections of the Student’s Old Testament, to which detailed reference is made in the Table of Contents. To each general section of the biblical text have been added such brief connected historical, geographical and archaeological notes as are necessary for the intelligent understanding of the biblical records. The purpose throughout has been to fix the attention on the biblical text itself and to put the reader in possession of those facts which are essential to its full understanding and appreciation. The Historical Bible is intended for use, (1) as a text-book for college, seminary and preparatory school classes; (2) as a manual for teachers’ training classes; (3) as a basis of study for general readers who desire to gain from the modern point of view a systematic knowledge of the history, literature and teachings of the Bible; (4) as a text-book for senior and adult Bible classes. For many years the conviction has been deepening that, if the alert young men and women of to-day are to be held in the Bible schools, they must be launched at the critical age of sixteen or seventeen upon a systematic course of Bible study which will hold their interest and attention, answer their critical questions, and give them the constant inspiration of definite and progressive achievement. To give definiteness to the study a selected group of questions, with references for further study in connection with each section, are given in the Appendix. There is also being prepared for the use of Sunday- school teachers a special manual with suggestions regarding the method of presentation and application of the practical truths and principles illustrated by each general section. To Mr. Charles Scribner I am under great obligation for many valuable suggestions in developing the plan of the series, and to Miss Ruth D. Sherrill and to Professor Irving F. Wood, of Smith College, for aid in revising the proofs. C. F. K. YALE UNIVERSITY. May, 1908. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 3: 003. INTRODUCTION ======================================================================== INTRODUCTION ======================================================================== CHAPTER 4: 004. I. THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD ======================================================================== I THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD I.The Influence of Environment. The character and history of a people are largely determined by the nature of the land in which they live. Mountains, valleys, desert, sea, cold and heat inevitably and indelibly mould the life of men. The fundamental characteristic of the Semitic race, to which the Hebrews belong, is its openness to the influence of environment. The striking contrast between the small, wizened Jew of Jerusalem, who has lived for centuries under an oriental despotism, and the tall, stalwart Jew of Spain, where conditions have been more favorable, is a familiar illustration of this susceptibility to external influences. To understand early biblical history it is therefore necessary to know the birthplace and home of the Hebrews and the races with which they came into closest contact. II.The Scene of Earliest Human History. No portion of the earth’s surface has more marked and significant characteristics than that limited territory in southwestern Asia which was the scene of the earliest human civilization and the background of Old Testament history. Its general form is that of a triangle. It is bounded on the west by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the east by the Zagros Mountains, which rise on the eastern bank of the Tigris River. Its southern base runs from the head of the Persian Gulf about twelve hundred miles across the northern end of the Red Sea and the Nile to the Desert of Sahara. Its centre is the great Arabian Desert, which occupies nearly half of this Old Testament world and ever dominated it. Nearly three-fourths of this entire area is either desert or dry, rocky, treeless pasture land. No high mountain ranges cut across this vast level expanse, which is hemmed in on its three sides by sea and mountains and burning sands. III.The Lower Tigris-Euphrates Valley. In the eastern part of this natural home of the nomad are the flat, alluvial plains of the lower Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Here, natural conditions all favored the development of an early and sturdy civilization. The Tigris, which flows thirteen hundred, and the Euphrates nearly eighteen hundred miles from their mountain sources before reaching the sea, brought down each year rich deposits of earth, and floods of water to irrigate the fertile soil. The clay of the river banks furnished the bricks from which were made temples, palaces and fortresses. The channels of the rivers and the intersecting canals were the highways of the merchant. The attractiveness of the territory and its exposure to attack on every side forced its inhabitants early to unite in common defence and to build up a strong and aggressive civilization. IV.Mesopotamia. To the north, the Tigris and Euphrates are separated by the great level plain of limestone and selenite, commonly known as Mesopotamia. The arid pasture lands gradually merge into more fertile mountain regions in the north and west. Except, however, at a few favored sites beside the rivers, this ancient land of Aram simply supports a wandering, nomadic population. It is the connecting link between the richly productive lands along the lower waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the series of elevated plateaus and fertile valleys and coast plains that skirt the Mediterranean Sea. V.Syria and Palestine. The eastern Mediterranean coast-land, known in later times as Syria and Palestine, was divided by natural barriers of desert, river and low mountain range into seven or eight distinct divisions. Each of these had its different products and interests. No one great river provided the background for a strong, centralized, conquering civilization. Instead, the Orontes, the longer of its two chief rivers, after flowing to the north only about one hundred and fifty miles, finds its way into the Mediterranean; while the Jordan, rising not far from the Orontes, flows a little over a hundred miles in the opposite direction to lose itself in the Dead Sea, far below the surface of the earth. About four hundred miles long from north to south and from seventy-five to one hundred wide, this little world, like ancient Greece, was, by virtue of its peculiar physical contour and character, destined to support many petty, independent, warring peoples, engaged in a great variety of occupations, and representing many different stages of civilization. VI.The Nile Valley. The third large fertile area in the ancient Semitic world was the lower Nile valley. That remarkable river, fed by the melting snows and great lakes in the heart of Africa, flows northward over three thousand miles into the Mediterranean. The last thousand miles it runs through a desert of rock and shifting sands; but out of this desert the river, by its deposits of rich black earth, has created an oasis which man’s industry has transformed into a paradise. The real Egypt of the past, as of to-day, was but a ribbon of fertile river land, not more than eight thousand square miles in area. Shut in by desert sands on the east and west, its closest and almost only point of contact with the outside world was with Asia to the northeast. From northern Egypt the great highways of commerce ran eastward along the Mediterranean, through Canaan and Syria, to the populous valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. VII.The First Chapter in Divine Revelation. Thus the encircling barriers of sea and mountain and desert bound closely together the ancient Semitic world and protected it from too early or too close contact with its more barbarous neighbors. Natural conditions along the lower waters of the Nile in the west, and the Tigris and Euphrates in the east, fitted these river basins to become the two earliest centres of human civilization. The favorable physical conditions also largely determined the character of that civilization. Palestine and Syria, standing midway between the Arabian desert, Babylonia and Egypt, were clearly destined in time to receive and absorb the powerful political, social and religious influences emanating from each of these older centres. In the geographical background of early Hebrew life, therefore, is written in clearest characters the first and in many ways the most suggestive chapter in the history of divine revelation. VIII.The Original Home of the Semites. Northern Arabia appears to have been the original home of the primitive Semites. There they lived as nomads, roaming, as do their descendants, the modern Arabs, from place to place in search of water and pasture for their flocks and herds. Their wandering life made it easy for them, when the desert steppes did not supply enough to support their increasing numbers, to pass over and seek permanent homes in the more attractive river valleys that encircled them. This process of transition began long before the dawn of history and has gone on without interruption to the present day. Usually the transition was gradual, but at times great hordes rushed forth with the sword to conquer and rule their more civilized but less virile agricultural neighbors. IX.Semitic Races of Arabia and Africa. The fertile plains of central and southern Arabia doubtless early attracted Semitic immigrants. There they built up a rich and advanced civilization. It was, however, so completely isolated that, except through the medium of trade, it made little impression on the rest of the ancient world. From this land later came the Queen of Sheba with her costly gifts. To this southern group of Semitic races belong the nomadic Arab tribes, the highly civilized Sabeans, the Mineans and the later Nabatheans. From southern Arabia colonists crossed the southern end of the Red Sea to Africa, and founded the nation of the Cushites or Ethiopians, of whom are descended the modern Abyssinians. Other Semites early found their way to the lower Nile valley and, mingling with the native races, are known to history as the Egyptians. VII.Babylonians and Assyrians. Originally the lower Tigris- Euphrates valley appears to have been occupied by a non-Semitic people, called by modern scholars the Sumerians. The ruins of their ancient cities testify to the greatness of their art and culture. Their oldest tablets contain references to the advance of Semitic peoples from the north and west. The invaders, who settled in the south, assimilating the art and culture of the conquered, were later known as the Babylonians. Those who later went farther north and found a home on the upper Tigris, ultimately figure in history as the Assyrians. VIII.Arameans. Other groups of Semitic nomads crossed the Euphrates into Mesopotamia and are later known as the Arameans. Most of them retained their wandering habits; some of them in the northwest built cities; others pressed on westward into Syria and Palestine. Largely as the result of their intermediate position between Babylonia and Assyria on the one side, and Syria, Palestine and Egypt on the other, the Arameans became the great overland traders of the ancient world. IX.Amorites and Canaanites. Probably from northern Arabia, the common home of the early Semites, came the ancestors of the Amorites and Canaanites. The earlier immigrants settled among the hills of central Palestine. On the fertile plains, which run along the eastern Mediterranean and intersect the hills and mountains that lie between the sea and desert, the later immigrants found their homes. Here they developed an agricultural civilization, which was a reflection of that of Babylonia. X.Ammonites, Moabites and Edomites. Centuries later there came from northern Arabia and Mesopotamia another wave of nomadic immigration, which brought to this western land the ancestors of the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites and Hebrews. The Ammonites settled east of the Jordan in the border between tillable land and desert, retaining their older nomadic institutions and acquiring also the arts of agriculture. The Moabites found their permanent abode on the more fertile headlands east of the Dead Sea. In the narrow valleys and rocky hills south of the Dead Sea the Edomites established themselves, depending for subsistence chiefly upon their flocks and the plunder which they seized from passing caravans. XI.Hebrews. The ancestors of the Hebrews appear to have at first crossed the Jordan into Canaan and to have found a temporary abode in the unoccupied uplands. They retained, however, their nomadic habits, and gravitated in time into the country to the south of Canaan. Thence a part of them at least pressed on to the borders of Egypt. Their return and conquest of Canaan are recorded in their earliest traditions. Of all the Semitic races they were the last to find a permanent abode and to crystallize into a nation. About them and in their midst were kindred peoples whose institutions had been developing thousands of years. Compared with that of Babylonia and Egypt and Phoenicia, their history is modern rather than ancient. By race, as well as by virtue of conquest and geographical position, they were heirs of that which had already been acquired through countless centuries of human effort and experience. The second chapter, therefore, in the record of divine revelation is the history of the great nations that preceded and deeply influenced the Hebrews. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 5: 005. II. THE BABYLONIAN BACKGROUND OF EARLY HEBREW HISTORY ======================================================================== II THE BABYLONIAN BACKGROUND OF EARLY HEBREW HISTORY I. The Dawn of History. The combined evidence of archaeology, anthropology and geology indicate that man has existed on the earth at least twenty-five thousand and possibly one hundred thousand years. Back of the highly advanced civilization, disclosed by the excavations in the oldest ruins, lie millenniums, marked by slow but progressive development. Human history began at about the same time in the two most favored centres of the ancient Semitic world, the lower Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile valleys. The oldest records found in Babylonia and Egypt may be approximately dated between 5000 and 4000 B.C. II. Early Babylonian Systems of Writing. Babylonia was the first to evolve a civilization that burst its natural boundaries and became a conquering force throughout the Semitic world. As the earliest inscriptions and archaeological remains reveal the life of that far-away age and people, the historian is impressed by the remarkable progress already made in the art of writing. All important events were recorded on stone or clay by means of picture-characters. Thus, for example, a star represented the gods and heavens, a circle the sun, the crescent moon growth, the arm strength, and the fore leg walking. By the combination of these signs even most complex ideas were expressed. In time these pictures were represented by conventional characters, consisting simply of straight lines ending in a wedge (Latin, cuneus; hence called, cuneiform), made in the plastic clay by the sharp comer of a cube in the hand of the scribe. Many of these signs were also used, not only to represent ideas, but syllables, so that it was possible with these to spell out individual words and to make the record clear and exact. III.Different Industries. By careful cultivation and irrigation the lower Tigris-Euphrates basin was made to bear far more than the needs of the people required. The surplus gave the Babylonians the material with which to trade with surrounding nations. The ancient arts and crafts were also highly developed. Sculptors, brickmakers, smiths, including those who worked in gold and silver, jewellers, potters, carpenters, masons, miners, weavers and leather-workers, are all mentioned on the monuments. Most of these trades were also organized at that early day into guilds or unions. IV.Merchants and Commerce. The rich products of that ancient world, and the great highways on land and water, which led southward to Arabia and India and westward to Phoenicia and Egypt, made the inhabitants of Babylonia a nation of traders. The merchants soon became a rich and powerful class in the community. Some also became bankers, loaning money at a high rate of interest (25 per cent, per annum and up), and transmitting their business to their children from generation to generation. V.Effect of Commerce on Institutions. The needs of commerce gave a great impetus to the use of writing, for every important transaction was recorded. Thousands of such records remain to testify to the great activity of the early scribes. In time, trade also made necessary a fixed standard of value. The coinage of money came much later; but in ancient Babylonia bars and rings of gold and silver of standard weight were early used in trade. Half an ounce avoirdupois made a shekel, sixty shekels a mina, and sixty minas a talent. The needs of trade likewise led to the early development of law and judicial institutions in Babylonia. If commerce is to prosper, it must be protected. As business relations became more complex, thousands of cases of dispute arose. The decisions constituted precedents which in time became the basis of laws. These were regarded as possessing divine authority and were rigorously enforced. The result was that in time individual rights were as carefully guarded by law in ancient Babylonia as they are to-day in America or Europe. VI.Scientific Knowledge. In the field of the mechanical arts great progress had been attained. The lever, the inclined plane and the arch were in common use. The length of the solar year (365 ¼ days) was known, and eclipses were often accurately predicted. In other respects the scientific knowledge of the Babylonians was exceedingly crude. They knew little about the human body and the treatment of diseases. The earth was thought of as an inverted dish, resting in the great watery deep, and the firmament above as a larger inverted bowl. Beneath the firmament moved the sun and moon and stars. Above the firmament were the great encircling waters; above these the bright abode of the immortal gods; while in the dark, beneath the earth, dwelt the dead. VII.Organization of Society. The unit of this ancient society was the family. The father was the head of the household. The mother of children enjoyed an honored place, and her rights as wife or widow were carefully guarded by law. In later times, when conquering kings returned with captives, the slave class increased very rapidly. Whether the slaves belonged to a family or a temple, they appear to have been well cared for, and could even hold property in their own name. The king was the supreme head of the state, the commander-in-chief of the army, the judge to whom disputed cases were ultimately referred, the chief priest of the nation, and the protector of his subjects. The nobles shared his authority. In return for their service and tribute, he divided the land among them. Within their own domain they ruled as petty kings, renting the land in turn to the common people who were their tenants. VIII.Period of Small City States (4500-3800B.C.). The earliest historical period in Babylonia may be dated between 4500 and 3800 B.C., and is known as the age of small city states. Six important cities were found in the north, Eridu, Ur, Lagash (Shirpurla), Uruk (Erech), Larsa, Isin or Nisin, and six in the south, Agade, Nippur, Sippar, Kutha, Kish and later Babylon. Each was originally independent and held sway over the adjacent territory. In this early day the non-Semitic Sumerian civilization was dominant in the southern group of cities; in the northern the Semitic type was beginning to gain the ascendency. The earliest inscriptions tell of the bitter wars that were frequently waged between these two rival races. The stronger city states also began to extend their rule beyond their own natural limits. The most significant ruler of this early period is Lugalzaggisi (about 3900 B.C.), who conquered Ur and Larsa and called himself “King of Uruk, King of the Totality.” He also states in his inscription that his god gave him tribute from the lower sea (the Persian Gulf) to the upper sea (the Mediterranean), indicating that even at this early date the influence of this eastern centre of civilization was beginning to be felt in distant Syria. IX.Period of Unification and Expansion(3800-2100 B.C.). Separated by no natural boundaries and united by common interests, institutions and religion, it was inevitable that the different cities of the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley would in time unite under the rule of the strongest. If the chronology of the later Babylonian scribes can be accepted, it was about 3800 B.C. that such a union was established by the great Sargon I, king of Agade. Apparently rising from the ranks of the common people, he built up a mighty empire. The inscriptions tell of his conquest not only of Nippur, Shirpurla, Kish and Uruk, but also record his campaigns in Arabia on the south, Elam on the east, Armenia on the north, and the Mediterranean coast-lands on the west. This empire he handed down to his son Naram-Sin, one of whose inscriptions has been found on the distant island of Cyprus. A few centuries later the leadership passed to Shirpurla in the south; but for about five hundred years the ancient city of Ur, devoted to the worship of the moon god Sin, held sway at times over all Babylonia. Its earliest kings were famous for their building enterprises, as well as their conquests. At Ur they reared a temple to the moon god; at Uruk to the goddess Ishtar; at Larsa to Shamash, the sun god; and at Nippur they repaired the ancient temple of Bel. The rulers of the second great dynasty of Ur assumed the proud and suggestive title of “King of the Four Regions.” Contemporary tablets indicate that they carried their conquests into Elam, Arabia and Aram. The city of Larsa then enjoyed a brief period of supremacy. About 2000 B.C. it fell before the Elamite invaders from the east, who made it the centre from which they ruled over the cities of southern Babylonia. X.Supremacy of Babylon (about2100-1700B.C.). It was at this time of humiliation at the hands of foreign invaders that the city which gave its name to the lower valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, first came to the front. About 2100 B.C. a strong dynasty arose at Babylon. The founders of this dynasty appear to have come from northern Arabia. The new blood and energy, thus infused into the already old civilization of Babylonia, found its noblest representative in the great Hammurabi, whose reign of forty-three years must now, in the light of a recently discovered royal chronicle, be dated not earlier than 2100 and probably about 1900 B.C. His deliverance of the southern cities from the Elamite yoke left him master of Babylonia. His two titles, “King of Shumer and Akkad” (northern and southern Babylonia) and “King of the Four Corners of the World,” imply that his authority extended beyond the Tigris-Euphrates valley. His chief glory, however, was as a builder and organizer. He enlarged the temples at Babylon and its western suburb Borsippa, and erected new ones at Larsa and Sippar. He connected the Tigris and Euphrates by a canal. For the purposes of irrigation he constructed the great Hammurabi canal along the Euphrates. He introduced improved methods of agriculture. At Babylon he built a vast granary. XI.Effects of Hammurabi’s Policy. To ensure justice to all his subjects, he caused to be compiled and set up in public the remarkable civil code of two hundred and eighty laws recently discovered in the ruins of Susa. This code anticipates, by nearly a thousand years, many of the principles that underlie the Old Testament laws. It reveals not only a just, but also a humane ruler, eager for the welfare of his people. By his wise policy Hammurabi developed and bound together all parts of his great empire. He was the real founder of Babylonia’s political, commercial and religious supremacy. He made Babylon itself, even after it fell before foreign conquerors, the great centre of culture throughout the ancient world. Under his descendants, the rulers of the first Babylonian dynasty, the empire appears to have enjoyed, for over a century, peace and prosperity, largely as the result of his epoch- making work. XII.Decline of Babylonia and Rise of Assyria(1700-1100 B.C.). During the later years of the first dynasty of Babylon the Kassites came down from the mountains to the northeast and conquered Babylonia. Their rule was maintained for several centuries. They adopted, rather than destroyed, the Babylonian culture which they found, so that its influence still went forth to all the world. Soon after the appearance of the Kassites (about 1700 B.C.), the subject city of Asshur on the east bank of the upper Tigris threw off the foreign yoke and laid the foundation of the great kingdom known as Assyria. Centuries of bitter, destructive conflict between the new power and the parent state followed, in which Babylon gradually lost strength and prestige. About 1100 B.C. the great Tiglath-pileser I, king of Assyria, entered upon his victorious campaigns in Babylonia, Elam and Mesopotamia. He also was the first conqueror to lead an Assyrian army into Syria. During this long period of Babylon’s decline, its ancient rival Egypt had become a conquering power and had succeeded to the political control of the rich territory along the eastern Mediterranean. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 6: 006. III. THE EGYPTIAN BACKGROUND ======================================================================== III THE EGYPTIAN BACKGROUND I.The Beginnings of Egyptian History(3400-2900B.C.). Egypt’s early history is closely parallel to that of Babylonia. It begins at about the same time, with a long period during which rival city states, and nomes or provinces, fought with each other, the stronger gaining a temporary supremacy over their weaker neighbors. By 3400 B.C. at least, the rule of Memphis was acknowledged throughout all Egypt. About this time may be dated the first of the thirty-three dynasties in the classification of the Egyptian historian Manetho, whose tables have been generally adopted as the basis of Egyptian chronology. At the very beginnings of its recorded history, the art and civilization of Egypt had also attained an exceedingly high stage of development. II.The Fourth Dynasty(2900-2750 B.C.). The immunity from foreign attack which Egypt enjoyed during its earlier history, left its rulers free to carry out vast building enterprises. The greatest building dynasty was the fourth (about 2700 B.C.). Its kings penetrated the Sinaitic peninsula and opened the mines and quarries along the Red Sea. They also, in part, reclaimed the lands of the Nile Delta and built defences on the east to keep out Semitic invaders. Their crowning achievement was the construction of the great pyramids at Gizeh as royal tombs. The magnitude of their work and the remarkable organization of the empire, which it reveals, can only be appreciated when it is remembered that the Great Pyramid alone covers thirteen acres, is four hundred and eighty feet high, and contains nearly seven million tons of stone, transported from Syene, five hundred miles up the Nile. III.Twelfth Dynasty (about2000to1800 B.C.). The rulers of the twelfth dynasty accomplished for Egypt what the great Hammurabi did for Babylon. Seven powerful, long-lived kings succeeded one another. Nubia in the south, with its rich gold mines, was conquered. Peaceful commercial relations were established with Syria and southern Arabia. The marshy district west of the lower Nile, now called the Faiyum, was drained, greatly increasing the productive area of Egypt. Many palaces and temples were built. The industries and local interests of the different provinces were developed. Contemporary inscriptions bear testimony to the noble spirit of justice and consideration for their subjects that actuated kings and princes. One ruler declares that he “ marched through the country to overthrow evil, fixed the frontier of each township and placed the boundary stones as firm as the sky. He sought information from the books as to the irrigation district belonging to each town, and this was drawn up according to the ancient writings, because he loved truth so much.” A noble also boasts: “No daughter of a citizen have I injured, no widow have I molested, no laborer have I arrested, no shepherd have I banished, no superintendent of workmen was there whose laborers I have taken away. In my time there were no poor, and none were hungry in my day. When the years of famine came, I ploughed all the fields of the province from the southern to the northern boundary. I kept the inhabitants alive and gave them food, so that none was hungry. I gave to the widow, even as to her who had a husband; I never preferred the great to the small.” IV.Rule of the Hyksos (about1650-1580 B.C.). After the peaceful and prosperous days of the twelfth dynasty, civil war between the kings and their powerful nobles weakened the kingdom and invited foreign invasion. The invasion of Babylonia by the Kassites during the latter part of the eighteenth century B.C. was but the beginning of a general westward movement of the peoples of southwestern Asia. One important result of this same movement was that certain tribes from Syria, Palestine, and Northern Arabia were pushed on through the Isthmus of Suez and seized northern Egypt. Establishing themselves in the Delta, they soon brought southern Egypt also into subjection. For fully a century these so-called Hyksos kings maintained their rule, adopting many of the Egyptian institutions. In the end the native princes of Thebes rallied the south-land, and, after a half century of fierce fighting, succeeded in driving the invaders back into Asia. V.The Victorious Eighteenth Dynasty (1580-1350B.C.). The long training in warfare, the possession of the horse and chariot which the Hyksos first brought to the land of the Nile, the fear of subsequent invasions, and the newborn desire for military glory, all united in transforming the peaceful Egyptians into a conquering nation. Under the leadership of the able kings of the victorious eighteenth dynasty (about 1600 to 1350 B.C.), the kingdom of Egypt suddenly expanded into an empire. The great conqueror Thutmose III, in a series of campaigns, subjugated Palestine and Syria, and carried the borders of his empire to the Euphrates. For fully a century Egypt ruled the eastern Mediterranean coast-land. By its prestige and alliances with Asiatic provinces it extended its influence still further, so that, while Babylonia and Assyria were engaged in mortal combat, Egypt was mistress of the western world. From all the subject states she exacted heavy annual tribute. The income from this source and the services of the captives of war made possible the huge building enterprises for which the eighteenth and following dynasty were famous. IV.The Nineteenth Dynasty (1350-1205B.C.). During the rule of the nineteenth dynasty, Egypt was confronted in northern Syria by a formidable foe, the Hittites, who came down from the mountains of eastern Asia Minor. After fighting with them for nearly twenty years, Ramses II concluded a remarkable treaty which established the boundary line between the two peoples a little north of Mount Hermon. The treaty left Ramses II free to develop the resources of his empire, and to fill Egypt from one end to the other with the monuments of his zeal as a builder. V.The Transitional Twelfth CenturyB.C. The beginning of the twelfth century B.C. is memorable as a great transitional epoch in ancient history. It saw the decline of the first Babylonian empire. In the west the second great world empire, Egypt, torn by civil wars within and attacked from without by northern hordes, entered its long eclipse. The same hordes broke the power of the Hittites in northern Syria, so that they soon disappeared. At the same time in the east, Assyria began to gather its forces for that series of conquests which ended in the mastery of the ancient Semitic world. From Mesopotamia the Arameans moved westward and southward to take possession of northern Syria. Along the shore from southern Asia Minor came the ancestors of the Philistines to break the power of Egypt and to find a home on the rich, rolling plains of southwestern Palestine. From Egypt certain Hebrew tribes went forth as fugitives, and began that memorable movement which led them at last to the land of Canaan and the possession of central Palestine. With the twelfth century the earliest chapter of human history which represented over three millenniums of magnificent achievement and splendor, closes, and a new era of political, intellectual, and religious progress opens. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 7: 007. IV. THE EARLY PALESTINIAN BACKGROUND ======================================================================== IV The Early Palestinian Background I.Data Concerning Early Syria and Palestine. Until very recently the early history of the third great centre of Semitic culture (Palestine and Syria) has been known simply from occasional references in the monuments of Babylonia and Egypt. These still remain the chief sources of information. This fact is in itself indicative of the dependent position held by this intermediate land. Recent excavations in Palestine, at ancient Lachish, Gezer, Taanach, Megiddo and Jericho, have yielded only two or three inscriptions, but they and the archaeological remains have confirmed and supplemented the testimony of the monuments, and made it possible to trace, in outline, the early history of the land which is the immediate background of the Bible. II.Early Babylonian Influence. Lugalzaggisi, one of the earliest conquering kings of ancient Babylonia, states that about 3900 B.C.. his army reached the Mediterranean. It is probable that the point gained was simply northern Syria, and that the expedition was little more than a raid; but it means that even at this early date the leaven of Babylonian culture had entered the west-land. About two centuries later Sargon I followed with the conquest of the land of Martu, which is identified in later tablets with the land of the Amorites. In the Assyrian inscriptions Martu is the designation of Syria and Palestine. These early expeditions are significant, for their primary aim was apparently to open the highways for commerce, which was a far more important agent for the spreading of Babylonian civilization and ideas than the march of conquering armies. It is probable that from the days of Sargon I these influences were felt in the more favored centres on the western Mediterranean coast. III.Pre-Semitic Inhabitants of Palestine. The excavations in Palestine indicate that before the Semites entered it, the land was inhabited by a race of short stature, living in caves. The Bible also refers to an ancient people, east of the Jordan, whose name, Horites, apparently means cave-dwellers. They may well be survivors of the earlier prehistoric people, who were otherwise expelled or absorbed by the larger and more energetic Semitic immigrants. IV.The Amorite Migration. Doubtless, Palestine attracted tribes from the Arabian desert at a very early date, but the first traces of an extensive Semitic invasion came from about 2200 B.C. The Babylonian, Egyptian, and Northern Israelite records agree in calling this people the Amorites. The recurrence of the same proper names in contemporary writings coming from Syria and Babylonia, together with other indications, support, although they do not establish, the conclusion that the wave of Semitic invasion which swept from Arabia westward into Palestine about 2200 B.C., also carried the ancestors of Hammurabi, the founders of the first great dynasty of Babylon, eastward across the Euphrates. Certainly, from the days of Hammurabi, the frequent references in the Babylonian tablets to the Amorite country and the Amorites are indicative of the close relation which henceforth existed between the two lands and peoples. This close and continued relation alone explains the fact that a few centuries later the Babylonian language and cuneiform characters were employed by the governors of Syria and Palestine in writing even to their Egyptian sovereign. It was during the centuries following 2200 B.C. that Babylonian institutions, ideas, and customs were indelibly stamped upon the Semitic peoples in Palestine. I.Story ofSinuhit. From Egypt there comes a popular romance, the Story of Sinuhit, which throws interesting light upon conditions in Palestine about 2000 B.C. The hero, a princely Egyptian refugee, fled eastward past the “Wall of the Princes,” which guarded the northeastern frontier of Egypt. On the borders of the desert he was found by a Bedouin herdsman who introduced him to the hospitality of his tribe. These “sand wanderers,” as they are called in the story, send him on from tribe to tribe until he reaches the land of Kedem east of the Dead Sea. Here he remains for a year and a half, until he is invited by the king of Upper Tenu to share with the other Egyptian refugees already there the hospitality of his court. The king of Upper Tenu appears to have been one of the Amorite rulers of central Palestine. Although the story is a romance, it gives the earliest detailed picture of the ancient Amorite civilization. Every possible honor was heaped upon the hero by the king of the land: “He placed me at the head of his children, and married me to his eldest daughter. He let me choose from amongst his lands, from amongst choicest possessions on the frontier of another country. This was the beautiful land of ’Eva; figs and vines grew there, there were many sorts of wine and it was rich in honey, its olive trees were plentiful and all kinds of fruit grew on its trees. There was corn there and barley and herds without number. And there was yet more that happened to me from love to me, for he made me prince of a tribe of his country. Then I had as much bread as I wanted, and wine for every day, boiled meat and roast goose, irrespective of the game of the country that I caught and carried off as spoil, and irrespective of what my own hands brought me. . . . Thus I spent many years and my children became heroes, each the protector of his adopted tribe. The messenger who came from the court or went thither stayed with me; I gave hospitality to every one, and I gave water to the thirsty. . . . I subdued each people against whom I marched, I drove them from their pastures and from their wells; I captured their cattle and carried off their children.” II.Origin of the Canaanites. Contemporary Egyptian inscriptions indicate that by the fourteenth century B.C. Semitic people called the Kinahni, or Canaanites, were firmly established on the coast plains of the eastern Mediterranean and in the valleys of central Palestine. This fact accords with the statement of the Northern Israelite historian in Numbers 13:29 regarding conditions before the conquest, The Amorites were dwelling in the hill-country and the Canaanites by the sea and along beside the Jordan.Deuteronomy 3:9 also calls attention to a difference between the dialects of these two races. Although closely related and later blended, the two peoples appear to have been originally distinct. The references in the inscriptions favor on the whole the conclusion that the Canaanites represented a later wave of Semitic immigration similar to the earlier Amorite invasion. It seems exceedingly probable that the great western movement in the latter part of the eighteenth century B.C., which carried the Kassites into Babylonia and the Hyksos into Egypt, bore the ancestors of the Canaanites to Palestine. Possibly they were closely connected with the Hyksos conquerors who, when defeated, retired to southern Palestine. III.Egyptian Conquest of Palestine. The pursuit of the retreating Hyksos led the kings of the powerful eighteenth Egyptian dynasty to the conquest of Palestine. After a siege of five years they captured Sharuhen, the Hyksos stronghold in southern Canaan. Thutmose I carried the standards of Egypt to the Euphrates, laying tribute upon the peoples of Palestine and Syria; but it was Thutmose III who made this territory an integral part of the empire. In an inscription on the walls of one of the temples at Thebes he has given a detailed account of his campaigns, which furnishes a vivid picture of conditions in Palestine at that time. The decisive battle with the Canaanites was fought about 1480 B.C. at Megiddo on the plain of Esdraelon. The Egyptian record reveals the spirit of the conquerors and the cowardice of the natives: “On the twenty-first day of the month, even the same as the royal coronation, early in the morning command was given to the entire army to advance. His Majesty went forth in his chariot of electrum, adorned with his weapons of war. His Majesty was in the midst of them, the god Amon being the protection to his body and strength to his limbs. When his Majesty prevailed over them, they fled headlong to Megiddo, as if terrified by spirits; they left their horses and chariots of silver and gold and were drawn up by hauling them by their clothes into this city, for the men shut the gates of this city upon them. The fear of his Majesty entered their hearts, their arms failed, their mighty men lay like fishes on the ground. The great army of his Majesty drew round to count their spoil. The whole army rejoiced, giving praise to Amon for the victory that he had given to his son, and they glorified his Majesty, extolling his victories.” IV.Egyptian Rule in Palestine. The city of Megiddo itself was soon captured. In the same campaign the king of Egypt completed the conquest of Palestine. The tribute brought to him by the conquered peoples reveals their prosperity and culture. Flocks and herds, slaves, horses, chariots, armor, weapons, gold and silver vessels, embroidered garments, and inlaid furniture of wood and ivory are mentioned in the lists. On the plain of Esdraelon alone the king reaped a harvest of one hundred and fifty thousand bushels of grain. For the next three centuries, with only occasional lapses, the rule of Egypt was maintained in Palestine. Armies were frequently sent to put down local rebellions and little mercy was shown. Egyptian garrisons were stationed at strategic points. These were supported by the local princes who continued in most cases to rule over their petty states as vassals of Egypt. While they remained loyal, supplied troops to aid in putting down rebellions, paid the regular tribute, which was far from small, little else was required. The rivalry between them was intense, and when Egypt showed any signs of weakness, they were each ready to improve the first opportunity to revolt. In the cities on the coast plains, which were most open to Egyptian influence, the civilization of the Nile valley took root, but throughout the rest of Palestine it made little impression. Instead, Babylonian and local Semitic customs, laws, and ideas held undisputed sway. V.Testimony of the el-Amarna Letters. During the reign of the reformer king of Egypt, Amenhotep IV (1375-1358 B.C.), remarkably clear light is shed upon conditions in Palestine by the famous el-Amarna letters, sent to the king by his vassal princes and governors. Although written in the Babylonian language and script, they abound in words and expressions familiar to the Bible student because they reflect the dialect of Canaan which was later used by the Hebrews. Like the inscriptions of Thutmose III, they show that many of the towns which figure in later Hebrew history were already in existence. The Canaanite-Phoenician cities of Gebal, Beruta (Beirut), Tyre, Sidon, Joppa, and the inland towns of Hazor, Gezer, Ajalon, Jerusalem, Gath, and Lachish are among the most important (cf. map., opp. p. 73). Altogether nearly one hundred and fifty towns are mentioned, of which two-thirds can be identified. X.Letters from Jerusalem. The letters written by Abdi-heba, the vassal king of Jerusalem, state that he had been raised to that position by Amenhotep, and that his authority extended over the adjacent territory, which was called the country of Jerusalem. Like many of the Palestinian governors of the period, he had been accused of treachery by his colleagues ruling in other cities, and while he strongly protests his own innocence he accuses them in turn. The chief burden of his letters is the request that the king of Egypt send an army at once to deliver his people and land from the insistent attacks of an invading people called the Habiri. XI.The Habiri. The letters of the other Palestinian governors contain similar references to these invaders. Notwithstanding the similarity in name, they can hardly be identified directly with the Hebrews. Rather they appear to be the vanguard of that new western migration from northern Arabia and Mesopotamia which included the Aramean or Arabian ancestors of the Hebrews, the Ammonites, the Moabites, and the Edomites. XII.Decline of Egyptian Power. After the death of Amenhotep IV, Egypt lost control of Palestine and Syria for fully fifty years. The ambitious kings of the nineteenth dynasty, however, recovered Palestine in 1313 B.C. and held it for a century. An inscription of Mernephtah, one of its last kings, contains the first contemporary reference to Israel. From the context it is clear that Israel represents a people, apparently without a definite country, but then living within or near the bounds of Palestine. Mernephtah mentions them simply to record his victory over them. Ramses III (1198-1167 B.C.), of the twentieth dynasty, also re-established the rule of Egypt over Canaan and the coast-land; but by the middle of the twelfth century B.C. all foreign barriers to the advance of the Hebrews were removed. With this date Israel’s history as a nation begins. XIII.Israel’s Heritage. This brief outline suffices to suggest how broad and significant is the historical background of early Hebrew history. Many great kingdoms and empires had flourished for centuries and fallen into decay before the Israelites appeared in Canaan. Through all the centuries each important nation and civilization had left its deep imprint upon the land that was destined in divine Providence to be the home of the people through whom a unique message was to come to humanity. The roots of Israel’s life run back to the beginnings of human society and civilization. All ancient history is a unit, of which the Bible records the later and, in many ways, the more important chapters. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 8: 008. V. ISRAEL’S RELIGIOUS HERITAGE ======================================================================== V ISRAEL’S RELIGIOUS HERITAGE I.Prominence of Religion in Early Semitic Life. The preceding studies have revealed the aggressive conquering, colonizing and commercial tendencies of the early Semitic peoples. Of these three tendencies the commercial was undoubtedly the strongest; but there was a still more powerful force in that ancient life. That force was religion. The earliest rulers were the priests of the tribe or nation, and the basis of their authority was their claim that they were the representatives of the gods. Kings fought and carried their victorious standards into unknown lands, and colonists followed to complete the work of conquest, that the glory and prestige of their god might be increased. The greater part of the fruits of conquest and commerce went to glorify the temples and service of the gods. The policy of the state and the activity of the people were directed by their religious leaders. Priests also acted as scribes, teachers, authors and judges. It is also deeply significant that the oldest records found in Babylon and Egypt are almost without exception religious in theme and spirit. The earliest mounds are filled with the ruins of temples and the symbols of worship. Ancient art and science were also both inspired by religion. II.The Semitic Instinct for Religion. Among the primitive Semitic peoples the fact that man is by nature a religious being, finds its strongest illustration. The dearest possessions and even human life were all sacrificed to the gods. Though the beliefs of these early peoples were often absurd and their rites crude and repulsive, their fervent devotion reveals the spirit of true worship; for the essence of worship is not the intellectual belief, but the attitude of the worshipper. It was inevitable that in such an intensely religious atmosphere the faith of humanity should attain its earliest and most advanced development, and that out of it should ultimately spring the exalted religion of the Hebrew prophets and Jesus. Divine revelation is necessarily gradual and progressive, for each age and race can receive only the truth which it is capable of apprehending. In the life and religions of the Semitic peoples, whose traditions Israel inherited, it is now possible to study the earlier stages in that continuous process of divine revelation which has given us our faith of to-day. III.Early Semitic Religions. The primitive Semites, and especially the Sumerians who preceded the Babylonians, worshipped many spirits of air, and earth, and water. It was a religion of dread, for the deities were for the most part believed to be malign. Man’s chief effort was to avert their jealousy and anger; but as civilization and culture advanced and man began to master natural forces, the gods were thought of, more and more, as friends rather than foes. IV.The Many Local Gods. When history dawned in ancient Babylonia and Egypt, each city state or tribe had its local deity, who, it was believed, made its fields productive, prospered its industries, protected the individual from sickness and misfortune and the city from calamity, fought with his people against their foes, and appointed and directed its judges and rulers. The interests of the god and his people were identical. The chief aim of religion was to establish and maintain the right relation between the divine king and his subjects. The entire city life centred about the temple. Thus, in ancient Babylonia, Sin, the moon god, who guided the caravans by night across the sandy wastes, was worshipped at Ur, and also at northern Haran, beside the desert; Ea, the god of the great deep and of hidden knowledge, at Eridu, near the Persian Gulf; Bel, the lord of earth, at the sacred city of Nippur; Shamash, the sun god, at Larsa and Sippar; the goddess Ishtar at Uruk; Nabu, the god of learning, at Borsippa, and Marduk at Babylon. At each of these different shrines nearly the same forms of ritual and sacrifice obtained, and the common Semitic myths and traditions were handed down; but in each of the different versions the local god figured as the hero. V.Development of the Pantheon. When some one of the cities conquered the rest, and a united kingdom and in time an empire arose, the god of the ruling city became the supreme deity of the realm. The local gods, however, continued to be worshipped by their subjects, and wise kings like Sargon I and Hammurabi won the favor and loyalty of the conquered cities by building temples and paying homage to these local deities. The natural result of the union of all the cities of Babylonia under one ruler was a pantheon. As has always been the case, theology was strongly influenced by the existing political and social organization. When Hammurabi made Babylon the head of an empire, Marduk, the god of Babylon, took his place at the head of the pantheon made up of the gods and goddesses of the more important cities of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. The theologians of that early day set to work to recast the old myths so as to give the supremacy to Marduk, to define the functions of the different deities, and to trace relationship between them. Each god was also provided with a divine consort. Thus, for example, corresponding to Bel was the goddess Belit. The result was a divine household, the prototype of the Greek Olympus. Egyptian religions passed through the same stages, but more of the primitive worship of spirits and animals survived. Its theology and mythology were never so thoroughly systematized as the Babylonian, and its interest centred in the future rather than in the present life. III.Transfer of the Religious Centre to Palestine. During the imperial period the Babylonians and Egyptians developed an exceedingly elaborate ceremonial system. Religion was defined more and more in the terms of ritual rather than of life and deeds. Priest-craft and superstition gained the ascendency, with the sad result that these great religions ceased to develop and so perished. In the freer, fresher atmosphere of Palestine the vital elements in the old faiths were destined to come to full fruition. Conquest, commerce, and literature had carried Babylonian customs, traditions, and religion to this western land. The dominant Amorite-Canaanite civilization in Palestine, because of its common Semitic origin, was also especially receptive of this powerful influence which radiated for centuries from the Tigris-Euphrates valley. IV.Religion of the Canaanites. Recent excavations, the Egyptian inscriptions, the el-Amarna letters, and the biblical references together give a definite picture of the Amorite-Canaanite religion which the Hebrews found in Palestine. Each city or tribe had its local baal or lord and a corresponding goddess. These were worshipped at the open-air high places on some commanding height within or near each town. About the shrine were the asherahs or poles and sacred stones or pillars. A row of seven of these pillars has recently been found in the ruins of the old Semitic sanctuary at Gezer. The altars on which the sacrifices were offered were of earth or baked clay or stone. Here the people assembled in springtime and autumn to celebrate the ancient Semitic festivals and to present their offerings. Here also the inherited religious traditions of the race were doubtless perpetuated. In the absence of favorable natural conditions and a strong central power to unite all these little city states into one kingdom or empire, the peoples of Palestine never developed a local pantheon. While polytheism prevailed there, it was not of the complex type found in Babylonia or Egypt under the empire. Also ritualism had not destroyed the possibility of ethical and spiritual progress. On the other hand, the gross immorality and degeneracy of the local cults made imperative the demand for a purer and nobler religion. VIII.Israel’s Religious Heritage. Thus through their Arabian and Aramean ancestors the Hebrews received the primitive religious ideas and institutions of the early Semitic races. From the Amorites and Canaanites, whom they in time conquered and absorbed, they inherited their early sanctuaries, and with these the beliefs and rites and traditions which had gradually been transferred to Palestine from Egypt and especially from ancient Babylonia. In their conception of the Deity and of men’s duty toward him and their fellow-men, these pre-Hebrew races had made vast progress, as is demonstrated, for example, by the Code of Hammurabi or by many of the noble Babylonian hymns and prayers. A prophet nation, however, was demanded to separate the true gold from the dross of superstition, to conserve that which was vital and eternal in the older Semitic religions and to become the agent of a new and far higher revelation. Not by chance nor by arbitrary divine choice, but as the result of a character and inheritance and training, which can be studied in the full light of its unique history, Israel proved to be that prophet nation. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 9: 009. VI. THE OLDEST HISTORY OF ISRAEL ======================================================================== VI THE OLDEST HISTORY OF ISRAEL I.The Gradual Growth of the Early Historical Books. During the past two or three centuries biblical scholars have been gradually discovering the real character and origin of the earlier Old Testament historical books. Like the later books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, they consist of quotations from earlier and shorter narratives. These valuable quotations have been skilfully combined and supplemented by successive editors or compilers. In this way all ancient Semitic histories gradually grew. Many of the Old Testament books have a literary history extending through hundreds of years. The fact that they are compilations enhances their value manifold; for in citing passages word for word from the oldest histories known to them, the compilers have preserved the earliest records instead of their own impressions of the distant events of which they wrote. A careful study of the evidence of composite authorship found in each book also makes it possible to collect and combine these citations from the older histories and thus largely to recover the priceless originals. II.Evidences of their Composite Character. The internal evidence regarding the origin and literary history of the opening books of the Old Testament consists in general: (1) of striking variations in the vocabulary, idioms, and style of different sections in the same book. A comparison, for example, of Genesis 1:1 to Genesis 2:4 a with Genesis 2:4-25 at once reveals marked contrasts in literary form. In the second passage different words and idioms are used to express the same ideas. The literary style of the first passage is precise, formal, generic, and repetitious; in the second it is vivid, concise, picturesque, and flowing. (2) Very different ideas of God and his relation to the universe and man are found in different parts of the same book. Again, the opening chapters of Genesis well illustrate this point. In the first passage the Deity is presented as a God of spirit, majestic, omnipotent, issuing his decrees from afar. In the second and third chapters he is pictured as living and talking with the first man and woman, and as walking in the cool of the day to avoid the hot mid-day sun. The one passage, which always designates the Deity as God, is based on the mature theology of later Judaism; the other, which used the divine name Jehovah, or Yahweh, reflects the childlike beliefs of the primitive ancestors of the Hebrews. (3) Parallel and yet variant accounts of the same events abound. When these variant versions are compared, many minor inconsistencies appear. Thus the two accounts of creation in Genesis agree in emphasizing man’s central position in God’s universe, but in the one passage man is the last and in the other the first living thing to be created. In the order and method of creation the two versions also present the most striking variations (for the explanation of these, cf. § I, vi-ix). (4) Very different aims and points of view appear in succeeding narratives. Thus, for example, in Genesis 1:1 to Genesis 2:4 a the primary aim is to establish the divine origin of the sabbath. In Genesis 2:4-25 it is to illustrate God’s love and care for man. In the one narrative the point of view is the legal and priestly, in the other it is that of the prophet, interested only in ethical and spiritual truth (cf. for further illustration, § V). III.Contents of the Oldest History. Fortunately, the oldest history of Israel is the one quoted most fully by the authors of the Old Testament historical books. It opens with the primitive story of creation in Genesis 2, which leads up to the account of man’s fall in chapter 3. The origin of different institutions is then briefly given. The scattering of the human race over the face of the earth, as told in the story of the tower of Babel, is the introduction to the oldest Abraham narratives. The early stories of the patriarchs in turn introduce the primitive account of the experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt, in the wilderness during the settlement of Canaan, and as a united nation. When the extracts from this ancient history are collected and put together, the result is a brief, consistent, connected record of all the important events in Israel’s many-sided life, down to the accession of Solomon. The unity of the whole indicates that in these quotations nearly all of the original history has been preserved. IV.Its Literary Characteristics. Its literary style is that of the ancient story-teller: simple, vivid, concise, picturesque and dramatic. The vocabulary is large; each word is in itself a picture. The sound of many of them in the Hebrew is suggestive of the idea or action which they represent. Solemn plays upon words abound. The characters and scenes are pictured simply but graphically. The heroes and heroines are real men and women. Much of the story is told in the form of dialogues. The action moves on rapidly to the climax. The interest in the two or three principal actors in the story never for a moment flags. Oral transmission from story-teller to story-teller through long ages has evidently worn away all that is not essential; only that which is vital remains. The result is that these simple, early stories in charm and fascination are unsurpassed in all the world’s literature. V.Its Religious and Ethical Ideas. God is always spoken of in the language of primitive belief. Not only is he pictured as walking in the garden of Eden in the cool of the day, but he comes down to see with his own eyes the tower of Babel and to investigate the crimes of the men of Sodom. To the patriarchs and Moses he speaks by word of mouth. The terminology and mode of presenting the great truths regarding God’s dealing with men are those of a poet. Concretely and directly in the language of life they convey their teachings. Back of the popular language is a sublime conception of the majesty and dignity of God. Over the great family of nations from the first he has exercised his benign yet omnipotent sway. But he is more than a supreme ruler, he is the personal Friend, Guide, Counsellor and Deliverer of his people, a God not only to be feared but loved. Loyalty and love to him are the beginning and the end of law and ethics. Religion is not abstract and formal, but a personal, vital relation. VI.Its Purpose and Value. The historical purpose is prominent in this early history. It aims to trace briefly from their earliest beginnings the unfolding of Israel’s life as a race and nation. The great crises and their significance are graphically portrayed. The interest in the heroes of the nation and their valiant achievements is that of a devoted patriot. The origin of Israel’s social and religious institutions also commands attention. But a still broader and deeper purpose is everywhere evident, which reveals not only the patriotic historian, but the prophet. Israel’s history is recounted, not because it was glorious, but because it effectively illustrates God’s gracious attitude toward men, and the inevitable consequences of right or wrong acts. The selection of the narrative material is determined by this higher religious and ethical purpose. Much that would have been reproduced by a mere historian has evidently been ignored or else condensed into a sentence. Other narratives, containing little historical data, have been given a central place in the history, because they effectively illustrate and emphasize an important ethical or spiritual fact. Incidentally the author or compilers of this marvellous history have given a remarkably true picture of the life of early Israel; but the far greater value of their work lies in the universal and eternal truths which they have thus concretely and forcibly set forth. VII.Its Sources. With this higher religious purpose in mind, it is not surprising that the early prophetic historians drew their illustrations from a great variety of sources. Sometimes they took from the lips of the people an old Semitic tradition, like the stories of the creation and the flood, handed down from their primitive ancestors through countless ages. Sometimes they drew from the cycles of stories transmitted by certain tribes from the nomadic period. Sometimes they utilized the popular heroic stories, retold for generations by father to son, or by the story-tellers at the great religious festivals. Often they found rich material in the traditions treasured at the ancient sanctuaries of Canaan. From the early collections of Israel’s songs they frequently quoted long passages. For the later and more historical periods they had access to the popular traditions of their race. It is also evident that they freely recast, combined, and adapted this varied material to their prophetic purpose. VIII.The Place of Its Composition. In this earliest Hebrew history the interest extends to the farthest bounds of Israel and even to the neighboring nations, but it is centred in Judah. In the patriarchal stories, Judah instead of Reuben figures as the first-born and the leader among the sons of Jacob. In the earliest version of the story of the spies, Caleb, the traditional ancestor of one of the southern tribes, also takes the place of Joshua the northern hero. These and other indications support the generally accepted conclusion that this early history is based on the traditions current in Judah, and that it was written by a prophet or group of prophets who lived and wrote in that southern kingdom. Hence it is called the early Judean prophetic history. IX.Its Date. Statements like that in Genesis 36:31, before any king ruled over the Israelites, clearly indicate that the history was written at least after Saul or David had ruled over Israel. The subjugation of the Canaanites, which was not completed before the reign of Solomon, is implied in many passages. The reference in Genesis 27:40 to Esau’s shaking off the yoke of Jacob points to the revolt of the Edomites in the ninth century B.C. The spirit and theology of the history as a whole is that of the early monarchy. Doubtless a majority of the stories were current long before the days of David; but the historical allusions in the narratives themselves and in the other Old Testament books suggest that these stories were first committed to writing about 825 B.C. The immediate cause was probably the reformation, initiated by Elijah in Northern Israel, which under the leadership of Jehoida the priest resulted, about 825 B.C., in the overthrow of Athaliah and the re-establishment of the religion of Jehovah in Judah. This noble history was supremely fitted to impress upon the mind of the nation the significance and importance of the covenant then “made between Jehovah and the king and the people that they should be Jehovah’s people” 2 Kings 11:17, §LXXI). It revealed the broad and deep historic foundations upon which that covenant was based, and set forth, in the light of Israel’s remarkable national experiences, the eternal principles that must be observed by men or nations who would do the will of God. X.Later Additions. The canonization of the Scriptures was first undertaken by Jews living long after the exile. The later Judean prophets who preserved the early history not only felt free but under obligation to supplement it by additional narratives and explanatory or archaeological notes that seemed to them worthy of a place in it. Some of the most important stories in the Old Testament, as for example, the story of Cain and Abel, and the account of the flood, are later additions. They can usually be readily recognized by the slight variations in vocabulary and point of view. They all bear the marks of the same noble prophetic school, whose work extended through more than a century. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 10: 010. VII. THE LATER PARALLEL HISTORIES ======================================================================== VII THE LATER PARALLEL HISTORIES I.The Northern Prophetic History. During the eighth century B.C. the prophets of Northern Israel also began to collect the national songs and traditions current in the north, and to weave them together into a connected history, parallel to that of the early Judean prophets. Many characteristic water-marks distinguish their work. Peculiar words and expressions are constantly employed. The mountain of revelation is called Horeb or simply the mountain instead of Sinai, as in the early Judean history; the inhabitants of Palestine Amorites instead of Canaanites, and the father of the twelve tribes Jacob, not Israel. God (’elohim), not Jehovah, is the early designation of the Deity. Ordinarily, he is represented as communicating with his people through his Messenger, instead of by word of mouth as in the older Judean stories. These northern or Ephraimite (using Hosea’s designation of the northern kingdom) prophetic historians also recognize that the ancestors of the Hebrews were idolators (Joshua 24:2), and that divine revelation was gradual and progressive. Living in an age when prophets, like Elijah and Elisha, gave commands to king and people, they naturally assign the commanding position throughout all their history of Israel to the prophets. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Joshua, Deborah, and Samuel are their chief heroes, and these all figure in the prophetic role, overshadowing the priests and secular rulers. II.Its Purpose. In the thought of the Northern Israelite prophetic historians Israel was from the first a theocracy. Its victories and achievements were attained not so much by human effort and natural means (as in the Judean history), but by divine interposition. Its disasters they trace directly to acts of apostasy. Their purpose is clearly instructive and religious rather than historical. They aim to show, by familiar illustrations drawn from Israel’s experience, that disaster is the sure result of rebellion, and that peace and prosperity and the assurance of divine favor are the certain rewards of obedience to God’s commands and the counsels of his theocratic representatives, the prophets. III.Its Contents. Since its interest centres in the Hebrew theocracy, this northern prophetic history begins with Abraham. It records all the important events in Israel’s life down to the establishment of the united monarchy under Saul. This independent version is in general closely parallel to and yet differs in many details from the Judean account. Each of these parallel prophetic histories has also preserved narratives peculiar to itself. Thus, for example, the account of the sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22), the making of the golden calf (Exodus 32), and the appointment of the seventy elders (Numbers 11:16-17; Numbers 11:25-30) are found only in the northern history, and the later additions made to it. Doubtless it was also originally far more complete than the present extracts from it in the Old Testament would suggest. IV.Blending of the Two Prophetic Histories. When Northern Israel fell in 722 B.C., its literature became the possession of the southern prophets. The religious and didactic value of the northern history was recognized by some prophet or group of Judean prophets who lived in the dark days preceding the great reformation of Josiah in 621 B.C. The variant accounts of the same events were, however, distracting and not adapted to practical use. Accordingly, the two histories were combined. Naturally, the early Judean was made the basis, and this was supplemented by extracts from the northern history. If the two versions of the same narrative were closely parallel, they were joined together, so that, as for example, in the account of Jacob’s deception to secure his father’s blessing (§ XII), succeeding verses or sections were taken from the two different histories. If they could not be thus fused, the two versions were sometimes introduced independently, as are the two accounts of Isaac’s deception regarding Rebekah in Genesis 12, 26. If the variations in the two versions were too great, simply the one was quoted, and that was ordinarily the southern, for it was the form of the tradition most familiar to the Judean compiler. When there was but one version of a story, it was usually reproduced, whether found originally in the northern or in the southern history. The task of combining the two sources was carried through with great care, and the result was a composite narrative, abounding in minor inconsistencies and abrupt transitions in literary style and point of view, but representing that which was most valuable in the two histories. V.Point of View of Later Judaism. The Babylonian exile fundamentally transformed the thought and point of view of the Israelite race. The law and ritual took the place of the earlier popular religion and the priest succeeded the prophet. The prevailing conceptions regarding the earlier history of the nation also changed. The seat of authority was found in the past, rather than in the divine revelations through the present experiences of the nation and the heart of the living prophet. The historical spirit was largely lost, and, instead, a tendency prevailed to idealize the early days of Israel’s life, and to trace back to them the ideas and institutions so dear to later Judaism. VI.The Late Priestly History. Under the influence of this new point of view and tendency, certain priests, probably originally exiles in Babylonia, wrote a brief history of their race. This history begins with the story of creation in Genesis 1, and traces the important incidents in Israel’s experience to the conquest of Canaan. The literary style is that of a legal writer and stands in striking contrast to that of the earlier prophets. Chronological data and genealogies are common. The interest is directed not to the history of the nation, but to the origin of legal and ceremonial institutions. This is in accord with its general aim, which is to provide a fitting introduction to the laws. God is conceived of as the absolute, omnipotent, transcendent ruler of the universe, who realized his will in the life of his people, not so much by natural laws and the acts of men, as by a miraculous use of his divine power. Israel’s earlier history has been so far idealized that no mention is made of the sins of Jacob, Moses, and the Hebrews. For the study of the theology and thought of later Judaism these narratives are of value; but the more reliable historical data and the vital messages adapted to universal human needs are found in the older prophetic narratives. VII.The Final Blending of the Prophetic and Priestly Histories. The fusion of the late priestly with the earlier composite priestly histories has given us six of the opening books of the Old Testament. Since the final compiler was a late priest, he has assigned the first place to the priestly narrative that comes from his own age. Its account of creation, because of its majestic character, furnishes a fitting introduction to the Old Testament. Its order of events largely determines that of the resulting composite history. The stories of Genesis and Exodus lead up to the laws which later Jewish tradition associated as a whole with Moses and Sinai. Numbers and Joshua trace the history of Israel to the conquest of Canaan, the land where subsequently the temple was reared. VIII.The Heart of the Old Testament. The greatest service performed by the final compiler was, however, the preservation of the earlier prophetic history. Embedded in the midst of later traditions, laws, and editorial additions, this older record has in divine Providence survived almost intact the successive revisions to which it has been subjected. Now, in the light of modern biblical research, it stands forth as the earliest witness, to make known the essential facts of Hebrew history and, above all, to illustrate the great spiritual and ethical truths revealed to the Hebrew prophets. This earliest history of Israel and the later prophetic books, and those inspired by them, constitute the real heart of the Old Testament and the true introduction to the New. The primary object in the opening volumes of the Historical Bible is to recover and reprint this early prophetic history of Israel (with its important later supplements) that it may again be available for popular study and teaching. It is not a new, but the original Old Testament, which is thus restored and freed from the distracting parallels and scribal additions that through the ages have gathered about it. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 11: 011. THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN HISTORY ======================================================================== THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN HISTORY ======================================================================== CHAPTER 12: 012. I. THE STORY OF MAN’S CREATION ======================================================================== § I. THE STORY OF MAN’S CREATION Genesis 2:4-9; Genesis 2:16-24 1. Conditions before man’s creation. In the day that Jehovah made earth and heaven, no plant of the field was yet on the earth, and no herb of the field had yet sprung up, for Jehovah had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was no man to till the ground; but a mist used to rise from the earth and water the whole face of the ground. 2. Creation of man. Then Jehovah formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life. Thus man became a living being. 3. Provisions for his development. And Jehovah planted a garden in Eden far in the East, and placed there the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground Jehovah made to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food, the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. And Jehovah commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest eat freely, except of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; from it thou shalt not eat, for in the day that thou eatest of it thou shalt surely die. 4. His social needs. Then said Jehovah, It is not good for the man to be alone; I will make a helper suited to him. Therefore out of the ground Jehovah formed all the beasts of the field and all the birds of the heavens, and brought them to the man to see what he would call them; and whatever the man called each living creature that was its name. Thus the man gave names to all cattle and all the beasts of the field; but for the man himself there was found no helper suited to him. 5.Creation of woman. Then Jehovah caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, so that he slept; and he took one of his ribs, and closed up its place with flesh. But the rib, which he had taken from the man, Jehovah fashioned into a woman and brought her to the man. Then said the man, This, now, is bone of my bone And flesh of my flesh. This one shall be called woman, For from man was she taken. Therefore a man leaves father and mother and cleaves to his wife, so that they two become one flesh. I.Literary Form and Character of the Story. This narrative gives the primitive answer to the question which every child of the human race has earnestly and often asked. How were we made ? How were all living things made? Man is pictured as the first being to be given life. Trees, beasts, and birds (of lesser importance than man) are made later. Last of all, woman is created that man may have a suitable companion. Jehovah is thought of as a God who himself moulds the human form from the dust, breathing into the clay his own life-giving breath. This same God is represented as experimenting to find what companions are best suited to man. Thus this ancient story reflects those ideas about the universe and the origin of things which men held in the childhood of the human race. There is little trace of that later belief in an orderly gradual process of creation, in which God is thought of as a sovereign spirit issuing his commands from afar (Genesis 1:1 to Genesis 2:4 a, cf. Appendix I). The literary style of the narrative, that of the earliest prophetic historian (cf. Introd. VI), is concise, picturesque, graphic and concrete. Five short paragraphs tell vividly the story of creation and of Jehovah’s provisions for man. With a few strong strokes each scene and character is clearly portrayed. II.The Original Introduction to the Biblical Story. This earliest Hebrew story of creation was placed after the later narrative of Genesis that it might precede the account of man’s sin in chapter 3 (§11) which it introduces. From references to the early tradition made in the poetic and prophetic sources one may infer that it originally told how at first there was no earth or heaven but only chaos; how Jehovah set fast the foundations of the earth and reared up its pillars in the waters, and then spread out the canopy of the heavens, establishing the courses of sun, moon and stars. All of these opening sentences have apparently been condensed by the compiler of the two accounts of creation into the statement, In the day that Jehovah made earth and heaven. At this point the story begins. No vegetation or life was on the earth, but a mist constantly rose from the earth to water the surface of the ground and thus make plant and animal life possible. III.Man’s Creation. Jehovah’s presence and personal activity in the work of creation are strongly emphasized. By him the body of man was shaped out of the dust of the ground. What were the exact methods and the time required—whether a gradual process of evolution, extending through countless ages, or by the hand of God in a moment of time— is not stated. Doubtless the primitive story-teller, with his limited scientific knowledge, had in mind the simpler explanation. Then Jehovah breathed into the nostrils of the human form the vital force that made the moulded dust a living being. Thus the primitive belief in man’s relationship to the Deity was reasserted in nobler form. That which gave mankind life was the breath of God within him. Hence, when that was withdrawn, his body returned to its native dust (§ II, 8). IV.Traditional Site of the Garden of Eden. To meet man’s physical and spiritual needs, Jehovah then planted a beautiful garden far in the distant East. A later compiler, perhaps familiar with Babylonian tradition, added a note to the effect that this garden was beside a river. This stream was probably the Persian Gulf, which was called by the Babylonians “the bitter river.” As one ascended it, this river divided into four branches. Two of these were the Tigris and the Euphrates. The other two may have been (1) the modern Wady-er-Ruma, which extends far into Arabia, where the Assyrians placed the land of Havilah, and (2) the Kerkha, east of the Tigris. Or, in view of the incredibly vague geographical ideas held by the ancients, the Pishon may be identified with the Indus or Ganges, and Gihon with the Nile. The original prophetic historian had, however, no interest in mere geography. It was the significance of the garden itself that commanded his attention. The garden provided for man a home, the fruit of the trees food, and the life-giving tree in its midst the possibility of enjoying unending life, while he dwelt beside it and could eat of its fruit. V.The Provisions for Man’s Higher Needs. The divine care did not cease, however, with provision for man’s physical life. Beside the tree of life grew another tree, the fruit of which, as its name implied, gave to him who ate of it the knowledge of good and evil. This knowledge was to come, as the sequel shows, through experience. This tree of knowledge was hedged about by the divine command not to eat of its fruit under penalty of death. Without wholesome and helpful companionship man’s happiness and development would be incomplete. Among the Semitic peoples the name was supposed to represent the character of a person or thing. As the primitive man gave names to the beasts and birds, he established his dominion over them and voiced the impression which each made upon him. But none of these creatures satisfied his need of a companion and helper. Therefore, from man’s own body a portion of bone and flesh was taken, and from this Jehovah fashioned woman. When she was brought to the man, he recognized her kinship with him. The name which she bore in the Hebrew, ishsha, woman, was, in sound at least, suggestive of innate relationship with ishah, her husband. This close kinship and the inborn needs of man and woman constitute the eternal basis of that marriage bond which leads a man to leave parents and to enter into the most intimate relation with his wife, so that they, indeed, become one flesh. VI.Aim and Teachingsof the Story. The primary aim of the narrative is to introduce the facts and characters which figure in the subsequent story of man’s sin. It is the prologue to the great tragedy of human history. Briefly, but with inspired skill and authority, it sets forth the basal facts of history and religion. (1) Back of all the universe and the world, with its teeming life, is a personal Creator and Ruler. (2) Man is the highest product of God’s creation, and the object of his tenderest care and solicitude. (3) Man’s Creator is a God of infinite love, providing for his human child all that is best for his happiness and true development. (4) It was God’s aim from the first to deliver man from everything that seems evil, such as pain, wearisome labor, and death. (5) The beauties of the natural world and the inhabitants of air and earth were all created for the sake of man. (6) Man and woman were made akin and yet different, that together they may fully meet each other’s deepest needs. (7) The obligations of the marriage bond are absolute and sacred, because they are based upon the innate character of man and woman. (8) Temptation is not an accident in God’s creation, or in itself an evil, but rather is absolutely necessary for man’s moral development. VII.The Oldest Babylonian Account of Creation. The different elements that enter into this story of creation are found in ancient oriental literature which existed centuries before the Hebrews became a nation. An old Sumero-Babylonian tablet tells of the time when all lands were sea and nothing had yet been made. Then Marduk built the city of Babylon (where he was especially revered), and made the gods, the spirits of earth. The poem adds: Marduk laid a reed on the face of the waters, He formed dust and poured it out beside the reed; That he might cause the gods to dwell in the dwelling of their hearts’ desire, He formed mankind; With him the goddess Aruru created the seed of mankind. The beasts of the field and living things in the field he formed; The Tigris and Euphrates he created and established in their place; Their names he proclaimed in a goodly manner. The grass, the rush of the marsh, the reed and the forest he created, The lands, the marshes and the swamps; The wild cow and her young, the wild calf, The ewe and her young and the lamb of the fold. As in the oldest Hebrew version of the story, man is created before the other living things. VIII.The Later Babylonian Version. From the library of Asshur-banipal, who reigned over Assyria during the middle of the seventh century B.C., comes a later and more highly developed version. First, the firmament is created, then the heaven above and the great deep below. Then in the sky are placed the stars, moving in their fixed orbits, to determine the year and months. The moon god he caused to shine forth, and to him he entrusted the night; He appointed him as the luminary of the night to determine the days. A recently discovered fragment of the sixth tablet of this epic tells of Marduk’s purpose in creating man: My blood will I take and bone will I form, I will make man that man may . . . I will create men who shall inherit the earth, That the service of the gods may be established and their shrines built. IX.The Later Biblical Account of the Creation.(Cf. for the text Appendix I.) The priestly author of Genesis 1:1 to Genesis 2:4 a has accepted the order and picture of creation which are given in this later Babylonian version, but he rejects the polytheistic and unworthy elements. He has arranged the story in six great acts, which lead up to the divine origin of the sabbath. Being a priest, he was supremely interested in this institution. God is represented as an omnipotent spiritual Ruler who reveals his benign purpose at each stage of creation. Man, as in the older Hebrew version, is the central figure; but he is created last rather than first, thus completing the evolutionary process. He is made in the image of God in that he is gifted, like his Creator, with intelligence and will, and is given authority to rule as God’s viceroy on earth. X.Other Creation Stories. The literature of the Phoenicians, and Egyptians indicate that they also were acquainted with the common Semitic tradition. Most primitive peoples have their myths which explain the origin of the natural world, and in many of these myths there are striking parallels to the Semitic version. Of them all, the Persian tradition presents the closest analogies to the early Hebrew narrative. It tells of a region of bliss where dwelt two beings, subsisting only on fruit, until they were tempted by a demon to disobey God’s commands. XI.The Tree of Life. Among the Babylonians it was a common belief that certain heroes, as for example, the Babylonian Noah, were granted immortality, and were allowed to dwell forever “ in the distance at the confluence of the streams,” in a blessed abode guarded by scorpion men. Many analogies to the tree of life, the fruit of which was believed to give immortality to the eater, can be traced. The hero of a very ancient Babylonian story, after long searching and countless trials, finds the plant called “the restoration of old age to youth,” but fails to attain immortal life, for the precious plant is snatched away by a serpent. A legend has also been found on a Palestinian tablet of the fifteenth century B.C. which tells of a fisherman Adapa who was admitted to the dwelling place of the gods, and, having learned their secrets, was offered “the food of life,” which conferred immortality. XII.The Tree of Knowledge. Trees also figure in the thought of the ancients as a medium of revelation. To Moses the call to service came in connection with the burning bush (§ XXI, 1). A famous diviners’ tree was found in the days of the Judges near Shechem (§ XXXVII). The movement in the balsam trees was the divine signal to David to go forth to battle (§XLIX, 4). The oaks of Dodona and the laurels of Delos and Delphi were consulted even by kings and philosophers in ancient Greece. The Arabs believe to-day that the box-thorn sometimes utters prophetic words. Hence a tree, the fruit of which gave the eater knowledge of good and evil, was perfectly consistent with the belief of the East. XIII.The Story of Eabani. An old Babylonian poem also tells of a primitive hero, Eabani, who was created by a goddess from a bit of clay. Clad only in the long locks of hair which covered his body, he ate and sported with the wild animals in a state of savagery. To lure him from his strange companions a beautiful woman was sent to him, and by her charms she wooed him from his barbarous life. The resemblance of this early Babylonian hero to the man of the Hebrew story is strikingly close. These various analogies in the thought and traditions of the East at least suggest that there lies back of the marvellous biblical story of the garden in Eden an older Semitic original which has been adapted by the Hebrew prophet to illustrate his noble spiritual messages. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 13: 013. II. MAN’S SIN AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ======================================================================== § II. MAN’S SIN AND ITS CONSEQUENCES Genesis 2:25 to Genesis 3:19, Genesis 3:23; Genesis 3:21 1.Man’s original innocence. Now the man and his wife were both naked, yet felt no shame. And the serpent was more subtle than all the beasts of the field which Jehovah had made. 2.The voice of temptation. And the serpent said to the woman, Hath God really said, ‘ Ye shall not eat from any tree of the garden ?’ The woman replied to the serpent, From the fruit of all the trees of the garden we may eat; only of the fruit of the tree which is in the midst of the garden, God hath said, ‘ Ye shall not eat from it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die.’ Then the serpent said to the woman, You shall not surely die; for God knoweth that in the day you eat of it your eyes shall be opened, and you shall be like gods, knowing good and evil. 3. The act of sin. Now when the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and attractive to the sight, and desirable to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate, and gave also to her husband with her and he ate. 4.Effect of sin. Then the eyes of both of them were opened, so that they knew that they were naked; therefore they sewed fig-leaves together and made themselves girdles. But when they heard the sound of the footsteps of Jehovah, as he was walking in the garden in the cool of the day, the man and his wife hid themselves from the presence of Jehovah among the trees of the garden. 5.Fatal excuses. And Jehovah called to the man and said to him, Where art thou ? And he said, I heard the sound of thy footsteps in the garden and I was afraid, because I was naked; so I hid myself. Then he said, Who told thee that thou wast naked ? Hast thou eaten of the tree from which I commanded thee not to eat ? And the man said, The woman whom thou didst place beside me, she gave me from the tree and I ate. When Jehovah said to the woman, What is this thou hast done ? The woman replied, The serpent beguiled me and I ate. 6.Explanation of serpent’s habits. Then Jehovah said to the serpent, Because thou hast done this, More accursed shalt thou be than all animals, And more than all the beasts of the field. On thy belly shalt thou go, And dust shalt thou eat, All the days of thy life. Enmity will I set between thee and the woman, And between thy offspring and her offspring. He shall bruise thee on the head, And thou shalt wound him on the heel. 7. Consequences of the woman’s sin. To the woman he said, I will make thy pain great in thy pregnancy, With pain shalt thou bring forth children. Yet toward thy husband shall be thy desire, And he shall rule over thee. 8.Of man’s sin. But to the man he said, Because thou hast hearkened to the voice of thy wife and hast eaten of the tree concerning which I commanded thee, saying, ‘Thou shalt not eat from it’: Cursed shall be the ground because of thee, By painful toil shalt thou eat from it all the days of thy life. Thorns and thistles shall it bring forth for thee, And thou shalt eat the herb of the field. By the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread, Until thou return to the ground, Because from it thou wast taken; For dust thou art, And to dust shalt thou return. 9.God’s benign care. Therefore Jehovah sent him forth from the garden of Eden to till the ground whence he was taken. But Jehovah made for the man and his wife tunics of skin, and clothed them. I.Literary Form and Origin of the Story. This narrative is the immediate sequel to the preceding story of the creation. In two marvellous scenes it presents the great tragedy of tragedies in human history—the loss of man’s happy, natural relation with God through deliberate disobedience to the divine command. Like the great Teacher of Nazareth, the prophetic author of this marvellous story was dealing with the deepest experiences of human life. His problem was to make clear and plain even to children the nature of that inner struggle which we call temptation. He accomplishes his end by the use of the simple story and dialogue. Attention and interest are fixed from the first on the experiences of a certain man and woman. The story has all the personal charm of those fascinating popular tales which come from the ancient East. Its prologue, the primitive story of creation (§I), was old centuries before the days of Moses. In the first scene the actors are the serpent, the woman, and the man. In the dialogue between the serpent and the woman is brought out vividly the struggle that raged in her own mind between her natural inclinations and her sense of duty. In the second scene Jehovah appears. The acts and motives of the man and woman, and the terrible consequences of sin are portrayed so concretely and dramatically that even the youngest and simplest reader can fully appreciate them. The thoughtful reader, however, soon discovers that the marvellous biblical narrative is far more than a mere record of the experiences of a primitive man and woman. Like the inimitable parables of Jesus, it is a chapter from the book of life. It is in every respect historical because it is absolutely true to human experience. The closest parallel to this account of man’s fall is the late Persian story of the man and woman who were influenced by the evil spirit, Ahriman, to disobey and deny God, to cut down trees, to kill animals, and thus to lose their original innocence. II.The Character of the Serpent. The serpent is clearly not, as Milton has taught us, the Satan of later Jewish theology. It is rather the animal, which, because of its silent, secretive, venomous habits was generally regarded as the wisest and at the same time the most treacherous foe of man. It was, therefore, most natural that of all the creatures in the garden the serpent should be the one chosen to voice the temptation in the heart of the woman. This choice may also be due to the influence of an older Babylonian tradition. III.The Real Nature of Temptation and Sin. The dialogue between the serpent and the woman brings out clearly the various forms which temptation assumes. The serpent’s first question implies a doubt concerning Jehovah’s goodness and wisdom. The woman’s answer shows that she fully understands the meaning of the divine command. Then follows the questioning of Jehovah’s warning and a strong appeal to the woman’s curiosity. It is clearly an oriental woman, with her characteristic mental and moral limitations, that the ancient storyteller has in mind. The appeal to her curiosity, therefore, is well-nigh irresistible. There is also an implied dare in the serpent’s words. The issue is clear. On the one side was the definite divine command not to eat. Her noblest impulses of love and gratitude prompted the woman to obey that divine command. On the other side were the natural cravings of appetite, the promptings of the aesthetic sense (for the fruit was attractive), of curiosity, and the desire for knowledge and power. All of these motives were in themselves worthy. Under other conditions they would have inspired noble and right actions, and yet to the woman of the story they were temptations, because they impelled her to turn her back upon the nobler and diviner impulses of gratitude, love and duty which she owed to Jehovah. The story well illustrates the significance of the Hebrew word for sin, which means missing the mark. In missing the mark of implicit obedience set clearly before her the woman sinned. The man’s temptation assumed a very different form, but one which appealed as strongly to him. He himself would doubtless have waved aside the whisperings of the serpent; but when the wife, whom Jehovah had given him as his companion and helper, had eaten the forbidden fruit, he felt that he had a sufficient excuse for disobeying the divine command. Thus with him the choice was between the nobler dictates of duty and the promptings of appetite, the desire for knowledge and a false chivalry. In following his baser impulses the man also missed the mark set before him and thus sinned. IV.The Effects ofSin. The inevitable consequences of sin are truly and graphically set forth in the story. Sin brought knowledge to man and woman, but a knowledge which destroyed their former innocence. Cowardice and a desire to avoid the presence of Jehovah took the place of their previous glad confidence. While their sin blinded their vision and reared a high barrier between them and Jehovah, residence in the garden was intolerable. And yet, as Jehovah sought the guilty pair, his words were not those of condemnation. Rather his questions invited that frank confession which would have at once dispelled the barrier which sin had raised. But they made a fatal mistake and sinned doubly in excusing their sin and in trying to shift the responsibility. The man said, “The woman gave me from the tree”; the woman said, “The serpent beguiled me.” Thus, their lack of repentance made it impossible for even the infinite God to forgive them. The ancients regarded all misfortune as the result of the divine displeasure. The snake, wriggling through the dust with no legs on which to walk, the deadly enemy of mankind, beaten to death by its foe, or in turn striking its fatal fangs into the heel of its assailant, seemed to primitive peoples to be especially afflicted by God, and, therefore, to rest under the shadow of some great crime. Hence the early story-teller naturally connected the unfortunate peculiarities of serpent kind with the act of the serpent in tempting Eve to disobey Jehovah. The grievous pains of childbirth and the subjection of the oriental woman to her husband are likewise traced to sin. Man’s painful struggle to wrest food and a livelihood from the rocky earth, and death, the sad but certain end of that struggle, are likewise attributed to rebellion against the divine command. The fate of man and woman is not so much a penalty, as the inevitable effect of their sins unconfessed; for, according to the representation of the story, banishment from the garden was necessary, because they had forfeited their title to it. Even they themselves were eager to escape from the presence of Jehovah.’ Banishment meant a struggle for food, suffering, and ultimate death, for they could no longer eat of the life-giving tree in the midst of the garden. V.The Element of Hope. The gloom of this tragedy of human tragedies is relieved by one bright ray of hope. As the man and his wife go forth to learn in the school of pain and hardship the lessons of life, the divine care still attends them, providing the garments needful in their new and harsh environment—an earnest that they are not beyond the pale of God’s love and forgiveness. VI.Aim and Teachings of the Story. The prophet’s first aim was clearly to teach the origin, nature, and terrible consequences of sin. Incidentally he retained the popular explanations of certain striking facts in the natural world, as for example, the habits of serpents, the pains of pregnancy, and the necessity of laborious toil. He was, however, preeminently a religious teacher. Even the pseudo-scientific explanations are only concrete illustrations of his central teaching that all pain and affliction are ultimately but the effect of sin. Among the many religious teachings with which this marvellous story abounds may be noted: (1) Innocence does not become virtue until it is tested and proved by temptation. (2) If the testing is to be effective, the temptation must be of a character to appeal to the individual tested. (3) Sin is not God’s but man’s creation. (4) To sin is to act in accord with the baser and more selfish rather than the nobler and diviner motives. (5) An act of sin destroys a man’s peace of mind and purity of thought. (6) Sin unconfessed is a sin constantly committed, and it absolutely prevents even God himself from forgiving the unrepentant sinner. (7) In keeping with the law of cause and effect, sin brings its own inevitable punishment. (8) The worst effect of sin is the severing of the normal, harmonious relations between God and the individual. (9) Most of the pains and ills of life are the result of some one’s sin. (10) Man must learn in the school of pain and toil the lesson of obedience. (11) Even though guilty and unrepentant, man is still the object of God’s unceasing love and care. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 14: 014. III. THE STORY OF CAIN AND ABEL ======================================================================== § III. THE STORY OF CAIN AND ABEL Genesis 3:20; Genesis 4:1-16 a 1.Occupations of Cain and Able. Now the man called his wife’s name Eve, because she was the mother of all living beings. And the man knew Eve his wife, and she conceived and bore Cain. And she also bore his brother Abel. Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground. 2.Their offerings. Now in course of time it came to pass, that Cain brought some of the fruit of the ground as an offering to Jehovah. And Abel also brought some of the firstlings of his flock and of their fat. And Jehovah looked favorably upon Abel and his offering; but for Cain and his offering he had no regard. 3.Cain’s anger and Jehovah’s counsel. Therefore Cain was very angry and his countenance fell. And Jehovah said,to Cain, Why art thou angry ? And why is thy countenance fallen ? If thou doest well, is there not acceptance ? But if thou doest not well, Does not sin crouch at the door ? And to thee shall be its desire, But thou shouldst rule over it. 4.The first murder. Then Cain said to Abel his brother, Let us go into the field. And while they were in the field, Cain rose up against Abel his brother and slew him. 5.Conviction and condemnation. And when Jehovah said to Cain, Where is Abel, thy brother ? he said, I know not; am I my brother’s keeper ? Then he said, What hast thou done ? the voice of thy brother’s blood crieth to me from the ground. Now, therefore, cursed art thou; away from the ground, which hath opened its mouth to receive thy brother’s blood from thy hand. Whenever thou tillest the ground, it shall no longer yield to thee its strength; a fugitive and wanderer shalt thou be on the earth. 6.His complaint. Then Cain said to Jehovah, My punishment is greater than I can bear. Behold, thou hast driven me out this day from the face of the ground, and from thy face shall I be hid; and I shall become a fugitive and a wanderer on the earth; and it will come to pass, that whoever finds me will slay me. 7. Divine decree and sign of protection. But Jehovah said to him, Not so! if any one kill Cain, Vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold. So Jehovah granted Cain a tribal mark, that any one finding him should not kill him. Thus Cain went out from the presence of Jehovah and dwelt in the land of Nod [Wandering]. I.The Background of the Story. The story of Cain has all the literary charm and picturesqueness peculiar to the Judean prophetic writers; but it is complete in itself and has no vital connection with the stories that immediately precede and follow. Its background is the settled land of Palestine, where herdsmen and tillers of the soil live side by side. The worship of Jehovah and the institution of sacrifice have already been established. The land is peopled by tribes whose vengeance Cain the murderer fears. The significance of the tribal mark is also fully recognized. The Cain of this story is evidently not the Cain of the ancient genealogy (§ IV). The identity of the name doubtless explains why the two independent traditions have been joined together in Genesis 4. II.Origin of the Story. No Babylonian or Egyptian parallel to this story has yet been discovered. The closest analogy is found in the Roman tale of Romulus and Remus; but even here the resemblance is only in general theme. The present story probably originated in or near Palestine. In its oldest form, Cain and Abel apparently represented tribes or nations. This conclusion alone explains Cain’s fear of blood revenge, for only the tribe of the murdered man would seek to slay the murderer. Possibly the story is based on some otherwise forgotten chapter in Israel’s early history. Certain scholars have sought to identify Cain with the Kenites, the nomadic tribe, which in Israel’s early history shared the worship of the same tribal god. The story states, however, that Cain was not a nomad but a tiller of the soil. Cain is perhaps to be identified with the agricultural Canaanites. During the early days, after the Hebrew shepherds emerged from the wilderness, they lived side by side in Palestine with the older inhabitants of the land. The Hebrews, however, increased rapidly in numbers and possessions. Prosperity was ever regarded by the ancients as clear evidence that the Deity looked with favor upon the offerings of his people. Finally, in the days of Deborah (§ XXXVI) the Canaanites were defeated and dispossessed. Some of the survivors were absorbed by the Israelites and others became wandering traders. Whatever be the origin of the story, the prophet who has preserved it recognized its value as an illustration of certain vital religious truths, and adapted it to his noble purpose. By treating Cain and Abel as individuals, he has given to the story that personal quality which greatly enhances its interest and value. III.The Reason why Cain’s Offering was Rejected. Both Cain and Abel brought regularly, as gifts to Jehovah, the respective products of their labor. The growing prosperity of Abel and the waning fortunes of Cain soon showed that the younger of the two brothers enjoyed Jehovah’s favor. This favor was not due to the nature of his offerings, but rather, as the sequel indicates, to his nobler spirit and character. The jealousy and anger of Cain were soon revealed in his sullen, lowering countenance. Then there came to him the divine counsel, Hast thou any cause for anger ? If thou doest what is right, thou wilt surely enjoy Jehovah’s favor. But if not, then temptation, which thou shouldst conquer, and the consequences of sin shall ever dominate thee. The Greek and Hebrew versions of the Old Testament differ in their rendering of the closing words of Jehovah, and the original meaning is not clear. The translation given above appears to be the meaning of the Hebrew and Latin texts. This interpretation is also true to human experience, as well as to the implications of the context. IV.Cain’s Crime and its Punishment. But Cain was already mastered by his passions, and was therefore irresponsive to the divine voice. Luring his brother out into the open field, he treacherously murdered him. Even to the bloody murderer Jehovah came, as to the man and woman in the garden, with a question that invited frank confession; but Cain’s reply was one of denial and defiance. It also disclosed his inner motives. True to the criminal type, he repudiated all responsibility to society. Having by his deliberate act severed his connection with his fellow-men, he had made himself an outlaw. The ancient law of blood-revenge demanded the shedding of his blood. The very ground was a witness of his crime. No longer should it yield to him its richest products. Rather as a fugitive, he must wander up and down the face of the earth, ever haunted by the dread that the avenger of blood would suddenly overtake and slay him. V.Meaning of the Mark of Cain. Not in contrition, but appalled by the severity of the judgment that had fallen on his guilty head, Cain asks that he may not be sent forth to a foreign land, where, according to the thought of his day, he would be beyond the pale of his God’s protection. The guardian of each man in the ancient East was his tribe or clan. The knowledge that each and all the members of a tribe were pledged to avenge any wrong done to one of its number stayed many a murderous hand in the past, as it still does to-day in the life of the desert. To be deprived of the tribal protection meant that any man might with impunity slay the accursed outcast. It is this fate that Cain bewails. Again God’s mercy far surpasses that of men. Upon the cringing but unrepentant criminal, he places the tribal mark that proclaimed, as does the tattooing or method of cutting the hair among the Arabs to-day, that he was still a member and under the protection of a powerful tribe. Cain bears the mark of Jehovah’s own people, who are thus under obligation, not only to spare but also to avenge in full measure any wrong done to him. The land of wandering (Nod), may be an allusion to the nomadic life of the desert or to that of the itinerant traders, who were called by the Hebrews, Canaanites. VI.Aim and Teachings. As in the preceding story the prophet’s main aim is to present the origin, nature, and consequences of sin. At many points it supplements the story of man’s fall. Chief among the vital prophetic truths illustrated by the sad story are: (1) Mere formal worship is not necessarily acceptable to God. (2) It is the spirit and character of the offerer, not the offering, that the Lord regards. (3) Temptation comes in connection with the acts of worship, as well as in the other relations of life. (4) God patiently endeavors to point out to the offender the right way and to influence him to follow it. (5) Great crimes are committed only by men whose characters have been gradually debased by lesser sins. (6) Man is a free agent: God surrounds him with good influences, but does not remove from him the ‘ possibility of committing the most heinous crimes. (7) The man who repudiates his responsibility as his brother’s keeper allies himself with Cain. (8) Guilt unconfessed cuts a man off from his fellows and makes him an outcast from society. (9) God’s mercy to the guilty is infinitely greater than that of man. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 15: 015. IV. THE TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF EARLY SEMITIC INSTITUTIONS ======================================================================== § IV. THE TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF EARLY SEMITIC INSTITUTIONS Genesis 4:25-26; Genesis 4:1-2 b, Genesis 4:17-23; Genesis 5:26; Genesis 9:20-26 1. Origin of he family. Adam knew his wife and she conceived and bore a son and called his name Seth, for she said, God hath given me offspring. 2. Of worship. To Seth also was born a son, and he named him Enosh. He was the first to call on the name of Jehovah. And the man [Enosh?] knew his wife and she conceived and bore Cain, and said, I have got a male child with the help of Jehovah. 3. Of city life. Now Cain dwelt east of Eden. And Cain knew his wife, and she conceived and bore Enoch. Cain also built a city and called the city Enoch after his son’s name. 4.Of polygamy. And to Enoch was born Irad, and Irad begat Mehujael, and Mehujael begat Methushael, and Methushael begat Lamech. And Lamech took to himself two wives: the name of the one was Adah [Light], and the name of the other was Zillah [Shadow]. 5.Of nomands. And Adah bore Jabal [Shepherd]; he was the father of those who dwell in tents and with cattle. 6.Of musicians. And his brother’s name was Jubal [Ram’s Horn]; he was the father of those who handle the harp and pipe. 7.Of metal workers. And Zillah also bore Tubal-cain [Smith]; he was the father of all those who forge copper and iron. And the sister of Tubal-cain was Naamah [Grace]. 8.Of blood-revenge. And Lamech said to his wives: Adah and Zillah, hearken to my voice, Wives of Lamech give ear to my saying. A man I slay for wounding me, Yea, a youth for bruising me. If Cain be avenged sevenfold, Lamech shall be seventy and seven. 9. Of vine culture. And Lamech begat a son; and he called his name Noah [Comfort], saying, This one will comfort us in our work and in the toil of our hands, because Jehovah hath cursed the ground. And Noah was the first tiller of the soil to plant a vineyard. 10.Of drunkenness. And when he drank of the wine, he became drunken, and lay uncovered within his tent. 11.Of Canaanite degeneracy. Then Canaan saw the nakedness of his father and told it outside to his two brothers. But Shem and Japheth took a garment and laid it upon both their shoulders and went backward to cover the nakedness of their father, their faces being turned away so that they did not see their father’s nakedness. 12. Of Canaanite slavery. When Noah awoke from his wine and learned what his youngest son had done to him, he said, Cursed be Canaan; May he be a servant of servants to his brothers. 13. Of the superiority of the Semites. Also he said: Blessed of Jehovah be Shem; Let Canaan also be a servant to him. God enlarge Japheth And let him dwell in the tents of Shem. Let Canaan also be a servant to him. I.Literary Form and Character. Most primitive peoples connected the more important events in their early history with the names of certain traditional heroes. In the thought of later generations the names of these heroes represent the periods during which each lived. The tendency to join them together in genealogical tables was also common. Since they bridged the centuries and connected the past with later events, these genealogical lists were often preserved long after the stories regarding the different heroes had been forgotten. In the present narrative several traditions have been retained. Usually only the names remain. The crude form and naive point of view of the narratives prove that they are extremely old. The song in 8 is a superb example of popular poetry. Two balanced lines of four beats each are followed by four lines, each with three measured beats or accents. II.Origin of the Genealogical List. Certain names in the opening genealogical list have been identified with Babylonian originals. The Babylonian records also contain a list of ten antediluvian kings or dynasties representing a total period of four hundred and thirty-two thousand years. In the later priestly list of Genesis a definite number of years is assigned to each of the ten antediluvians. This was probably due to the influence of the older Babylonian tradition. While Genesis 4 also contains the names of ten heroes, their order is different. This disarrangement apparently resulted from the addition of the later story of Cain and Abel, which made Cain a son of the man and woman of chapter 3. It would seem that in the present case the late priestly tradition, in making Seth the first and only son of Adam, and Enosh his grandson, had preserved the original tradition (cf. St. O.T., I, §111) This order is confirmed by the parallel Babylonian list, in which Amelon, the Babylonian equivalent of Enosh is third and Ammenon, the equivalent of Cain is fourth. III.Babylonian and Phoenician Traditions Regarding the Origin of the Arts. The origin of the early arts and institutions greatly interested the ancients. The Babylonian inscriptions state that the great gods, Ea, the lord of wisdom, and Marduk, the creator, brought culture to mankind. The Greeks attributed the discovery of fire to Prometheus. The fragmentary Phoenician traditions contain the closest parallels to the Hebrew. These trace the origin of the different arts and inventions to individual heroes. One Phoenician story states that a son of the first man and woman built Tyre, and made huts out of the reeds, rushes and papyrus. Another son (Ousoos) was the first to make garments from the skins of animals, and boats from the trunks of trees. Among the descendants of the first son were also six pairs of brothers, who like the sons of Lamech, were the inventors and patrons of different arts and occupations. Their names are also significant of their professions. Thus Hunter and Fisherman developed hunting and fishing. The second pair (of whom one apparently bore the name, Smith) discovered the arts of working iron and of making fishing tackle, as well as of navigation, magic and divination. The third pair (of whom one was named, Artificer), discovered how to make bricks and roofs. From the fourth pair were descended those who make courts and enclosures to houses, and who till the soil. The fifth pair were the traditional fathers of village and pastoral life. The sixth pair discovered the use of salt. Apparently these closely parallel Phoenician and Hebrew stories come from earlier Canaanite or possibly Babylonian originals. IV.Interpretation of the Genealogical List. The Northern Israelite prophetic, as well as the late priestly group of narratives, trace the revelation of the sacred name, Yahweh (or as it is commonly written Jehovah) to the days of Moses (cf. Exodus 6; § XXI, 3). The present early Judean prophetic narrative, however, assigns the beginning of that formal worship to the days of Enosh, the traditional grandson of the first man. While the later narrators may be more exact in their technical historical statement, the early prophets declare, with true insight, that man has worshipped God from the first, even though the theological beliefs of the primitive worshipper were crude and defective. Cain, the artificer, was naturally regarded as the first to build a city. In the priestly list of Genesis 5, Enoch, Cain’s son, and the corresponding Edoranchos in the Babylonian list, stand in the seventh place, still further confirming the conclusion that the name of Cain, which represents an advanced civilization, was originally found nearer that of Lamech than of Adam. V.Origin of the Enoch Tradition. In the prophetic narrative nothing but the names of Enoch and of the three heroes that follow have been preserved. The priestly parallel of Genesis 5:24 adds that, Enoch walked with God and was not, for God took him. Like the Babylonian hero of the flood, he was believed to have been borne beyond the waters of death, there to enjoy immortality. Enoch is the Hebrew equivalent of Edoranchos, who is probably to be identified with Enmeduranki, a pre-historic king of Sippar, a city devoted to the worship of the sun god Shamash. A recently discovered tablet states that the sun god called Enmeduranki to intercourse with himself, gave him the tablet of the gods, initiated him into the secrets of heaven and earth, and taught him the art of divination (cf. Zimmern, The Bab. and Hebrew Genesis, pp. 43 ff.). This knowledge he transmitted to his descendants, and thus became the traditional father of an hereditary guild of Babylonian diviners. Later Jewish thought made Enoch the one through whom the secrets of heaven and the future were revealed, as is well illustrated by the composite Book of Enoch. The earlier priestly writers purified and spiritualized the ancient story; but, apparently under the influence of the older tradition, they assigned to this Babylonian worshipper of the sun god three hundred and sixty-five years, corresponding to the number of days in the solar year. VI.The Lamech Stories. To Lamech and his sons the Hebrew traditions attribute the origin of polygamy and of the three different occupations of primitive life. As with the Greeks, shepherds and musicians are closely associated. They are descended from a common mother whose name, meaning Light or Dawn, is especially appropriate; while the son of Zillah (Shade) is the traditional ancestor of the grimy smiths, whose services were most highly esteemed in these early days. Unfortunately, the prophet has given us none of the popular stories regarding Naamah the gracious. Instead he has reproduced from the lips of the people the ancient song of blood-revenge, sung boastfully to his wives by the victorious warrior, probably as he returned from some victorious foray against a hostile tribe, possibly, also, as he brandished a sword forged by Tubal-cain. Its thought is, Each and every injury to myself or clan will be requited in fullest measure. “An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,” is at the foundation of many of the ancient laws found in the Code of Hammurabi and the Old Testament. “Do to others as they do to you” is still the law of the desert. In striking contrast to these barbarous standards are the teachings of the Hebrew prophets and Jesus. VII.Meaning of the Earliest Tradition Regarding Noah. The story of Noah, the tiller of the soil, was originally independent of the preceding, as well as of the more familiar story of the flood. In the priestly genealogy of Genesis 5, Noah is the oldest son of Lamech, and nothing is said of his other illustrious brothers. The popular etymology of the name Noah, which really comes from a root meaning to rest, is characteristic of the early prophetic writers. Noah they regarded as the inaugurator of a new epoch in which the curse upon man was to be mitigated. The original object of the story was to explain the fate of the Canaanites; but the prophet who reproduced it was seeking to bring out the evils of intemperance and moral depravity. The illustration is striking and effective. Under the influence of wine the aged father is a pitiable object of warning. A later editor, familiar with the genealogical table of Genesis 10, has here introduced into the Hebrew text the name of Ham, although the following sentences show that the original contained only that of Canaan. He is the traditional ancestor of the highly civilized Canaanites, whom the Hebrews found in possession of central Palestine. His fundamental lack of moral sense, as revealed in his attitude toward his father, is typical of that gross immorality which weakened the physical and national character of the Canaanites and ultimately proved their ruin. Shem is the personification of the dominant Semitic peoples, and especially of the Hebrews. Japheth, as its meaning, jar extended or distant, suggests, represents the trading peoples of the eastern Mediterranean, and especially the Phoenicians, with whom the early Hebrews made commercial alliances. The act of Shem and Japheth reveals a far higher moral sense, and also that filial piety which is strongly emphasized by all oriental peoples. The curse and blessings which follow are based upon the established facts of history. Although in the form of predictions, they represent the deeper prophetic interpretation of these facts. The enslavement of the Canaanites is the inevitable result of their innate moral depravity. The Hebrews and their allies are supreme because of their superior moral ideals and character. VIII.Aim and Teachings. As has already been noted, to explain the origin of the various arts and institutions is the common aim of all these stories. They record in the language of tradition the beginnings and development of human civilization. They are forerunners of the modern sciences of history, religion, anthropology and sociology. They emphasize that unity of the human race, the basis of which is one common Creator and Father. The concluding story also illustrates certain profoundly vital religious truths: (1) Excessive indulgence debases and disgraces even the strongest and noblest characters. (2) Innate character and thoughts will surely be revealed by acts. (3) He who is immoral and depraved, even though he may have outward culture, will surely in the end become the slave of others. (4) He whose instincts and ideals are noble and pure will become a ruler of men. (5) Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall enjoy God’s favor. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 16: 016. V. THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD ======================================================================== § V. THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD Genesis 6:1 to Genesis 8:22, Genesis 9:8-11 1.Union between divine and human beings. Now it came to pass when men had begun to be many on the face of the ground, and daughters had been born to them, that the sons of God saw that the daughters of men were fair, and they took to themselves as wives whomsoever they chose. 2.Jehovah’s disapproval. Then said Jehovah, My spirit shall not abide in man forever, inasmuch as he is only flesh; therefore his days shall be one hundred and twenty years. 3.Origin of giants. The Nephilim [giants] were on the earth in those days, for when the sons of God came in to the daughters of men, they bore children to them. These were the heroes who were famous in olden time. 4. Penalty for man’s guilt. When Jehovah saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every purpose in the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually, it was a source of regret that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him to his heart. Therefore Jehovah said, I will destroy from the face of the ground man whom I have created, for I regret that I have made mankind. 5.Directions to make the ark. But Noah found favor in the eyes of Jehovah. Therefore he said to Noah, Make thyself an ark of cypress wood; rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and thou shalt smear it within and without with pitch. And this is the plan according to which thou shalt make it: the length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, its breadth fifty cubits, and its height thirty cubits. A window shalt thou make for the ark, and a cubit in height shalt thou make it; and the door of the ark shalt thou set in its side. With lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it. Later Judean Prophetic 6. Command to enter the ark. Then Jehovah said to Noah, Enter thou and all thy house into the ark; for thee have I found righteous before me in this generation. Of all clean beasts thou shalt take to thee by sevens, male and his mate, but of the beasts that are not clean by twos, a male and his mate; and of the clean birds of the heavens, seven by seven; to keep offspring alive upon the face of the earth. For after seven days I will cause it to rain upon the earth forty days and forty nights; and every living thing that I have made will I destroy from off the face of the ground. Late Priestly Version 6. Command to enter the ark. And God said to Noah, I will establish my covenant with thee; and thou shalt enter the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons’ wives, with thee. Also of every living thing of all flesh, two of every kind shalt thou bring into the ark to keep them alive with thee; a male and a female shall they be. Of the birds after their kind, and of the cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the ground after its kind, two of each shall come to thee, that they may live. Take also of all food that is eaten, and gather it to thee, that it may be for food for thee and for them. 7. Its execution. And Noah did according to all that Jehovah commanded him. 7. Its execution. Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he 8. Beginning of the flood and the entrance into the ark. And it came to pass after the seven days that the waters of the flood came upon the earth. Then Noah, together with his sons and his wife, and his sons’ wives, entered into the ark, because of the waters of the flood. Of clean beasts, and of beasts that, are not clean, and of birds, and of every thing that creeps upon the ground, there went in two by two to Noah into the ark, a mate and his mate, as Jehovah commanded Noah. And Jehovah shut him in. 8. Beginning of the flood and the entrance into the ark. And Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters was upon the earth. In the six hundredth year of Noah’s life, in the second month, on the seventeenth day of the month, on the same day, All the fountains of the great deep were broken up And the windows of heaven were opened. On that very day Noah, and Shem and Ham and Japheth, the sons of Noah and Noah’s wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, entered into the ark, together with every beast after its kind, and all the cattle after their kind, and every creeping thing that creeps on the earth after its kind, all birds of every species. And they went in to Noah into the ark, two by two of all flesh in which is the breath of life. And those that entered, went in male and female of all flesh, as God commanded. 9. Extent and effects of the flood. And the rain was upon the earth forty days and forty nights, and the waters increased and bore up the ark, and it was lifted high above the earth. All in whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was on the land, died. Thus Jehovah destroyed every thing that existed upon the face of the ground, both man and animals, and creeping things, and birds of the heavens, so that they were destroyed from the earth; and Noah only was left and they that were with him in the ark. 9. Extent and effects of the flood. Then the waters rose high, and increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark moved on the face of the waters. And the waters rose higher and higher over the earth, until all the high mountains that were under the whole heaven were covered. Fifteen cubits above their tops rose the waters, so that the mountains were completely covered. Then all flesh died that moved upon the earth, including birds, and animals, and every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth, and all mankind. 10. Cessation of the flood. But it came to pass at the end of forty days that the rain from heaven ceased, and the waters retired continually from off the land. 10. Cessation of the flood. Thus the waters rose high above the earth for a hundred and fifty days. Then God remembered Noah, and all the beasts, and all the animals that were with him in the ark; and God caused a wind to pass over the earth, so that the waters began to subside; the fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were closed; and at the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters decreased. And the ark rested on the seventeenth day of the seventh month upon the mountains of Ararat. And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month; on the first day of the tenth month were the tops of the mountains seen. 11. Disappearance of the flood. Then Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made; and he sent forth a raven, and it kept going to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth. And he sent forth from him a dove to see if the waters had subsided from off the face of the ground; but the dove found no rest for the sole of its foot, and it returned to him to the ark— for the waters were on the face of the whole earth—and he stretched forth his hand and took her and brought her to him into the ark. Then he waited seven days more and again sent forth the dove from the ark. And the dove came in to him at eventide; and, lo, there was in her mouth a freshly plucked olive leaf. So Noah knew that the waters had subsided from off the earth. And he waited seven days more and sent forth the dove; but it did not return to him again. Then Noah removed the covering of the ark and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dry. 11. Disappearance of the flood. And it came to pass in the six hundred and first year, on the first day of the first month, the waters were dried up from off the earth. And on the twenty-seventh day of the second month the earth was dry. Then God spoke to Noah, saying, Go forth from the ark, together with thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons’ wives with thee. Bring forth with thee every living thing that is with thee of all flesh, even birds and cattle, and every creeping thing that creeps on the earth; that they may swarm over the earth, and be fruitful and become numerous upon the earth. So Noah went forth and his sons, and his wife, and his sons’ wives with him. Every beast, every creeping thing, and every bird, whatever moves on the earth, after their families, went forth from the ark. 12. The divine promise. And Noah built an altar to Jehovah, and took of every clean beast, and of every clean bird, and offered burnt-offerings on the altar. And when Jehovah smelled the pleasant odor, Jehovah said in his heart, I will never again curse the ground because of man, for the purpose of man’s heart is evil from his youth; nor will I again smite every thing that lives, as I have done. While the earth remains, Seedtime and harvest, Cold and heat, Summer and winter, Day and night Shall not cease. 12. The divine promise. And God spoke to Noah and to his sons with him, saying, Behold, now I establish my covenant with you, and with your descendants after you, and with every living creature that is with you, the birds, the animals, and every beast of the earth with you of all that have gone out of the ark, even every beast of the earth. And I establish my covenant with you that all flesh shall never again be cut off by the waters of the flood, and that never again shall there be a flood to destroy the earth. I.Literary Form of the Flood Story. The oldest Hebrew account of the flood is not altogether complete, because the final compiler of Genesis has closely blended it with the late priestly version, which he made the basis of the composite narrative. The dimensions of the ark were probably the same in both versions. To illustrate how two originally complete and variant accounts of the same event have frequently been combined in the Old Testament, and how the two independent stories can be recovered, they have been printed here in parallel columns. The composite narrative of the flood is prefaced by what was originally an independent tradition regarding the origin of the race of the Nephilim or giants. According to Numbers 13:33 they still survived in the days of the settlement of Canaan, indicating that this earlier tradition knew nothing of the flood. In its present form the story is incomplete. It has been joined to the story of the flood because it suggested one of the reasons for Jehovah’s disfavor and the signal judgment which followed. II.Origin of the Story Regarding the Sons of God and the Daughters of Men. This tale has been called an example of “unassimilated mythology.” The Hebrew prophet has simply reduced to its briefest possible form the popular tradition regarding the origin of the giants, who were believed to have lived in Palestine in ancient times. As. the result of a natural psychological tendency, most early peoples believed that the older races conquered by their ancestors were of gigantic stature. Herodotus states that the Egyptians were the only race that did not hold this belief. Recent excavations in Palestine have shown, however, that the early cave-dwellers, who preceded the Semitic immigrants, actually averaged only a little over five feet in height. III.Ancient Parallels. The closest parallels to the story of the unions between divine and human beings come from the Persian and Greek mythology. Persian tradition states that Ahriman and his fallen angels entered into similar relations with the daughters of men. In Greek mythology the Titans are the result of such unions. In his familiar dialogues Plato says: “Do you not know that the heroes are demigods? All of them spring either from the love of a god for a mortal woman or of a mortal man for a goddess.” On the basis of the ancient Hebrew narrative, later Christian thought developed the elaborate doctrine of the fall of the Satan, which Milton has idealized in his immortal cantos. IV.The Oldest Babylonian Story of the Flood(cf. St. O. T. I. p. 373-8). The biblical versions imply that the scene of the story of the flood was in the East. The method of constructing the ark was also characteristically Babylonian. The Assyrian inscriptions prove convincingly that the common Semitic tradition of the flood is of Babylonian origin. The oldest and best preserved version is found in the eleventh tablet of the great epic which begins with the account of creation. Recently discovered fragments of an older version prove that the story was current in Babylonia at least as early as 2000 B.C. A few extracts will suffice to illustrate the close parallels to the biblical version. The Babylonian Noah first narrates how the great gods determined to destroy by a flood the ancient city of Shurippak, beside the Euphrates. But, Ea, the lord of wisdom, to save his faithful worshipper, warned him: Man of Shurippak, son of Ubara-tutu, Construct a house, build a ship; Leave goods, look after [thy] life, Forsake possessions, and save [thy] life! Cause all kinds of living things to go up into the ship. The ship which thou shalt build,— Let its form be long; And its breadth shall equal its length. On the great deep launch it. I understood and said to Ea my lord: “Behold, my lord, what thou hast commanded I have reverently received and will carry out.” Then follows Ea’s directions in response to the question, What answer shall I give to the city, the people, and the elders ? The next day Parnapishtim, the Babylonian Noah, began his work. On the fifth day I laid the frame of the ship. According to the plan, its sides were one hundred and twenty cubits high. The border of its roof was likewise one hundred and twenty cubits in breadth; I traced out its form, I marked it off, I built six decks on it, Thus I divided it into seven stories, Its interior I divided into nine compartments. Plugs [to keep out] the water I drove in from within. I provided a rudder-pole and supplied what was necessary; Six sars of pitch I poured over the outside, Three sars of bitumen I poured over the inside. He then goes on to recount in detail the supply of provisions—oil, wine, oxen, and lambs—which he took on board, and to tell of the great feast with which he celebrated the completion of his work. After taking on all his possessions of gold and silver and living creatures, he adds: I brought on board my family and household, Cattle of the field, beasts of the field, the craftsmen, All of them I brought on board. Shamash had appointed a time [saying], “When the lord of darkness at evening shall send down a destructive rain, Then enter into the ship and close the door.” When the appointed time came, he entered the ship and closed the door and entrusted the ship to his captain. The description of the tempest that follows is especially striking: When the first light of dawn shone forth, There rose from the horizon a dark cloud, within which Adad thundered, Nabu and Marduk marched at the front, The heralds passed over mountains and land; Nergal tore out the ship’s mast, Ninib advanced, following up the attack, The spirits of earth, raised torches, With their sheen they lighted up the world. Adad’s tempest reached to heaven, And all light was changed to darkness. Even the gods are terrified and “cowered like dogs at the edge of the heavens,” The gods, bowed down, sat there weeping Close pressed together were their lips. For six days and nights Wind, flood and storm overwhelmed the land. But when the seventh day arrived there was an abatement of the storm, the flood and the tempest, Which (like a host) had contended; The sea became calm, the tempestuous wind was still, the flood ceased. Then I looked for the race of mortals, but every voice was hushed, And all mankind had been turned to clay. As soon as the light of day appeared, I prayed. I opened a hole so as to let the light fall upon my cheeks, I bowed down and sat there weeping, Tears flowed down my cheeks. I looked in all directions, toward the border of the sea; After twenty-four hours an island rose up, The ship approached the mountain Nisir, The mountain Nisir caught the ship and held it fast. So also during the five succeeding days, it held fast the ship. When the seventh day arrived, I sent forth a dove and let it loose, The dove went forth, but came back; Because it found no resting-place, it returned: Then I sent forth a swallow, but it came back; Because it found no resting-place, it returned. Then I sent forth a raven and let it loose. The raven went forth and saw that the waters had decreased; It fed, it waded, it croaked, but did not return. Then I sent forth everything in all directions, and offered a sacrifice, I made an offering of incense on the highest peak of the mountain. Seven and seven bowls I placed there, And over them, I poured out calamus, cedar wood and fragrant herbs. The gods inhaled the odor, The gods inhaled the sweet odor, The gods gathered like flies above the sacrifice. The god Bel, who had been especially active in causing the flood, was enraged to find that any man had escaped destruction. Ea, however, placated him by urging that it was wrong to destroy all mankind, righteous and evil alike. Then Bel took his counsel, And went on board the ship, Seized my hand and led me up, Led up my wife also and had her kneel beside me, Touched our shoulders, stepped between us and blessed us: “Formerly Parnapishtim was human; But now Parnapishtim and his wife shall be gods like us, And Parnapishtim shall dwell in the distance, at the confluence of the streams.” Then they took me and made me dwell in the distance, at the confluences of the streams. V.Similarity Between the Oldest Babylonian and theOldestHebrew Accounts. The parallels between this version of the Babylonian story recorded in the tablets from the great Assyrian library, founded in the middle of the eighth century B.C., and the later Judean prophetic account, current in Judea during the same century, are exceedingly close. In each a special revelation is given to the hero of the story. Animals, as well as people, are taken into the ark; the flood is caused by an extraordinary downpour of rain; seven is the favorite number; all living things on the earth are destroyed; birds are sent out three times before it is found that the waters have subsided. After disembarking, the hero of the flood offers a sacrifice, the sweet savor of which wins divine favor and the assurance that mankind will never again be destroyed by a great flood. These analogies are too many, and too striking, to be explained as mere coincidences. VI.The Later Babylonian Version. The Chaldean priest Berossus, quoted by Eusebius, has preserved a later version of the same Babylonian story. Xisuthros, the hero,, was the last of the ten ancient Babylonian kings. To him Kronos appeared in a dream and informed him that at a certain date men would be destroyed by a flood. He commanded him to bring all the sacred writings and bury them at the city of Sippar, and then to build a ship and go aboard it with all his possessions and nearest friends. He was also to provide food and drink, and take with him all kinds of quadrupeds and birds. If he was asked where he was going, he was to say, To petition the gods to bless mankind. Accordingly he obeyed, and built a ship fifteen stadia long and two in width, brought all aboard as commanded, including his wife, children, nearest friends, and the pilot. When the flood began to recede, he sent out a bird, but this found no place to rest, and so returned to the ship. After some days he sent forth another bird. This returned, but with mud on its feet. When he sent forth the third it returned not. Then he knew that land had emerged, and, taking off the cover of the ship, he found that it had stranded on a mountain of Armenia. After he had disembarked with his wife, daughter, and pilot, he kissed the earth, built an altar, made an offering to the gods, and then disappeared. When he did not return, the others set out to find him, calling his name. They never saw him again, but a voice from heaven commanded them to fear the gods, since it was because of his reverence for the gods that Xisuthros had been taken to dwell with them. The same honor was also granted to his wife, daughter and the pilot. VII.Similarity and Contrast Between the Later Babylonian and Hebrew Versions. This later version illustrates the variations that the tradition had undergone as the result of transmission during three or four centuries among a literary people like the Babylonians. It is also noteworthy that the later biblical version is most closely parallel to this later Babylonian story. In both the hero was the tenth in his line and was famous for his piety; the destruction was universal; and the ark was stranded on a mountain in Armenia, which is identified in the later biblical version with Mount Ararat. These striking analogies suggest, as do the stories of the creation, that the Jewish priests in Babylonia were influenced by the version of the tradition which they then found current in the land of the exile. The variations between the Babylonian and biblical versions of the story are equally instructive, for they definitely illustrate the influence of transmission among the Hebrews and the nature of the work of Israel’s inspired prophets and priests. Instead of many rival deities, one God rules supreme over mankind and the universe. No traces remain of the grotesque heathen elements in the Babylonian versions, such as the deception of mankind, the conflicts between the gods, and their fright at the extent of the flood. The only possible exception is the statement that Jehovah smelled the sweet savor of the sacrifice. Even here the biblical version is far removed from the gross picture of the gods gathered like flies above the sacrifice. The biblical versions alone give a just cause for the great judgment, and reveal a benign rather than a capricious purpose behind even the seeming calamities of human history. In the hands of Israel’s teachers the ancient story has received a universal and ethical interpretation. VIII.Historyofthe Common Semitic Flood Story. In the light of these different versions the history of the tradition may be tentatively traced. It may have originally been suggested simply by the annual floods and fogs which inundate the Tigris-Euphrates valley. More probably, as the earliest Babylonian story indicates, it was based on the memory of a great local inundation, caused perhaps by a hurricane sweeping up from the Persian Gulf at the time of the spring floods, inundating not only the city of Surippak, but the entire Euphrates valley. Possibly it may have been due to a sinking of the land. Apparently, the only survivors were a few who escaped in a ship which was driven by the winds until it grounded on the low hills north of Babylonia. The mythological elements would naturally be added later, and in time the tradition would grow until it became, as in the later biblical versions, a universal destruction. In this connection it is suggestive that the latest biblical version, the priestly, represents the flood as lasting a full year instead of sixty-eight days (as in the earlier), and as covering the tops of the highest mountains, that is rising to a depth of fully five miles above the ordinary level of the sea. IX.Transmission of the Babylonian Story to the Hebrews. The channels through which the Babylonian tradition could find its way to Palestine were many. Possibly it was brought from Mesopotamia by the Aramean ancestors of the Hebrews. It may have been received through the Canaanites, who were in possession of many Babylonian traditions when the Hebrews entered the land. The close analogies between the Judean prophetic version and the one current at the same time in Assyria suggest that the conquering armies of the great empire brought it, together with the many other religious ideas and institutions, which gained acceptance in Judah during the reign of Ahaz and especially that of Manasseh. If so, this would explain why the flood story was not found in the early, but only in the later, Judean prophetic narratives. X.Flood Stories Among Other Peoples. Flood stories in variant forms are found among most primitive peoples (cf. Hastings’ D. B., article, Flood). The only races who do not have them are those living in Africa and central and eastern Asia. The resemblances between these different stories seem to be due to similar local causes and psychological tendencies, rather than to descent from a common tradition. Often the original basis of the story was a great inundation or the subsidence of large areas of land. Sometimes it was suggested by the recurring floods of springtime. Among island and coastland peoples, the tradition was based on the fact that their ancestors came on boats over the great sea. The discovery of geological evidence that the sea had once covered elevated areas also fostered the growth of the tradition. XI.Meaning of the Story Concerning the Sons of God. In the light of its many parallels the meaning of the biblical narrative is clear. The opening story takes us back to the misty past to which was traced all that was extraordinary. It reflects the primitive belief that the gods had bodily forms and passions, and that the demi-gods, descended from them, entered into marital relations with humankind. In the popular thought of the prophet’s day, the giants, who figured in their ancient traditions, were believed to be the offspring of such unions. The effect of myths like these was not wholesome. In Greek mythology the example of the gods was often far from moral. The text is obscure, but it was apparently to correct this immoral implication that the prophet introduced the ancient story. Since man has shown his frailty by thus going astray, God’s life-giving spirit will not always remain in him to keep him alive. Rather the length of his life shall be limited to one hundred and twenty years. XII.Interpretation of the Oldest Biblical Story. When Jehovah found that the ideals and aims of mankind were base, he realized with sorrow that his hopes and benign provisions for the development and happiness of humanity were being ruined by human sin. Hence, nothing remained but to destroy the evil, and begin again with the noblest type of man. Noah, who by his character and acts had won Jehovah’s favor, was selected for the new beginning. Accordingly he was instructed to make a box-like boat, about four hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five feet broad, and forty feet high. Like the Babylonian houses and barges, it was to be made water-tight by means of bitumen. It was apparently to be lighted by an aperture about eighteen inches in height, running along under the projecting roof. Being smaller than the Babylonian ship, it had only three instead of seven stories. When the ark was completed, Noah was instructed to enter it with his household, and a pair of each of the species of animals and birds regarded by the later Hebrew law as unclean. Of the clean animals and birds seven were to be taken, that ample provision might thus be made for the needs of sacrifice. In the parallel priestly version two of each species suffice, for the later priests taught that sacrifice began with Moses. After Noah had complied with the divine command, the rain poured down for forty days until all living things on the land were destroyed. Noah, and those with him, alone survived to perpetuate the original work of creation. When, at the end of the forty (in the late priestly version, one hundred and fifty) days the rain ceased and the waters began to subside, Noah sent forth a raven, which because of its predatory habits, did not return. The statement that he waited seven days before sending out the dove a second time implies that the compiler, in combining the two versions, has left out the fact that Noah also waited seven days before he first sent out the dove. The Babylonian order—a dove, a swallow, and then a raven—is the more natural, as well as the older; but nothing could surpass the picturesqueness of the Hebrew prophetic narrative, especially the picture of the dove returning to the anxious waiters at eventide with the freshly plucked olive leaf in her bill. The selection of Noah to inaugurate a new era did not prove a mistake. His first act, on emerging from the ark, was to express his thanksgiving and adoration by sacrifice. A huge holocaust, consisting of victims of every species of clean beast and bird, was offered. As the placating savor of this offering, that symbolized gratitude and devotion, rose to heaven, Jehovah’s promise was given that he would never again be. led by man’s evil propensities to visit universal judgment upon the earth. XIII.Aim and Teachings. The late priestly story of the flood culminates in the new covenant, sealed by the rainbow, in accordance with which God promised never again to destroy mankind by a flood. He also renewed man’s commission to rule over all living things, and permitted him to eat animal as well as vegetable food, provided only he abstained from eating the blood. The prophetic version likewise closes with a promise of Jehovah’s mercy and care, but its primary aim is spiritual and ethical, not legal. It emphasizes, as do the preceding stories, the terrible and inevitable consequences of human sin and the greatness of God’s goodness. Among the more important truths illustrated by the ancient story in its prophetic form are: (1) Man’s freedom and responsibility. Even though it was his supreme desire, Jehovah could not make men virtuous. (2) The ultimate aim of creation is the moral and spiritual evolution of man. (3) Evil men and evil acts thwart the divine purpose. (4) In the divine economy of the universe, men or nations, or generations, that thus thwart God’s purpose, have no permanent title to life. (5) Righteousness delivereth a man or a nation. (6) The worship and devotion of mankind are pleasing to God. (7) God is eager to surround men with all that is conducive to their highest development and happiness. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 17: 017. VI. THE TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS ======================================================================== § VI. THE TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS Genesis 11:1-9; Genesis 9:18 a., Genesis 10:1 b, Genesis 9:19 b, Genesis 9:18 b, Genesis 10:8-15 a, Genesis 10:8 b, Genesis 10:19; Genesis 10:21; Genesis 10:24-30 1.Original unity of the race. Now the whole earth was of one language and of one speech. And it came to pass as they journeyed from the east that they found a plain in the land of Shinar [Babylonia], and dwelt there. Then said they one to another, Come, let us make bricks and burn them thoroughly. And they had brick for stone and bitumen for mortar. 2.Building a city and tower. They also said, Come, let us build us a city and a tower, with its top in the sky; thus let us make ourselves a name, so that we may not be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth. But Jehovah came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men had built. 3.Jehovah’s disapproval. Then Jehovah said, Behold they are one people and they all have one language; and this is the beginning of their achievement, but henceforth nothing, which they purpose to do, will be too difficult for them. Come, let us go down and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another’s speech. 4.Origin of different races. So Jehovah scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth; and they ceased building the city. Therefore they called its name Babel [Confusion], because there Jehovah confounded the language of the whole earth, and there Jehovah scattered them over the face of the whole earth. 5. Sons of Noah. And the sons of Noah, who went forth from the ark, were Shem, Ham, and Japheth. These three were the sons of Noah, and to them were sons born after the flood, and of these was the whole earth overspread. And Ham was the father of Cush, Mizraim [Egypt], and Canaan. 6.Eastern peoples. And Cush begat Nimrod; he began to be a mighty one in the earth. He was a mighty hunter before Jehovah; therefore it is said, Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before Jehovah. And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land he went forth into Assyria and built Nineveh, Rehoboth-Ir, Calah, Resen, between Nineveh and Calah (that is the great city). 7.Southern peoples. And Mizraim begat Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, Casluhim, and Caphtorim (whence went forth the Philistines). 8.Palestinian peoples. And Canaan begat Sidon, his first-born, and Heth. And afterward the families of the Canaanite were spread abroad, so that the boundary of the Canaanites was from Sidon, as far as Gerar (to Gaza), and as far as Sodom and Gomorrah and Admah and Zeboim, to Lasha. 9.Arabian ancestors and kinsmen of the Hebrews. And children were also born to Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, the elder brother of Japheth. And Arpachshad begat Shelah, and Shelah begat Eber. And to Eber were born two sons: the name of the one was Peleg [Division], for in his days was the earth divided; and his brother’s name was Joktan. And Joktan begat Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, Obal, Abimael, Sheba, Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab; all these were the sons of Joktan. And their dwelling place was from Mesha, as far as Sephar, the mountain of the East. 10. Their immediateancestors. And Peleg begat Reu, and Reu begat Serug, and Serug begat Nahor, and Nahor begat Terah. And Terah begat Abraham, Nahor, and Haran; and Haran begat Lot. I.The Two Explanations of the Origin of Languages and Races. These narratives contain two distinct explanations of the origin of the different languages and races. The older is a simple story in the style of the early Judean historians. The other is what purports to be a genealogical list, but is in reality a table of the nations known to the Hebrews in the period just before the Babylonian exile. It is the immediate sequel of the later Judean prophetic account of the flood and clearly comes from the same source. The genealogical table in its final form in Genesis is supplemented by names from a later priestly table. The sons of Japheth, the distant northwestern and western peoples living in Asia Minor and Greece, the Phoenician colonies skirting the Mediterranean, and the Elamites and the Arameans, are thus added. These are the nations with whom the Israelites became acquainted during and after the period of the exile. The principle of arrangement is nominally ethnological, but in reality it is also geographical, and from the point of view of Israel. The nations not closely related to the Israelites are given first, then their nearer relatives, the Canaanites, and last of all their Aramean ancestors and Arabian kinsmen. II.Origin of the Story of the Tower of Babel. The background of the story of the Tower of Babel is Babylonia, and the tradition was doubtless inherited by the Hebrews from their Semitic ancestors. It is probable that it originated outside Babylonia, for a Babylonian writer would not have stopped to explain that the building material was brick and that bitumen was used for mortar. He would have known that the lofty mound, about which the tradition centred, was not reared in rebellion, but as a temple site in devotion to the service of the gods. He would also have known that the true derivation of the word Babylon is Bab-il, Gate of God. The popular derivation given in the story is probably from the Aramaic word babil, confusion. All these indications suggest that the tradition was handed down to the Hebrews from their Aramean forefathers, who lived near and yet outside Babylonia. The Tower of Babel, which aroused the wonderment of the desert passers-by, and probably gave rise to the tradition, may have been the zikkurat, or pyramid-like mound of earth, on the west of the Euphrates, now known as Birs Nimroud. It is the foundation of the great temple of Ezida in Borsippa, the western suburb of Babylon. Nebuchadrezzar states in one of his inscriptions that it had been partially built by an earlier king, but its top had not been set up, and it had fallen into disrepair. Nebuchadrezzar himself restored it. The other possible site is the mound of Babil, on the east of the Euphrates in the ruins of Babylon itself. It probably represents the remains of the great temple of Marduk, with its huge pyramid-like foundation. Either of these imposing ruins would have profoundly impressed all passers-by. The fact that the mound of Birs Nimroud early gave the impression of incompleteness favors on the whole its identification as the original Tower of Babel. Also at the basis of the tradition is the popular memory of the greatness of the early Babylonian empire, with its capital at Babylon. It was natural that the same centre should be regarded, as the point from which the human race dispersed over the earth. The popular explanation of the motive for building the tower recalls the Greek tradition of the attempt of the Titans to mount up into heaven. In the prophetic table of the nations, Noah, with his three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, corresponds to Hellen of early Greek tradition, whose three sons, AEolus, Dorus, and Ion, were the ancestors of the three great branches of the Hellenic race. III.Meaning of the Story of the Tower of Babel. Like the narrative of the sons of God and the daughters of men (§ V) the story of the Tower of Babel is placed in the dim, misty age of tradition. The land of Shinar is the early Hebrew name for Babylonia (cf.Genesis 10:10; Genesis 14:19Isaiah 11:11, Zech.5:11, Daniel 1:2). It may be a variation of the old Babylonian name Shumer. On the level plain of Babylonia any elevation seemed lofty by contrast. The great mounds, which the Babylonians reared with infinite toil to be the foundations of their temples, still stand as monuments of human achievement. In the extent of its ruins Babylon, even after thousands of years, is impressive. The chief impression, however, that the ruins of the ancient mounds made on the mind of the Semites who viewed them from afar, was that the spirit and purpose which prompted their builders were sinful. They were symbols of the pride and self-sufficiency of early man and of God’s destructive judgment. The different languages, which constituted a troublesome barrier between races and nations, were also regarded as a punishment for some sin of their primitive ancestors. The very name of Babylon was associated in the mind of ancient Arameans and Hebrews with the similar word meaning confusion. All these varied elements have evidently entered into this story. The point of view and conception of God are those of primitive men. “Let us go down” may be a remnant of the old polytheistic form of the tradition. Possibly the expression is used, as in Genesis 3:22, because the Deity is thought of as standing at the head of the divine hierarchy, even as he is pictured in the prologue to the book of Job. The popular explanations of the ruined tower, of the derivation of the word Babylon, and of the origin of languages are supported by neither history nor philology. It is rather the deeper religious principles that underlie the story in its Hebrew form that have an abiding value. The unity of the entire human race and the universal fatherhood of God were vital facts which other nations were very slow to perceive. IV.The Hamitic Races. In the later Judean prophetic table, which explains the origin of the various nations by descent from the different sons of Noah, Ham stands as the ancestor of the three peoples who developed the earliest civilizations: the Babylonians, the Egyptians and the Canaanites. The derivation of the word Ham is not certain. It may be from the Semitic root meaning hot or burned, or from the native designation for Egypt which comes from kam, meaning black. In Psalms 78:51; Psalms 105:23; Psalms 105:27 and Psalms 106:22 it refers simply to the Egyptians. In the parallel priestly list, and usually in the Old Testament, Cush refers to the Ethiopians; but here Cush apparently stands for the Kassites (Babylonian, Kasshu), who from their home east of the Tigris came down and conquered and ruled over the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley for many centuries (cf. Introd., II, 12). They were of non-Semitic origin, but the memory of their political supremacy evidently led the Hebrews to regard them as the people from whom were descended the founders of the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian cities and empires. V.Nimrod the Mighty Hunter. The identification of Nimrod is still uncertain. The statement that he was a son of Cush favors the conclusion held by some, that he is Nazimurudash, one of the later Kassite kings, whose achievements may have given him this prominent place in Hebrew tradition. The reference to Nimrod’s reputation as a mighty hunter has suggested that he is to be identified with Gilgamesh, the mythological hero of the great Babylonian epic, in which are found the stories of creation and deluge. In this epic he is depicted as a famous hunter, and many of his feats in slaying dangerous wild beasts are recounted. Tradition also states that he delivered Babylonia from the rule of the Elamites. Erech, mentioned as one of the four Babylonian cities over which Nimrod first held sway, was, according to the Babylonian epic, the city of Gilgamesh. The name of Nimrudu has not yet been found on the monuments of Babylonia and Assyria, so that this identification still remains only an exceedingly plausible conjecture. Evidently the Hebrew traditions regarding Nimrod were much more detailed than the extract given by the biblical narrator. His object was simply to explain the origin and meaning of the popular proverb, Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before Jehovah. VI.The Old Babylonian and Assyrian Empires. The testimony of the monuments regarding the history of the great empires of Babylonia and Assyria has already been given in the Introduction (chap. II). Erech is the Babylonian Uruk on the southern bank of the lower Euphrates. Accad (Babylonian, A Mead) is mentioned in an inscription of the twelfth century B.C. as a city, as well as the name of the district which figured in the old Babylonian title, King of Shumer and Akkad. It was somewhere in northern Babylonia. Calneh has not yet been identified. Although Assyria developed much later than Babylonia (Introd. II, 12), in the biblical tradition their growth is represented as almost contemporary. The statement is true, however, that Assyria was an offspring of the older Semitic state. The old Assyrian capital Asshur (the present Kal’at Sherghat, sixty miles south of Nineveh) is not mentioned. The later capitals, Calah, situated at the point where the upper Zab flows into the Tigris, and Nineveh, eighteen miles further up the Tigris, were the cities best known to the Hebrews in the age when the present table took form. Sennacherib, in the latter part of the eighth century B.C. first made Nineveh the permanent capital of the empire. Rehoboth-Ir means broad places of a city, and is apparently the Hebrew equivalent of the Assyrian rebit Nina, the designation of the northern suburbs of Nineveh. Resen has not yet been identified, but from the description it would seem to have been a southern suburb of Nineveh, connecting the two capitals, so that in the mind of the biblical writer, they, with their outlying towns, are regarded as a single great city. VII.The Egyptians. Mizraim (literally, the two Egypts, probably including upper and lower Egypt) is the usual Hebrew designation of the land of the Nile. The “sons” of Egypt are the southern peoples known to the Hebrews through war and commerce. The Ludim appear in the days of Jeremiah and Ezekiel as archers in the Egyptian army (cf.Jeremiah 16:19, Ezekiel 27:10; Ezekiel 30:5). Their home was probably on the border of Egypt. The Anamim, Naphtuhim, and Casluhim have not been identified. The Lehabim are probably the Libyans who lived to the east of Egypt. The Pathrusim are the inhabitants of Pathros, the southland of upper Egypt. The Caphtorim are the people of Caphtor, regarded by the Hebrews as the homeland of the Philistines (cf. Amos 9:7, Deuteronomy 2:23, Jeremiah 47:4). Caphtor is probably to be identified with the Egyptian Kefto, the name of a people living originally in Cilicia and Cyprus. VIII.The Canaanite Races. The “ sons” of Canaan are the peoples whom the Hebrews found in possession of Palestine. That the present list is an ethnological rather than a genealogical table is illustrated by the fact that the city of Sidon is called the first-born of Canaan. Sidon, being the oldest important Phoenician city, here represents the Phoenician branch of the Canaanite race. Heth is the biblical name of the great Hittite nation that held northern Syria in the centuries preceding the advent of the Hebrews. Although their racial origin is still in doubt, it is clear that there was in reality no close relationship between them and the Canaanites. The author probably had in mind the few survivors of the earlier race. These had been so thoroughly assimilated by the Canaanite races of Palestine that a later scribe has at this point added in the Hebrew a list of the local tribes inhabiting Palestine. The original table, however, simply defined the territory occupied by the Canaanites living outside Phoenicia. It extended southward from Sidon along the shore to Gerar, southeast of Gaza. Its eastern boundary was the line extending from Sodom and the neighboring cities, probably at the south of the Dead Sea, to Lasha, which may be but a scribal error for Laish or Dan (§ XXXIV), at the northern end of the Jordan valley. IX.The Hebrews and their Arabian Kinsmen. Shem means name and his “sons” are the ancestors and tribes closely related to the people of name or renown, the Hebrews. Eber is here not only the eponymous ancestor of the Hebrews but also of certain other Arabian tribes. The genealogy of his eldest son Peleg is reserved to the last, for it introduces the immediate forefathers of the Hebrews. The author apparently finds in the name Peleg, which means division, an allusion to the division of the human race into different races, as recorded in the story of the Tower of Babel. From the other brother, Joktan, are descended thirteen tribes living in southern Arabia. Some of them can be identified. Sheleph is a place in the province of Yeman, still bearing the corresponding Arab name. Hazarmaveth is the modern district of Hadramaut, east of Aden and bordering on the Indian Ocean. According to the Arabs, Uzal is the ancient name of the present capital of Yeman. Sheba is the designation of a rich commercial people living in southwestern Arabia. Their inscriptions and the ruins of their temples and cities testify to their advanced civilization. Through the medium of trade it frequently touched that of the Hebrews. Ophir was perhaps a seaport on the east coast of Arabia through which the products of India reached the Semitic world, or else it is to be identified with Abhira at the mouth of the Indus (cf. § LVIII). Havilah was somewhere in central or northeastern Arabia. The territory of these different peoples appears to have extended from the bounds of the central Arabian tribe of Massa to the south coast of Arabia. The mountain of the east is probably the great frankincense mountains which extend east from the modern Daphar. Only the late priestly version preserves the list of the immediate ancestors of the Hebrews, but it completes the genealogical connection between the list of Israel’s neighbors and the forefathers of the chosen race. Some of the names in the list may be identified as tribal or place names. Serug is a city and district about thirty-eight miles west of Haran, mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions and by the Arabic writers of the Middle Ages. Til-Nahiri, a place near Sarugi, may represent a survival of the name Nahor. These identifications confirm the testimony of the biblical narratives that the Aramean ancestors of the Hebrews came from the region in western Mesopotamia, lying to the east of the upper Euphrates. X.Aim and Teachings. The chief aim is to trace the origin of the different races and to indicate Israel’s place in the great family of the nations. The broader Semitic background of Hebrew history, and the vital connection between Israel’s life and the powerful civilizations that preceded and influenced it are also suggested. In its origin Israel was not apart from, but rather a part of, the ancient Semitic world, and only in its true setting can its unique history be understood. While their ethnological knowledge was necessarily limited, the early Hebrews were deeply interested in their neighbors. This interest stands in striking contrast to the narrow attitude of most ancient peoples, who classified all outside their race as barbarians. The fundamental unity of all peoples and races is here assumed and concretely set forth. The basis of this unity is the common rule and fatherhood of one God. All the different nations are but different branches of the same great family. All men are, therefore, brothers. While nothing is here said of Israel’s divine mission to the world, the essential foundations are thus laid for that great prophetic doctrine which gradually dawned upon the race. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 18: 018. THE TRADITIONAL ANCESTORS OF THE HEBREWS ======================================================================== THE TRADITIONAL ANCESTORS OF THE HEBREWS ======================================================================== CHAPTER 19: 019. VII. ABRAHAM’S CALL AND SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN ======================================================================== § VII. ABRAHAM’S CALL AND SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN Genesis 11:28-29; Genesis 12:1-4 a, Genesis 12:6-8; Genesis 13:2; Genesis 13:6; Genesis 13:6 b, Genesis 13:7 a, Genesis 13:8-12 b, Genesis 13:13; Genesis 13:18 1. History of the house of Terah. Now Haran died before his father Terah in the land of his nativity. And Abraham and Nahor took for themselves wives. The name of Abraham’s wife was Sarah, and the name of Nahor’s wife, Milcah, the daughter of Haran, the father of Milcah and Jiscah. 2.Abraham’s call and departure for Canaan. And Jehovah said to Abraham, Go forth from thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father’s house, to the land that I will show thee, that I may make of thee a great nation; and I will surely bless thee, and make thy name great, so that thou shalt be a blessing. I will also bless them that bless thee, and him that curseth thee will I curse, so that all the families of the earth shall ask for themselves a blessing like thine own. So Abraham went forth, as Jehovah had commanded him, and Lot went with him. 3.Experiences in Canaan. Then Abraham passed through the land to the district of Shechem, to the oak of Moreh [oracular oak or terebinth]. And the Canaanites were then in the land. And Jehovah revealed himself to Abraham, saying, To thy descendants will I give this land; and there he built an altar to Jehovah, who had revealed himself to him. And he removed thence to the mountain on the east of Bethel, and pitched his tent, having Bethel on the west, and Ai on the east. And there he built an altar to Jehovah and called upon the name of Jehovah. 4.Reason for the separation from Lot. Now Abraham was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold. And Lot also, who went with Abraham, had flocks and herds and tents, so that they could not dwell together. And when there was a strife between the herdsmen of Abraham’s cattle and the herdsmen of Lot’s cattle, Abraham said to Lot, Let there be no strife, I pray you, between me and you, and between my herdsmen and your herdsmen; for we are kinsmen. Is not the whole land before you ? separate yourself, I pray you, from me. If you go to the left, then I will go to the right; or if you go to the right, then I will go to the left. 5.Lot’s choice. Then Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the Plain of the Jordan that it was well watered everywhere (before Jehovah destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah), like the garden of Jehovah, as far as Zoar. So Lot chose for himself all the Plain of the Jordan; and Lot journeyed east; and dwelt in the cities of the Plain, and moved his tent as far as Sodom. And the men of Sodom were exceedingly wicked and sinners against Jehovah. 6.Abraham at Mamre. But Abraham moved his tent and came and dwelt in the plain of Mamre, which is in Hebron. I.Literary Form of the Abraham Stories. The eleventh chapter of Genesis marks the transition from the common Semitic traditions to the stories regarding the traditional forefathers of the Hebrews. Throughout the rest of Genesis the narratives are chiefly personal and biographical. Many extracts are introduced from the late priestly history. In chapter 14 is found what appears to be a late Jewish tale, based on the memory of an invasion of the eastern kings far back in the days of Hammurabi (cf. Introd., II, 10, 11); but most of the Abraham stories are taken from the early prophetic narratives. Each of these stories is, as a rule, a complete literary unit, bringing out like a flash-light picture some trait or incident in the life of the patriarch. Together they give an exceedingly life-like and majestic portrait of the character who stands at the beginning of Hebrew history. II.Origin of the Stories. Except in the later Jewish story of Genesis 14, the setting and atmosphere of the Abraham stories are those of the wilderness, and of that peculiar type of nomadic life which may be studied to-day among the Bedouin tribes that wander up and down in the Arabian desert. The point of view and interest are also those of the nomad. It is probable that these stories were originally retold from generation to generation among the early Hebrews. At the same time it is evident that, like those of Babylonian or Aramean or Canaanite origin in §§ I-VI, they have been transformed and idealized. The idealization of Abraham’s character was almost inevitable, since he was the revered forefather of the Hebrew race. Analogies might be cited from almost every chapter of human history; Sargon, Menes, Romulus and King Arthur are only a few of many classic examples. In these marvellous stories associated with Abraham are voiced the later hopes and ideals of the Hebrew race. Those aspirations for widely extended territory, teeming population, and great prosperity, which were realized in full measure in the days of David and Solomon, are here embodied in divine promises to Israel’s traditional forefather. It was thus that the prophetic historians effectively taught the great truth that Israel’s later glories were but the realization of God’s gracious and eternal purpose. III.Abraham in Later Jewish Traditions. The Abraham of later Jewish traditions is represented, sometimes as having been borne to heaven on a fiery chariot, there to receive to his bosom the faithful of his race, sometimes as the ardent foe of idolatry, and sometimes as the valiant warrior before whose sword even the great city of Damascus fell. In Genesis 14 he is a chivalrous warrior, as generous as he is brave and energetic, who, with his few followers, defeats the armies of Babylonia and Elam. The Abraham of the priestly historians is a faithful observer of the law through whom the covenant with his race, sealed by the rite of circumcision, is established; but the Abraham of the early prophets is the embodiment of their noblest ideals of faith and character. IV.The Prophetic Element. It can never be absolutely decided, and fortunately it makes little difference how far these Old Testament stories are exact records of the experiences of a certain early nomadic chieftain. The real father of the faithful, the Abraham whose deeds and character and faith are perennial sources of inspiration to-day, as in the past, lived in the glowing hearts of Israel’s early prophets. It is not strange that they have embodied in his biography many later beliefs and experiences of their race. Local traditions also traced to him the origin of several sacred places. Institutions which went back beyond the days of Moses were naturally associated with him or else with Isaac or Jacob. Thus the original kernel of tradition, under the varied national, institutional, and prophetic influences, gradually assumed its present form. Hence, these narratives are more than mere history: they are prophetic homilies, whose theme and illustrations are found in the past rather than the present or the future. V.The Two Names. The final compiler of Genesis, in accord with the late priestly tradition of the covenant recorded in the seventeenth chapter, has designated the patriarch as Abram up to this point, and Abraham in the succeeding passages. In view of these late, arbitrary changes, it is impossible to determine which of the two forms of the name was used originally in the prophetic narratives. The same baffling difficulty also makes it impossible to prove or disprove the alluring hypothesis that certain of the traditions related originally to an Aramean ancestor of the Hebrews, who bore the name Abraham, and others to a Canaanite hero, Abram. The derivation of Abraham (the father of a multitude), offered by the late priestly writer in Genesis 17:5, is based simply on a similarity in sound to the Hebrew word (hamon) meaning multitude. It seems probable that the two forms are but dialectic variations of the familiar Hebrew name, Abiram, meaning, the father is exalted or the lofty one is father. The name has been found on a Babylonian tablet, coming from the reign of Hammurabi’s grandfather. It was therefore used as an individual name at least as early as 2000 B.C. Since the form Abraham is always used elsewhere in the Old Testament (except in two late priestly quotations in Genesis), it has been restored in the text. VI.The Home of Abraham. The oldest Hebrew records agree in the fact that Haran of Aram-Naharaim, in eastern Mesopotamia, was the original home of Abraham and, therefore, of the earliest ancestors of the Hebrews. In § XI, 2 Abraham speaks of Aram as the land of his nativity (cf. also Genesis 22:20; Genesis 27:43; Genesis 28:10; Genesis 29:5, Deuteronomy 27 Joshua 24:2-3). This overwhelming weight of testimony is in accord with the facts of contemporary history (Introd., IV, xi). Only in the late priestly traditions and in what are apparently two editorial additions to the prophetic narratives (Genesis 11:28 and Genesis 15:7) is the origin of the Hebrews traced back to Ur of the Chaldees. Evidently the ancient Babylonian Ur, over five hundred miles southeast of Haran, is the city in the mind of the later scribes; but even the place names in the late priestly list of Abraham’s ancestors point to Aram rather than Babylonia (§VI, IX). Perhaps the fact that both Ur and Haran were devoted to the worship of the moon god Sin, and possibly the belief that Haran was founded by colonists from the older Babylonian city, are the basis of this very late Jewish tradition. Haran, about sixty miles north of the Euphrates on one of its confluents, the modern Belikh, was an important city in antiquity, and is frequently mentioned on the Assyrian inscriptions. It was one of the stopping points on the great caravan route that ran from Babylonia to the eastern Mediterranean and was the trading centre for the surrounding nomadic and semi-agricultural population. It was natural that the moon, whose clear, cold light guarded the caravans across the desert and the nomads in their midnight marches, should here be worshipped. So famous was this ancient sanctuary that the moon god was known throughout northern Syria as the Baal or Lord of Haran. It is also significant that Sarah corresponds to the Babylonian Sharritu, the name of the goddess of Haran, the wife of the moon god worshipped at that place. Milcah, the name of Nahor’s wife, also corresponds to the Babylonian Milkatu, who, in the mythology of Haran, was the daughter of the moon god. VII.The Divine Promise. To interpret and appreciate the early biblical stories, it is important to adopt the point of view of the prophetic narrators. All details—the method of revelation, the size of Abraham’s family, the nature of his journey, and the age in which he lived—are omitted, and attention is fixed only on the essential facts. To the patriarch came the divine call to break those bonds of land and kindred which are especially strong in the East, and to seek a new home and destiny in the great western world. With the call went the promise that he should become the father of a great nation and that the divine blessing would ever attend him, so that he and his descendants would enjoy renown and the most signal evidences of Jehovah’s favor. He should be so highly blessed that his friends would share the same divine favor, while his foes would be the objects of Jehovah’s wrath. Furthermore, all nations would see his God-given prosperity and crave like blessings for themselves. VIII.The Sanctuaries Associated with Abraham. Like Noah in the earlier story, Abraham at once responded to the divine command. As he passed through the land of Canaan and came to the oak or terebinth near Shechem, he received another revelation, and the promise that his descendants would in time possess this land as their own. The sacred oak is again mentioned in Judges 9:37, where it is called the Diviners’ Oak. As has been already noted (§I, vii), the early Semites believed that the deity spoke through certain trees. In Palestine to-day there are still many trees which the natives regard as sacred. Among the Canaanites this particular tree had apparently long been regarded as oracular. References in their traditions also indicate that the early Hebrews shared this ancient belief. At the scene of the revelation Abraham reared an altar, which tradition probably identified as the site of the sanctuary at Shechem (cf.Joshua 24:26). Also east of Bethel he built another altar, as a symbol of his devotion to Jehovah, and this was probably in the same way connected with the famous sanctuary at that place. IX.Lot’s Choice. Even as the first part of this brief story illustrates the fact that Abraham’s eyes were fixed only on Jehovah and the future of his race, so the latter part emphasizes his fine disregard for things material. The strife between the herdsmen of Abraham and Lot is true to the nomadic life of the East. The heights east of Bethel command a superb view southward over the gray limestone hills of Judah on the right and the verdant valley of the Jordan on the left. It seems probable that the early narrator believed that this fertile plain, which he likens to the garden of Eden, extended southward, including the territory later occupied by the Dead Sea. Its southernmost limit is the town of Zoar, the Zoor or Zoora of Josephus, at the southern end of the Dead Sea. In these early traditions, therefore, the cities of the Plain are probably to be thought of as lying in the centre or southern end of the deep basin which now holds the bitter, barren waters of the Dead Sea (cf. further § IX, iii). Thither the choice of Lot, the traditional ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, carried him; while among the barren hills about Hebron the devoted servant of Jehovah dreamed of the realization of the divine promises and longed for new revelations. IV.Historical Significance of the Stories. The table of the nations (§ VI) has illustrated the tendency among the early Hebrews to record tribal or national history in the form of personal biography. The same method still prevails among the Arabian tribes to-day. Thus interpreted, these opening Abraham stories represent the earliest chapter in Israel’s history. They state that the immediate ancestors of the Hebrews were nomads living in western Mesopotamia in the neighborhood of the ancient city of Haran. Thence the first group of immigrants moved westward, probably about 1500 or 1400 B.C., to find homes in the coast- lands of the eastern Mediterranean. Some, like the Ammonites and Moabites, in time settled along the eastern side of the Jordan and Dead Sea basin. Those from whom the Hebrews were descended, however, crossed over into Canaan. Among the rocky uplands they were allowed for a time to pitch their tents and pasture their flocks, even as do the Arabs in certain parts of Palestine to-day; but they sought in vain for a permanent place of abode in the already thickly populated territory west of the Jordan. V.Aim and Teachings. The three distinct and yet related aims of the early prophetic historians are well illustrated in these opening stories. The first was to trace the outlines of Israel’s history and to interpret in the light of that record the divine purpose which was being realized in it. To their inspired eyes the later victories and prosperity of their race were but the fulfilment of Jehovah’s early promises. The second aim was to set before later generations in the person of their earliest ancestor a character that would inspire in his descendants the noblest ideals and aspirations. With the spirit of the true prophet, Abraham leaves behind all that men usually cherish most and sets out on his long journey. In Canaan also he disregards his personal interests and is intent only upon knowing and doing the will of God. Self-sacrificing, courageous, obedient to the voice of God—he is supremely worthy to be the father of a prophetic nation. Blessed was the race that had such a character held up thus prominently before it! The third aim was to illustrate concretely, and therefore the more effectively, certain universal truths which had been revealed through the experiences of the Hebrew race. Clearly they stand forth from the simple narrative: (1) God guides those who will be guided. (2) For those who will be led by him, God has in store a noble destiny. (3) God can reveal himself to those alone who seek a revelation. (4) God’s revelations come along the path of duty and are confined to no place or land. (5) He that loseth his life shall find it. (6) Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God. (7) Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 20: 020. VIII. THE PROMISE OF A SON TO SARAH ======================================================================== § VIII. THE PROMISE OF A SON TO SARAH Genesis 11:30; Genesis 16:1 b, Genesis 16:2; Genesis 16:4-14; Genesis 18:1-15 1. Sarah’s presentation of Hagar. Now Sarah was barren; she had no children; but she had an Egyptian maid-servant whose name was Hagar. And Sarah said to Abraham, Behold now, Jehovah hath denied me children; go in, I pray you, to my maid-servant; it may be that I shall obtain children by her. 2.Her jealousy and Hagar’s flight. Then Abraham heeded the voice of Sarah and went in to Hagar, and she conceived. But when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised in her eyes. Therefore Sarah said to Abraham, May the wrong I suffer be upon you. I myself gave my maid-servant into your bosom; and now that she sees that she has conceived, I am despised in her eyes; Jehovah judge between me and you. But Abraham said to Sarah, Behold, your maidservant is in your power, do to her whatever seems (right to you. Then Sarah ill-treated her, so that she fled from her presence. 3.Divine promise to Hagar. And the Messenger of Jehovah found her by a spring of water in the wilderness, by the spring on the way to Shur. And he said, Hagar, Sarah’s maid-servant, Whence earnest thou ? and whither art thou going ? And she said, I am fleeing from the presence of my mistress Sarah. Then the Messenger of Jehovah said to her, Return to thy mistress and submit thyself to her authority. Moreover the Messenger of Jehovah said to her, I will make thy descendants so many that they cannot be numbered. The Messenger of Jehovah also said to her, Behold, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son; and thou shalt call his name Ishmael [God hears], because Jehovah hath heard of thy ill-treatment. He shall be like a wild-ass, His hand against every man, And every man’s hand against him; And he shall dwell over against all his kinsmen. Then she called the name of Jehovah, who had spoken to her, El-roi [Thou art a God that seeth me]; for she said, Have I seen God and am I still alive, after I have looked upon him ? Therefore the well is called Beer-lahai-roi [Well of the living One who seeth me], (behold, it is between Kadesh and Bered). 4. Abraham’s hospitality. Jehovah also appeared to Abraham by the oaks of Mamre, as he was sitting at the entrance of the tent in the heat of the day; and, as he lifted up his eyes and looked, there stood three men before him. And as soon as he saw them, he ran from the entrance of the tent to meet them and bowed himself to the ground, and said, My lords, if now I have found favor in your sight, do not, I pray you, pass by your servant. Let now a little water be brought, I pray you, that you may wash your feet, and rest yourselves under the tree; and let me bring a morsel of bread, that you may refresh yourselves; afterward you may pass on, since for this reason you are passing by your servant. And they replied, Do even as you have said. So Abraham hastened into the tent to Sarah, and said, Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and bake cakes. Abraham also ran to the herd, and took a calf, tender and good, and gave it to the servant, that he might prepare it quickly. And he took curds and milk, with the calf which he had dressed, and set before them, and he was waiting on them under the tree, while they ate. 5.Promise of a son to Abraham and Sarah. Then they said to him, Where is thy wife ? And he said, There within the tent. And he said, I will certainly return to thee about a year from now, and then Sarah thy wife shall have a son. But Sarah was listening at the entrance of the tent, which was behind him. Now Sarah and Abraham were old, well advanced in years (it had ceased to be with Sarah after the manner of women). Therefore Sarah laughed to herself, saying, After I am old and worn out shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also ? And Jehovah said to Abraham, Why did Sarah laugh, saying, “Shall I, even when I am old, indeed bear a child?” Is anything too wonderful for Jehovah ? At the appointed time about a year hence, I will return to thee and Sarah shall have a son. Then Sarah denied, saying, I did not laugh; for she was afraid. And he said, Nay, but thou didst laugh. I.Literary Form and Origin. Simply, graphically, and with rare fidelity to human feeling and the peculiar life of the ancient nomad, two important and closely related incidents in Abraham’s domestic history are here recorded. They both deal with a theme of perennial interest —the mystery of birth and parenthood. No subject was of more vital import to every Semitic family than the birth of the son who should perpetuate its name and traditions. The story of Ishmael answered from the Hebrew point of view the question: “What was the origin of the Ishmaelites and what relation were they to the Israelites?” To their Hebrew readers the second story had a double fascination because Isaac was the bond that bound them to their ancestor Abraham. It was natural that they should think of his birth as being divinely heralded. The sudden introduction of Jehovah in connection with the promise, instead of the angelic beings, suggests perhaps that in the earlier part of the narrative the prophetic historian did not wish to represent the Deity as partaking of food. Ovid has preserved the closest parallel (Fast. 5, 495 ff.). This Greek tradition states that the three gods, Zeus, Poseidon, and Hermes, were once received as guests by an old man of Tanagra, Hyrieus by name. After eating the meal which he provided for them, they desired him to ask something for himself. Since he was childless, he expressed a wish for a son. The son, whom they gave him by a miracle, was Orion. II.Meaning of the Story of Hagar and Ishmael. The marriage customs of the East are here assumed. Even in the later Hebrew laws, barrenness was regarded as a possible basis of divorce (St. O. T., IV, Appendix 1). The husband in any case was free to take another wife. The Code of Hammurabi in one of its laws formulates the primitive usage when a wife could not bear children to her husband: If a man has married a votary (i.e., a woman consecrated to a god), and she has given a maid to her husband, who has borne children, and afterward that maid has placed herself on an equality with her mistress because she has borne children, her mistress shall not sell her. She shall place a slave-mark upon her and reckon her with the slave girls. If she has not borne children, her mistress may sell her. This ancient law contemplates the same domestic infelicity, as arose in the household of Abraham. The patriarch’s attitude in the matter is also explained and justified in the light of early Semitic custom. In the eyes of the law the slave wife was still the property of Sarah. In fleeing from her mistress, Hagar naturally goes toward her native home. Shur is that part of the wilderness which borders on Egypt to the west (cf.Genesis 20:1; Genesis 25:18, Exodus 15:22). Among the early Semites springs were regarded as dwelling places of the deity. The waters gushing forth from the dry, rocky earth were a never ceasing miracle. It would appear that the present tradition originally centred about the famous desert well of Beer-lahai-roi, whose name meant well of the living one who seeth me. The story of the revelation and promise to the traditional ancestress of the Ishmaelites made it a spot sacred even to the Hebrew inhabitants of Canaan. The place is probably to be identified with Ain Muweileh, a caravan station with seven wells, on the main route from Palestine to Egypt. It is about fifty miles southwest of Beersheba and twelve miles west of Ain Kadish. The popular tradition also evidently aimed to explain the name Ishmael, God hears. The vivid, poetic description of the Ishmaelites, as represented by their tribal ancestor, is true to the character and life of the wandering Arab. They were like the wild ass, free, untamed, ever roaming from place to place. Subsisting largely by robbery, they were at enmity with all their neighbors. Out in the wilderness but on the borders of Canaan they lived, kinsmen yet foes of the Hebrews. III.Abraham’sDivineGuests. The account of Abraham’s hospitality is one of the truest and most graphic pictures in oriental literature. The hot stillness and solitude of an eastern noonday, the patriarch seated beside his tent door, his sudden glimpse of three strangers approaching along the way, his eager and courteous reception, which makes their acceptance of his hospitality seem a favor to him rather than to them, and the haste to provide for their needs—each of these scenes stands out in clear relief. The food set before the guests is that of the nomad: thin rolls of bread, baked on the hot stones, curdled milk, the famous leben of the modern Arab and, as a special delicacy, a calf tender and good. To see that every want of his guests is at once supplied, Abraham himself stands by and serves them, as they sit beneath one of the wide-spreading oaks or terebinths of Mamre. As the guests depart, the promise is given to the aged patriarch and his wife that within a year they should have an heir. In this oldest tradition the name which he bore (Isaac), is connected with the Hebrew verb sahak, to laugh, and is explained by his mother’s skeptical laughter when a son is promised to her in her old age. In the parallel priestly narrative of Genesis 17:17 it is Abraham who laughs. It was thus that the popular interest in etymology and the belief in the significance of the name shaped in part these early traditions of the race. IV.Historical Significance of the Stories. The story of Hagar is a chapter from early Semitic tribal history. Hagar, like Ishmael, apparently represents a nomadic people. In the inscriptions of the Assyrian king, Sennacherib, Hagaranu is the name of an Aramean tribe, living not far from Babylonia. A tribe bearing a similar name is mentioned in the south Arabian inscriptions (cf. also 1 Chronicles 5:10; 1 Chronicles 5:19; 1 Chronicles 11:39; 1 Chronicles 27:31). If it could be proved that a land and people of Mucri were to be found in ancient times southwest of Canaan, it would furnish a satisfactory explanation of Hagar’s origin, for Mucri contains the same letters as the Hebrew word for Egypt. If not, Hagar is called an Egyptian, because the Arab tribe which she represents, had been partially Egyptianized through living close to the land of the Nile. At least, in the narrative, Hagar figures as a typical daughter of the desert. Possibly, in the present narrative, Ishmael is intended to represent, as in later periods, all of Israel’s nomadic neighbors to the south. It seems more probable, however, that the reference is to a definite tribe, living in early times in the wilderness south or southwest of Canaan. Interpreted in the language of history, this tradition then would mean that the nomadic ancestors of the Hebrews early made alliances and intermarried with certain Arab tribes in the wilderness that lies between southern Palestine and Egypt. At least both recognized the same bonds of kinship and religion. This early tradition of a common origin and faith is especially significant, for in the days of Moses the Israelites received from contact with certain of these tribes that great impetus to the worship of Jehovah which is recorded in the narratives associated with Sinai (cf. § XXI). The story of the promise of the birth of Isaac is rich in its illustrations of the social life and customs of the early Semitic ancestors of the Hebrews. The story, as a whole, emphasizes again concretely the supreme fact that the same divine Providence, that so signally delivered the Hebrews in many later crises was, from the earliest days, guiding the destiny of his people. V.Aim and Teachings. Interest in the meaning of certain prominent names, in the origin of sacred places, of the Ishmaelites, and of their relationship to the Hebrews, and in the reason why the Hebrews were heirs to a nobler destiny undoubtedly influenced the early prophetic historians to preserve these traditions. They also add certain important touches to the growing prophetic portrait of Abraham. In a trying domestic crisis he realizes the Semitic ideal of justice and devotion to his wife. As host, in his delicate consideration for the needs and wishes of his guests, he attains to the highest standards of hospitality, whether oriental or occidental. Each narrative also suggests its own prophetic teaching: (1) To the outcast and needy the divine voice ever comes with its message of counsel and promise. (2) The sphere of God’s care and blessing was by no means limited to Israel. (3) He who generously receives strangers often entertains the messengers of the Lord. (4) Unselfish service for others always brings its sure and rich reward. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 21: 021. IX. THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM ======================================================================== § IX. THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM Genesis 18:16; Genesis 18:20-33; Genesis 19:1-28; Genesis 19:30; Genesis 19:37-38 1.Departure of the men. Then the men rose up from there and looked off in the direction of Sodom; and Abraham went along with them to speed them on their way. 2.Jehovah’s revelation to Abraham. And Jehovah said, Because the complaint concerning Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and because their sin is very heinous, I will go down and see whether they have done exactly according to the complaint which comes to me; and if not, I will know. So the men turned from there and went toward Sodom, but Abraham remained standing before Jehovah. 3. Abraham’s intercession. Then Abraham drew near and said, Wilt thou consume the righteous with the wicked? Perhaps there are fifty righteous within the city, Wilt thou consume and not spare the place for the fifty righteous that are in it? Be it far from thee to do after this manner, to slay the righteous with the wicked! and that the righteous should be as the wicked, far be it from thee! Shall the Judge of all the earth not do justice? And Jehovah said, If I find in Sodom fifty righteous within the city, then I will spare all the place for their sake. And Abraham answered and said, Behold now, I have presumed to speak to the Lord, even though I am but dust and ashes; perhaps there will be lacking five of the fifty righteous. Wilt thou destroy all the city for lack of five? And he said, I will not destroy it, if I find there forty-five. And he spoke to him yet again, and said, Perhaps forty will be found there. And he said, For the sake of forty I will not do it. And he said, Oh, let not my Lord be angry, but let me speak: perhaps thirty will be found there. And he said, I will not do it, if I find thirty there. And he said, Behold now, I have presumed to speak to the Lord: perhaps twenty will be found there. And he said, For the sake of twenty I will not destroy it. And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry, but let me speak yet this once: perhaps ten will be found there. And he said I will not destroy it for the ten’s sake. Then Jehovah went his way as soon as he had ceased talking with Abraham. 4. Lot’s reception of the men. Then Abraham returned to his place, and the two Messengers came to Sodom in the evening as Lot was sitting in the gate of Sodom. When Lot saw them he rose up to meet them, and bowed himself with his face to the earth, and said, Now, my lords, turn aside, I pray you, into your servant’s house and abide all night, and wash your feet; then you shall rise up early, and go on your way. And they said, Nay, but we will abide in the street all night. But he urged them so strongly that they turned aside to him, and entered into his house; and he made them a feast, and baked unleavened bread, and they ate. 5.Shamelessness of the Sodomites. But before they had lain down, the men of the city, both young and old, all the people from every quarter surrounded the house; and they called to Lot saying to him, Where are the men who came in to you to-night ? Bring them out to us that we may know them. Then Lot went out to them at the door-way, but he shut the door after him. And he said, I pray you, my friends, do not thus wickedly. Behold now, I have two virgin daughters; let me, I pray you, bring them out to you, and do to them as you desire, only do nothing to these men, inasmuch as they have come under the shadow of my roof. But they replied, Stand back. And they said, This one came in to sojourn, and he would set himself up as a judge; now we will treat you worse than them. And they pressed hard against Lot and drew near to break the door. But the men reached out and drew Lot to them into the house, and shut the door, and smote the men who were at the door of the house with blindness, both small and great, so that they became weary in searching for the door. 6. Deliverance of Lot. Then the men said to Lot, Hast thou here any besides? Son-in-law, and thy sons, and thy daughters, and whoever thou hast in the city, bring them out of this place; for we are about to destroy this place; because great complaint concerning them hath come to Jehovah, and Jehovah hath sent us to destroy it. So Lot went out and spoke to his sons-in-law, who were to marry his daughters, and said, Up, get you out of this place; for Jehovah will destroy the city. But he seemed to his sons-in-law as one who was jesting. And when the rosy glow of morning appeared, the Messengers urged Lot, saying, Arise, take thy wife, and thy two daughters who are here, lest thou be consumed in the punishment of the city. But as he lingered, the men took hold of his hand and the hands of his wife and of his two daughters (since Jehovah was merciful to him), and brought him forth and set him outside the city. And it came to pass, when they had brought them outside, that they said, Escape for thy life; look not behind thee, neither stay thou in all the Plain; escape to the mountain lest thou be consumed. But Lot said to them, Oh, not so, my lords! Behold now, thy servant hath found favor in thy sight, and thou hast shown great mercy to me in saving my life—and I cannot escape to the mountain, lest evil overtake me, and I die—see now, this city is near to which to flee, and it is a little one. Oh, let me escape thither (is it not a little one?), and my life shall be preserved. And Jehovah said to him, I have also accepted thee concerning this thing, in that I will not overthrow the city of which thou hast spoken. Hasten, escape thither; for I cannot do anything until thou enter there. Therefore the name of the city was called Zoar [Little]. And the sun had risen upon the earth when Lot came to Zoar. 7. Destruction of the cities of the Plain and fate of Lot’s wife. Then Jehovah rained upon Sodom and Gomorrah brimstone and fire from Jehovah out of heaven, and he overthrew those cities, and all the Plain, with all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground. But Lot’s wife looked back from behind him and she became a pillar of salt. And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, toward all the region of the Plain, and beheld: and there the smoke of the land had begun to ascend as the smoke of a smelting-furnace. 8. Lot’s life in the cave. Then Lot went up from Zoar and dwelt in the mountain, and his two daughters with him—for he was afraid to dwell in Zoar—and lived in the cave together with his two daughters. 9. Origin of the Moabites and Ammonites. And the elder bore a son, and called his name Moab. He is the father of the present Moabites. The younger also bore a son and called his name Ben-ammi. That one is the father of the present Ammonites. I.Origin of the Tradition. The scene of the story is that most striking of natural phenomena, the Dead Sea. The geological data indicate that the Jordan valley was probably once an estuary of the Red Sea, and that its salt waters in early periods washed the southern spurs of Mount Hermon. The land in the south later rose, cutting off all connection with the ocean, thus making an inland lake of which the Dead Sea alone remains. In the south, at En-gedi on the west, and in the lower Jordan valley on the north, fringes of rich tropical vegetation suggested to the ancients that the great basin between Judah and Moab was once well watered everywhere(before Jehovah destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah), like the garden of Jehovah, as far as Zoar (§ VII, 5). The bitter, heavy waters and the barren shores seemed to them to be convincing proof that some great destruction had overtaken the once fertile plain. The pools of petroleum, the sulphur springs and deposits at many points about the lake, and the evidence of volcanic action, probably all combined to perpetuate the present story. In the minds of the early Hebrews and their interpreters, the prophets, the dire displeasure of Jehovah alone sufficed to explain such an overwhelming destruction. With what seemed to them convincing logic, they argued that the crimes of a people thus punished must have been unspeakably heinous. In the shameful practices of the earlier Canaanites, they found the sufficient cause. Similar stories of the destruction of other cities by fire or water, because of inhospitality or the guilt of their inhabitants, are still current in Arabia and in many other parts of the world. The Greek story of Philemon and Baucis is the one most familiar to western students (Ovid, Met. VIII, 616 ff.). The fate of Lot’s wife was probably suggested by the peculiar geological formations still found to the southwest of the Dead Sea. From the remarkable cliffs of crystallized rock-salt, that rise to the height of six hundred feet, fragments are often detached. These pillar-like shafts frequently assume forms which suggest the outlines of the human figure. Josephus and other late Jewish writers believed that they were still able to identify the pillar of salt referred to in the story (Jos. Ant. II, 11:4). Doubtless a pillar of this character, famous in ancient times, but long since wasted away by the action of the elements, was the physical basis of the strange episode. The Greek myth regarding Niobe, who was changed to stone, is probably also of similar origin. II.Interpretation of the Story. As in the story of the tower of Babel, Jehovah is represented as coming down to investigate the guilt of the cities of the Plain. In the present form of the narrative, however, only two of the angelic beings proceed toward Sodom, while Jehovah remains behind. Abraham uses this opportunity to intercede for his kinsman, Lot. Among the early Semites the communal instinct was so strong that the suffering of the innocent with the guilty tribe or city did not seem to them unjust. Abraham, however, voicing the deeper insight of the later prophets, who have added this familiar section, pleads for the righteous few (cf. Ezekiel 18). The appeal is not in vain. To each increasing demand upon Jehovah’s justice and mercy comes the quick response. At last, however, the overwhelming consciousness of the guilt of the many silenced the patriarch’s petition; but in the sequel the righteous few are nevertheless delivered. Abraham’s intercessions also bring out in clear relief the heinous guilt of the wicked Sodomites. Their character is clearly illustrated by the account of their reception of the divine guests. Lot proves true to his nomadic training and traditions. Even as Abraham had received the strangers under the tree before his tent, so his nephew entertained the two guests royally in his city home. The inhabitants of Sodom, however, one and all, prove insensible to the laws of hospitality and decency. The gross degeneracy of these representative Canaanites is thus portrayed in strongest colors. Lot places the nomadic law of hospitality even above that of parental responsibility; but the judgment falls upon the guilty before his family suffers from his mistaken sense of honor. Divine justice is vindicated and Lot’s virtue is rewarded by the opportunity to escape, which is not only offered, but pressed upon him and his family by the divine messengers. He, with his wife and two daughters, flees alone and terror- stricken in the lurid light of the burning cities. The divine command is laid upon them not to look back; but again, as in the garden of Eden, a wife’s curiosity proves too strong. Lot and his daughters flee on alone, leaving behind a lifeless pillar of salt. III.Sites of the Cities of the Plain. The implications of the story and the identification of the pillar of salt point to the southern end of the Jordan basin, as the traditional site of the cities of the Plain. This generally accepted conclusion is still further supported by the probable site of the Moabite town of Zoar in or near the little oasis of Ghor es- Safujeh, at the southeastern end of the Dead Sea. This bit of green stands out in striking contrast to the general barrenness of the region, and suggests that its preservation was a special act of Providence. The meaning of its Hebrew name, Little, is explained by the ancient story. The same Hebrew narrative also taught that in the neighboring mountains of Moab were born to the daughters of Lot, Moab and Ammon, the traditional ancestors of the peoples living to the east of the ancient Plain of the Jordan. IV.Historical Significance of the Story. The Jordan valley is still the scene of frequent earthquakes. The memory of some great upheaval, caused by a subterranean explosion of petroleum and the accompanying gases, may be the basis of this early tradition. The upheaval may have destroyed certain Canaanite cities on the southern shores of the Dead Sea. The fact that the names of the cities are remembered lends support to this conclusion. The later prophetic literature also contains many allusions to the destruction of Sodom and the neighboring cities of Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim (e.g.,Amos 4:11, Isaiah 1:10; Isaiah 3:9; Isaiah 13:19, Jeremiah 23:14; Jeremiah 49:18, Zephaniah 2:9, Deuteronomy 29:23). Sodom is the classic Hebrew symbol of superlative shamelessness and ignominy. The tradition vividly reflects the gross moral degeneracy of the earlier Canaanites and the impression which their customs made upon the Israelites (cf. also §IV, 10). In a form characteristic of early nomadic tradition, but far from flattering to the national vanity of their neighbors across the Jordan, the story also states the historical fact that the Moabites and Ammonites were related to the Hebrews by virtue of common origin, traditions, and customs. Contemporary records, archaeology, and the later biblical references unite in confirming this fact. V.Aim and Teachings. The early prophets, in common with their race and age, undoubtedly regarded the tradition as historical and retained it primarily for this reason. Like the later Judean story of the flood, to which it is in many ways closely parallel, it is one of the most dramatic illustrations of the overwhelming judgment that must inevitably overtake those who are deliberately and defiantly wicked. In the economy of the universe God himself is compelled to destroy them like worthless refuse. And yet the God who destroys is a God of infinite mercy, eager to stay the destruction, if only a leaven of good can be found. He is also just, not only to cities and nations, but to each individual. All in whom there is a gleam of promise are saved, as were Lot and his family, and given every opportunity to perform their work in the world. The one God whom the Hebrews worshipped, guided the early destinies of their polytheistic neighbors, even as he did those of his chosen people. The narrative and the stories which precede and follow also illustrate the supreme truth that the basis of the divine choice of the Hebrew race was primarily its character and aspirations, as exemplified by the lives and deeds of its traditional ancestors. A man who could plead, as did Abraham, for the life of his selfish, luxury-loving kinsman, and the shamelessly corrupt Canaanites, was the natural progenitor of a race of prophets. To those also who keep his commands the Lord ever reveals his character and purposes. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 22: 022. X. BIRTH AND SACRIFICE OF ISAAC ======================================================================== § X. BIRTH AND SACRIFICE OF ISAAC. Genesis 21:1 a, Genesis 21:2 a, Genesis 21:7; Genesis 22:1-19 1. Birth of Isaac. Now Jehovah visited Sarah as he had said. And Sarah conceived and bore Abraham a son in his old age, and said, Who would have told Abraham that Sarah should give children suck? for I have borne him a son in his old age! 2. God’s test of Abraham’s devotion. And it came to pass after these things, that God tested Abraham, saying to him, Abraham; and he said, Here am I. And he said, Take now thy son, thine only son, Isaac, whom thou lovest, and go to the land of Moriah [Revelation of Jehovah], and offer him there as a burnt-offering on one of the mountains of which I shall tell thee. 3. Abraham’s obedience. Then Abraham rose early in the morning, and saddled his ass, and took two of his servants with him, and Isaac his son. And when he had split the wood for the burnt- offering, he arose and went to the place of which God had told him. On the third day Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw the place afar off. And Abraham said to his servants, Stay here with the ass, while I and the lad go yonder. And when we have worshipped, we will come back to you. Then Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it on Isaac his son; and he took in his hand the fire and the knife, and they both went on together. And Isaac spoke to Abraham his father, and said, My father! and he said, Yes, my son. And he said, Here is the fire and the wood, but where is the lamb for a burnt-offering? And Abraham said, My son, God will himself provide the lamb for a burnt- offering. So they two went on together. When they came to the place of which God had told him, Abraham built the altar there, and laid the wood in order, and bound Isaac his son, and laid him on the altar upon the wood. Then Abraham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his son. 4. The divine approval. But the Messenger of Jehovah called to him from heaven, saying, Abraham, Abraham! and he said, Here am I. And he said, Lay not thy hand upon the lad, neither do anything to him, for now I know that thou art one who feareth God, since thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son, from me. Then Abraham lifted up his eyes, and looked, and behold, there was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns. So Abraham went and took the ram, and offered him up as a burnt-offering instead of his son. Abraham therefore called the name of that place Jehovah-jireh [Jehovah provides], so that it is said to-day, In the mountain of Jehovah provision will be made. 5.Renewal of the promises to Abraham. And the Messenger of Jehovah called to Abraham a second time from heaven, and said, By myself have I sworn saith Jehovah, because thou hast done this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, thine only son, that I will surely bless thee, and I will make thine offspring as numerous as the stars of the heavens and as the sand which is on the seashore, so that thy descendants shall possess the gates of their enemies, and all the nations of the earth shall ask for themselves a blessing like that of thy descendants, because thou hast obeyed my voice. 6. Return to Beer- aheba. So Abraham returned to his servants, and they arose and went together to Beersheba. And Abraham dwelt in Beer-sheba. I.TheInstitution of Human Sacrifice. This ancient story reflects the fact that the early Hebrews, like their Semitic kinsmen and neighbors, believed that the gift of their dearest possessions, and even the sacrifice of their children or relatives, were supremely acceptable to the Deity. Jephthah’s vow (§ XXXVIII), and Saul’s rash covenant (§ XLII, 5), which almost cost the life of his son Jonathan, are the most familiar historical illustrations of this false popular belief. The hideous institution of human sacrifice was clearly inherited by the Hebrews from their early Semitic ancestors. The earthen jars containing the bones of infants, which have been found in such large quantities in the foundations of the recently excavated Canaanite temples at Gezer and Taanach, are grim reminders of the horrible rites which the Israelites learned from the Palestinian peoples whom they conquered. References in the Old Testament indicate that child sacrifice was common among the Arameans (2 Kings 17:31), the Moabites (2 Kings 3:27), and the Ammonites (Leviticus 18:21; Leviticus 20:2). Later Greek writers state that the Carthaginians, to avert a great national calamity, sacrificed hundreds of the children of their noblest families. The Hebrew records also show that this horrible rite was at times practised in Judah even down to the days immediately preceding the exile, and especially during the reactionary reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh (2 Kings 16:3; 2 Kings 21:6; 2 Kings 23:10, Jeremiah 7:31; Jeremiah 9:5). II.Parallels to the Story. Philo has preserved a Phoenician tradition to the effect that an el or god to avert a great plague offered his first-born son as a burnt-offering to his father Uranus. The closest parallel to the biblical narrative is the familiar Greek story of Agamemnon’s offering of Iphigenia. In the Greek story a doe was substituted by Artemis for the human victim. In both the Hebrew and Greek stories the primary aim was evidently to teach that animal sacrifices were acceptable to the Deity instead of the human offerings presented by the more primitive and less enlightened nations. III.Meaning of the Biblical Story. The account of Abraham’s sacrifice of his son is found only in the Northern Israelite prophetic narrative. It is, however, one of the most thrilling stories found in the Old Testament. To fully appreciate Abraham’s devotion to Jehovah it must be remembered that the patriarch’s strongest hopes and ambitions could be realized only through his son Isaac. To Abraham in his old age, after the child had grown to be a stalwart lad, the conviction came that to show his devotion he must sacrifice to Jehovah his only son. The scene of the sacrifice was to be the land of Moriah, which the later Jews identified with Jerusalem (2 Chronicles 3:1). The aged patriarch met unflinchingly this supreme test of his faith and obedience, for God’s favor meant more to him than his dearest possession and even the realization of the divine promises through his descendants. Simply and dramatically and with a pathos too deep for expression, the different acts in the great tragedy of Abraham’s life are described. His fatherly pity deterred him from making known to his son the true object of their mission. The lad’s innocent questions only added to the patriarch’s agony; but his faith in God never failed him. With calm assurance he performed each painful detail. The knife with which to slay his only son was in his uplifted hand, when there came to him a realization of the more acceptable way in which to express his devotion to his God. It was not the life of human beings that Israel’s God demanded but that spirit of personal sacrifice and obedience which the patriarch supremely exemplified. Rams and sheep and oxen sufficed, as symbols of loyalty and devotion to the Deity. The old law, “Every first-born is mine,” remained among Israel’s statutes; but the Hebrews in time realized that this command did not require the shedding of innocent human blood. The present story clearly represents one of the earliest protests of the enlightened prophets and lawgivers against the horrible rite of human sacrifice. The common people still believed that they could “offer the fruit of their body for the sin of their soul” (Micah 6:7); but in this early story, as in the later prophetic teaching, the higher conscience of the nation replied: He hath showed thee, O man, what is good; And what doth Jehovah require of thee, But to do justly, And to love mercy, And to walk humbly with thy God? IV. Aim and Teachings. This story completes the early prophetic portrait of Abraham. His faith in God knows no limitation. Like the martyrs of later ages, he is ready, if it is the divine will, calmly and unflinchingly to march to the stake. His victories are victories over self, and his conquests are conquests of divine favor. By absolute obedience and trust he wins back, even in the midst of crowded, warring Canaan, that intimate relation with God and that divine favor which the first man and woman lost by their selfish, deliberate disobedience. With his eyes fixed solely on God and intent only in the future of the race, he is the first great, prophet-guide to lead men back to the true garden of Eden. Later traditions introduce less ideal elements, but in the stories of Abraham, preserved by the early prophets, we have a consistent portrait of a man after God’s own heart. It is a character, however, perfected through testing and struggle. The perfection is of a simple, human type, that not only inspires but also encourages others to strive for its realization. A noble ambition, courage, unselfishness, faith and absolute obedience to the divine will are its chief elements. These are also the qualities which make true servants of God in every age and land. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 23: 023. XI. SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC ======================================================================== § XI. SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC Genesis 22:20-24; Genesis 24:1-61; Genesis 25:5; Genesis 25:8; Genesis 25:11 b, Genesis 24:62-67; Genesis 23:2 1. Abraham’s kinsmen in Aram. Now it came to pass after these things, that it was told Abraham saying, Behold, Milcah has also borne children to your brother Nahor, Uz his first-born, Buz his brother, Kemuel the father of Aram, Chesed, Hazo and Pildash, Jidlaph and Bethuel. (And Bethuel begat Rebekah.) These eight Milcah bore to Nahor, Abraham’s brother. And his concubine, whose name was Reumah, also bore Tebah, Gaham, Tahash, and Maacah. 2. Instructions to his servant. When Abraham was old and far advanced in years and Jehovah had blessed him in all things, Abraham said to the eldest of his house servants, who had charge of all his affairs, Put, I pray you, your hand under my thigh, while I make you swear by Jehovah, the God of heaven and the God of earth, that you will not take a wife for my son from the daughters of the Canaanites, among whom I dwell, but that you will go to my country and to my kindred and take there a wife for my son Isaac. And the servant said to him, Perhaps the woman will not be willing to follow me to this land. Must I then bring your son back to the land from which you came? And Abraham said to him, See to it that you do not bring my son there again. Jehovah, the God of heaven, who took me from my father’s house and from the land of my nativity and who talked with me and who swore to me saying, ‘To thy descendants will I give this land,’ may he send his Messenger before you and may you secure there a wife for my son. But if the woman is not willing to follow you, then you will be free from this oath to me; only never again bring my son back there. So the servant put his hand under his master’s thigh and swore to him concerning this matter. 3. The servant’s journey and arrival in Aram. Then the servant took ten of his master’s camels and set out, having all kinds of his master’s precious things. Thus he arose and went to Aram Naharaim to the city of Nahor. And he made the camels kneel down outside the city by the well of water at eventide, the time when women go out to draw water. Then he said, O Jehovah, the God of my master Abraham, give me, I pray thee, good success to-day, and show kindness to my master Abraham. Behold I am standing by the spring of water and the daughters of men of the city are coming out to draw water. May it be that the maiden to whom I shall say, ‘ Pray let down your water jar that I may drink ’; and she shall answer, ‘ Drink, and I will also water your camels,’ let her be the one thou hast destined for thy servant Isaac; and by this shall I know that thou hast showed kindness to my master. 4. His meeting and conversation with Rebekah. Then even before he had finished speaking, behold there came out Rebekah, who was born to Bethuel the son of Milcah, the wife of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, with her water jar upon her shoulder. And the maiden was very fair to look upon, a virgin whom no man had known. And she went down to the spring and filled her jar, and came up. Then the servant ran to meet her, saying, Pray let me drink a little water from your jar. And she said, Drink my lord, and hastened to let down her water jar upon her hand and let him drink. When she had finished giving him drink she said, I will draw for your camels also, until they have finished drinking. And she made haste to empty her jar into the trough and ran again to the well to draw, and drew for all his camels. Meanwhile the man was gazing at her intently, keeping silent in order to determine whether Jehovah had made his journey successful or not. Then, as soon as the camels had finished drinking, the man took a gold ring of a half shekel weight, and two bracelets of ten shekels weight of gold for her arms, and said, Whose daughter are you? tell me, I pray you. Is there room in your father’s house for us to lodge in? And she said to him, I am the daughter of Bethuel, the son of Milcah, whom she bore to Nahor. She also said to him, Both straw and provender are plentiful with us and there is room to lodge in. Then the man bowed his head and worshipped Jehovah, saying, Blessed be Jehovah, the God of my master Abraham who hath not withdrawn his mercy and his faithfulness from my master. As for me, Jehovah hath led me on the journey to the house of my master’s kinsmen. 5. His reception at her house. Then the maiden ran and told these things to her mother’s house. Now Rebekah had a brother whose name was Laban. And Laban ran out to the man at the spring. And it came to pass when he saw the ring, and the bracelets on his sister’s arms, and when he heard the words of Rebekah saying, Thus the man spoke to me; that he came to the man, who was still standing by the camels at the fountain. And he said, Come in, you who are blessed of Jehovah! Why do you stand outside when I have the house and room for the camels all ready? So he brought the man into the house, and ungirded the camels; and gave straw and provender for the camels, and water to wash his feet and the feet of the men who were with him. 6.Declaration of his mission. But when food was set before him to eat, he said, I will not eat until I have made known my errand. And Laban said, Speak on. And he said, I am Abraham’s servant. And Jehovah hath blessed my master greatly, so that he has become very rich. He hath given him flocks and herds, and silver and gold, and men-servants and maid-servants, and camels and asses. Now Sarah my master’s wife bore a son to my master when she was old, and to him he has given all that he has. And my master made me swear saying, ‘Do not take a wife for my son from the daughters of the Canaanites, in whose land I dwell, but you shall go to my father’s house and to my kindred and take a wife for my son.’ Then I said to my master, ‘What if the woman will not follow me. ‘But he said to me,’ May Jehovah, before whom I walk, send his Messenger with you and prosper your mission, and may you take for my son a wife of my kindred and of my father’s house. Then you will be free from your oath to me; however, when you come to my kindred, if they do not give her to you, you shall also be free from your oath to me.’ So I came to-day to the spring and said, ‘O Jehovah, the God of my master Abraham, if now thou wilt prosper my mission on which I am going, behold, I am standing by the spring of water, may it be that if I shall say to the maiden who comes forth to draw, “Give me, I pray you, a little water from your jar to drink,” and she shall say to me, “Drink, and I will also draw for your camels,” let that one be the woman whom Jehovah hath destined for my master’s son.’ Even before I was through speaking to myself, behold, Rebekah came forth with her water jar on her shoulder, and went down to the spring and drew. And when I said to her, ‘Pray let me drink,’ she made haste, and let down her water jar from her shoulder and said, ‘Drink, and I will also water your camels.’ So I drank and she also watered the camels. Then I asked her, saying, ‘Whose daughter are you?’ And she said, ‘The daughter of Bethuel, Nahor’s son, whom Milcah bore to him.’ Then I put the ring in her nose, and the bracelets on her arms. And I bowed my head and worshipped Jehovah, and blessed Jehovah the God of my master Abraham, who had led me in the right way to take the daughter of my master’s brother for his son. Now if you are ready to deal kindly and truly with my master, tell me, and if not, tell me, that I may act accordingly. 7. Consent of Rebekah’srelatives. Then Laban and Bethuel answered and said, The matter is in the hands of Jehovah. We cannot give you either an adverse or a favorable answer. Behold, Rebekah is before you; take her and go and let her be the wife of your master’s son, as Jehovah hath spoken. And it came to pass that when Abraham’s servant heard their words, he bowed himself to the earth before Jehovah. Then the servant brought forth jewels of silver and jewels of gold and clothing and gave them to Rebekah. He also gave to her brother and to her mother precious things. And he and the men who were with him ate and drank, and remained all night. 8.His departure and return with Rebekah. When they rose up in the morning, he said, Send me away to my master; but her brother and her mother answered, Let the maiden remain with us a few days, at least ten; after that she may go. But he said to them, Hinder me not, since Jehovah hath prospered my mission. Send me away that I may go to my master. Then they said, We will call the maiden and consult her. And when they called Rebekah and said to her, Will you go with this man? she said, I will go. So they sent away Rebekah their sister, and her nurse with Abraham’s servant, and his men. And they blessed Rebekah, saying to her, Our sister! may you become thousands and thousands! And may your descendants possess the gates of their enemies. Then Rebekah arose with her maids and, riding upon the camels, followed the man. Thus the servant took Rebekah and went away. 9.Abraham’s death. Now Abraham had given all that he had to Isaac. And Abraham had breathed his last, dying in a good old age, old and satisfied with living, and had been gathered to his father’s kin. And Isaac dwelt by Beer-lahai-roi. 10.Meeting with Isaac. And Isaac had come from the direction of Beer-lahai-roi, for he dwelt in the South Country. And as Isaac was going out to meditate in the field at eventide, he lifted up his eyes and saw that there were camels coming. Rebekah too lifted up her eyes, and when she saw Isaac, she alighted from the camel. And she said to the servant, Who is this man walking in the field to meet us? And when the servant said, It is my master, she took her veil and covered herself. Then the servant told Isaac all the things that he had done. And Isaac brought her to the tent of Sarah his mother, and took Rebekah, and she became his wife; and he loved her. Thus was Isaac comforted concerning his mother, who had died at Kirjaith-arba (that is Hebron) in the land of Canaan. I.Literary Form of the Story. This story is told with greater detail than any other in the book of Genesis. The stream of the narrative does not flow on rapidly as in the preceding stories, but slowly, even turning back upon itself, with one or two long repetitions. The story is an idyll in seven scenes, each portraying with rare grace and vividness the successive stages in the unfolding of the plot. Each individual acts his part nobly, and the narrative runs on to a happy conclusion without a discordant note. It was a story doubtless retold many times beside the camp fires, and especially at the marriage feasts in ancient Israel. II.Abraham’s Faithful Servant. The opening paragraph introduces the dramatis persona. The twelve sons of Nahor represent twelve Aramean tribes living to the east and northeast of Palestine. The most attractive character in the story is Abraham’s trusty slave. The English term, household servant, here reproduces most nearly the meaning of the Hebrew term for slave, for the interests of the master and servant are identical, and the sacred trust that the dying Abraham leaves to his aged liegeman is not betrayed. The means by which a wife is secured for Isaac are those of the East, where the father, not the son, arranges all the marriage preliminaries. The event was of supreme importance, for the fulfilment of Jehovah’s promises to the race depended upon it. The oath taken with the hand under the thigh was of the most solemn and binding nature. It was again used by Jacob when he imposed a solemn promise upon his son Joseph (§ XVIII), and it probably signified that the oath was also binding upon the descendants of the one thus swearing. It was often employed by primitive peoples, and is still in use among certain Australian tribes. The oath of Abraham’s servant also reflects the pride which the Hebrews always felt in their Aramean ancestry, and their growing abhorrence, in later days, for the corrupt Canaanite civilization. III.His Successful Mission. Laden with rich treasures to be used as the bridal dowry, the servant journeys toward western Mesopotamia, to the land lying on either side of the central Euphrates valley. As he waits at eventide outside Haran, he prays fervently that the God of his master will prosper him in the difficult mission which he has undertaken. Soon a beautiful maiden appears with a water jar upon her shoulder. At his request she gives him water to drink; then, exceeding even the oriental laws of hospitality, but in accord with the chosen sign, she waters his camels also. Gladdened by the discovery that the beautiful maiden is the grand daughter of his master’s brother, and by the unmistakable signs of divine guidance, Abraham’s servant accepts the generous oriental hospitality which is offered him in response to Rebekah’s report. When he and his servants and camels are all under the hospitable roof, and before he will partake of the offered food, he tells his tale and presents his suit. He also reenforces it after the oriental fashion by lavish gifts. These are given not only to the desired bride, but also to her mother and brother, who, since the father is evidently dead, stand at the head of the household. The final decision is left to Rebekah herself. She responds in a spirit worthy of the ancestress of a race destined to go forth and possess many an unknown land. The parting blessing of her kinsmen voices the familiar hope that her descendants may be countless and triumph over their many foes. IV.The Return. The form of Abraham’s command to his servant suggests that the aged patriarch was on the point of death. The final scene in the story implies that Abraham had died before the servant’s return, but in Genesis his death is recorded in a subsequent passage which was taken from the late priestly narrative (chap. 25). In the present text this brief, stately, expressive account of Abraham’s decease has been restored to what appears to have been its original place in the prophetic history. The vivid story reaches its climax in the picturesque meeting of Isaac and Rebekah in the wilderness at eventide. Oriental custom left no place for the expression of individual sentiment until the bride had been conducted to the tent of her future husband. By this act the eastern marriage ceremony was completed. The narrative, however, states that Isaac loved Rebekah and that she filled in the heart of the only son the place left vacant by the death of his mother. V.Historical Significance of the Story. Few stories have been preserved regarding Isaac. An early prophetic narrative tells of his experiences at the court of the king of Gerar. Fearing lest the natives will kill him in order to seize his beautiful wife, he declares that Rebekah is his sister. His deception, however, is soon discovered, and he is sharply rebuked by the king of Gerar. Nevertheless, as the heir of the divine promises, prosperity still attends him. At Beersheba he makes a covenant of peace with the king of Gerar and seals it by a solemn oath. Hence to Isaac the oldest stories attribute the origin of the name Beersheba (Well of the Oath). Isaac is the hero of the South Country, just as Abraham is of Hebron, and Jacob of Bethel and the sanctuaries east of the Jordan. Beer-lahai-roi, Gerar and Beersheba, to the south of Canaan, are the sites about which the Isaac stories gather, and at these sacred places they Were probably first treasured. Thus tradition fixes his abode in the half nomadic, half agricultural land that lies midway between the territory of the Hebrews and of the Edomites, who regarded him as their common ancestor. From this same wilderness region came many of the tribes which later united to form the Hebrew nation. The account of Rebekah’s journey westward with her attendant servants may also be the form in which early tradition recorded the fact that later bands of Aramean immigrants followed and reenforced the first great migration represented by Abraham. The fact that her kinsmen are Aramean tribes and her descendants are two great nations, at least suggests that, although there may be an ultimate basis of individual history, the stories reflect the early movements of tribes and races. VI.Aim and Teachings. The primary aim of this story was evidently to interest and entertain the audiences that gathered about the ancient story-teller. The narrative also illustrates the divine guidance of the destinies of the race. The character of Isaac is not so fully portrayed, nor is it as significant as that of either Abraham or Jacob. Isaac has his father’s mildness and love of peace without the same commanding faith. He is conventionally pious, and goes out to meditate at eventide; but is stirred by no exalted ambition. To him the divine promise is renewed, yet it is not for his own sake but for that of Abraham. Isaac is a loving husband, but he is inclined to follow the line of least resistance, even though his wife is endangered by his cowardly deception. He is a true type of the average man of any age or race. Rebekah in the story realized the oriental ideal of a wise, brave woman and wife. The portrait of the servant is of perennial value. His complete forgetfulness of self, his fidelity, his zeal and tact in carrying out the commands of his master, even though he be but a slave, and his child-like faith in God’s leadership, are qualities which make men valuable members of society in every age. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 24: 024. XII. JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU ======================================================================== § XII. JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU. Genesis 25:21-26 a, Genesis 25:27 ac, Genesis 25:28-34, Genesis 27 1. The oracle concerning the unborn twins.Now Isaac prayed to Jehovah in behalf of his wife, because she was barren; and Jehovah heard his prayer, so that Rebekah his wife conceived. And the children struggled together within her; and she said, If it be so, why has this befallen me ? Therefore she went to inquire of Jehovah. And Jehovah said to her, Two nations are in thy womb, And the two races, which spring from thee, shall separate from each other, And one people shall be stronger than the other, And the elder shall serve the younger. 2. Origin of the names Esau and Jacob. When her days to be delivered were fulfilled, there were indeed twins in her womb. And the first came forth red all over, like a hairy garment; so they called his name Esau [Hairy]. And afterwards his brother came forth holding fast Esau’s heel with his hand; so his name was called Jacob [Heel-holder], 3.Characteristics of the brothers. Now as the boys grew Esau became a skillful hunter, but Jacob was a quiet man, a dweller in tents. And Isaac loved Esau—for he had a taste for game—and Rebekah loved Jacob. 4.Sale of the birthright. Once when Jacob was preparing a stew, Esau came in from the field, and he was faint; therefore Esau said to Jacob, Let me eat quickly, I pray, some of that red food, for I am faint. (Therefore his name was called Edom [Red]). But Jacob said, Sell me first of all your birthright. And Esau replied, Alas! I am nearly dead, therefore of what use is this birthright to me? And Jacob said, Swear to me first; so he swore to him, and sold his birthright to Jacob. Then Jacob gave Esau bread and stewed lentils, and when he had eaten and drank, he rose up and went his way. Thus Esau despised his birthright. 5.Isaac’s request. Now it came to pass, when Isaac was so old that he could not see, that he called Esau his eldest son, and said, Behold I am old and know not the day of my death. Now therefore take, I pray you, your weapons, your quiver and your bow, and go out to the field, and hunt game for me, that I myself may bless you before I die. So Esau went to the field to hunt game in order to bring it to him. 6.Re-bekah’s plot. Then Rebekah spoke to Jacob her son and said, I just now heard your father say to your brother Esau, “Bring me game that I may eat and bless you in the name of Jehovah.” And Rebekah took the fine garments of Esau, her elder son, which she had with her in the house, and put them upon Jacob, her younger son, and he went to his father. 7. Jacob’s deception. And Isaac said, Who are you, my son? And Jacob said to his father, I am Esau your first-born. I have done according as you commanded me. Arise, I pray you, and sit and eat of my game, that you yourself may bless me. And Isaac said to his son, How is it that you have found it so quickly, my son? And he said, Because Jehovah your God gave me success. And he said, Are you really my son Esau? And he said, I am. Then he said, Bring it to me, that I may eat of my son’s game, in order that I myself may bless you. So he brought it to him, and he ate. He also brought him wine and he drank. 8. The blessing upon Jacob. And his father Isaac said to him, Come near now and kiss me, my son. And as he came near and kissed him, he smelled the smell of his garment, and blessed him and said, See, the smell of my son Is as the smell of a field which Jehovah hath blessed. Let peoples serve thee, And races bow down to thee. Cursed be every one that curseth thee, And blessed be every one that blesseth thee. 9. Esau’s sorrow. And it came to pass, as soon as Isaac had made an end of blessing Jacob, that Esau his brother came in from his hunting, and said to his father, Let my father arise, and eat of his son’s game, that you yourself may bless me. And Isaac his father said to him, Who are you? And he said, I am your son, your first-born, Esau. And Isaac trembled violently, and said, Who then is he that hunted game and brought it to me, so that I ate plentifully before you came? Verily, I have blessed him, and he shall remain blessed. When Esau heard the words of his father, he cried with a very loud and bitter cry, and said to his father, Bless me, even me also, O my father. 10. Jacob’s flight. And Esau said to himself, The days of mourning for my father are near, then will I slay my brother Jacob. But when the words of Esau her elder son were told to Rebekah, she sent and called Jacob her younger son, and said to him, Behold your brother Esau will avenge himself upon you by killing you. Flee to Laban my brother at Haran, until your brother’s anger turn away from you. I.Jacob’s Efforts to Supplant Esau. The great prophetic teaching that Jehovah personally directed Israel’s history from the first is again emphasized by the story of the birth of Jacob and Esau. Rebekah, like Sarah, was barren until Jehovah heard Isaac’s prayer for offspring. The later history of the two nations, represented by Esau and Jacob, is reflected in the divine message to Rebekah. Even though the Edomites grew to be a nation and found a permanent home to the south of the Dead Sea long before the Israelites, they later became subject to their younger kinsmen. The popular interpretation of the meaning of the two names is woven into the tradition of the birth of the two brothers. With a grim humor, peculiar to these early narratives, the long, bitter struggle between the two nations is represented as beginning at the birth of their traditional ancestors. Jacob’s chief characteristic, the desire to get ahead of his rival, is revealed, even before he sees the light. Departing from their usual custom, the prophetic historians give a brief character sketch of the two brothers. Esau has the characteristics of his father; Jacob those of his mother. According to Hebrew custom a double portion went to the firstborn (cf.Deuteronomy 21:16-17). For food to satisfy his immediate hunger the careless Esau was ready to sell his special rights as the eldest son and that rich heritage of promise which he should have passed on to his descendants. Jacob, the ambitious schemer, did not hesitate to take advantage of his brother’s weakness. Neither of the brothers figures in a noble role. II.Jacob’s Base Deception. Jacob’s character is further revealed by the means which he employs to establish his title to the birthright. In this incident he shows himself not only the favorite, but the true son of his ambitious and unscrupulous mother. Taking advantage of the infirmities of his aged father and the absence of his brother on a mission prompted by filial duty, he secures by deception the coveted paternal blessing. The blessing of a dying father was believed by the ancients to exert an important influence in the life of his descendants. The early Judean prophetic historians (whose narrative has been followed), make no effort to excuse Jacob’s deliberate falsehoods. They simply record the effect of the act upon his character and later history. The sympathy of the early historians, as well as of the reader, goes out to Esau, whose sorrow, on discovering the wrong of which he is the victim, is vividly and touchingly portrayed. Jacob flees, impelled like Cain, by the fear that vengeance will fall upon his guilty head. III.The Underlying Tribal History. The vividness and consistency of the early prophetic portraits of Esau and Jacob favor a personal interpretation, but there is much evidence to show that they represent more than mere individuals. The name Jacob has been found on the Babylonian tablets coming from the age of Hammurabi. It appears also in slightly different form, on contract tablets discovered in Cappodocia. It is likewise the name of one of the Asiatic Hyksos kings who ruled over Egypt. Thutmose III, the great conqueror of the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, mentions a certain Jacob-el among the Palestinian cities captured by him. From these references it is clear that the name was borne by individuals; but in Palestine it was the designation of a city or tribe. As has been already noted in the early prophetic stories, both Jacob and Esau are clearly types of the two nations which were regarded as their immediate descendants. Esau is in many ways an attractive, picturesque character. His home is out in the open air and his occupation is hunting. He is ingenuous and impulsive, but ruled by his inclinations, a child of the present, with no lofty ideal or genuine religious zeal. He is a type of the modern gypsy or tramp. The portrait is true to the character of the Edomites. Living on the borders of Canaan, they largely retained their early nomadic, roving habits, depending for existence upon the scanty products of the wilderness and the plunder which they extorted or stole from passing caravans. The Esau stories assume the historic fact that the Edomites were established as a nation long before the Israelites. In the inscriptions telling of conquests by kings of the eighth Egyptian dynasty, Edom is the name of one of the captured cities. In the el-Amarna tablets Udumu or Edom figures as a city hostile to the Egyptians. In the later Assyrian inscriptions, Udumu is the name of both a city and a land. The biblical narratives also proclaim that close relationship between the Edomites and Israelites, which is confirmed by similarity in language and institutions. These stories likewise reflect the close geographical and political relations, which ever linked these two peoples together, and which ultimately resulted in the conquest of the older race by the younger. These traditions evidently are intended to answer the question, Why this reversal of their earlier fortunes came about. The answer is found, as in the Noah oracle (§ IV), in the characteristics of the two races. IV.Significance of the Portrait of Jacob. The deeper historical and ethical value of the Jacob stories is found in the marvellous portrait and analysis of the character and experiences of the Israelites which these narratives present. They are almost without analogy in human literature. Only the Hebrew prophets, who studied existing conditions and forces with eyes opened by the divine touch and with a thoroughness that rivals the work of the modern scientist and historian, could thus portray, so simply and yet with absolute fidelity, the strength and weaknesses of their race. For hunting and the frivolities of life Jacob has no time or inclination. In him the noble aspirations of Abraham for the future of his descendants have become a selfish passion. He ever remains beside the tents, plotting how he may win from his brother the coveted rights of the first-born. No opportunity to gain the desired prize escapes him. His fatal fault is that he is ready to employ any means to attain his ends; he even resorts to misrepresentation and actual falsehood. Cowardice, begotten by his own wrong-doing, adds to the blackness of the portrait. Yet in contrast to Esau, who is but a drifter on the stream of life, Jacob is the more promising character. Notwithstanding his glaring faults, he has energy and ambition. His ambition is selfish and material, and yet it extends beyond himself to the prosperity and victories of his descendants. V.Aim and Teachings. Of the many aims that are revealed in these stories, perhaps the chief with the prophets was to hold up before their countrymen such a clear portrait of their national character that all would see and correct their hereditary faults. As inspired interpreters of history, the prophets were also setting forth the fundamental reasons why Israel, even through failure and discipline, became at last the conquering race, with the full consciousness of a glorious destiny. The immediate teachings of the stories are obvious: (1) A man or a nation, however gifted and personally attractive, if intent only on immediate and physical enjoyment and without a spiritual ideal or ambition, is, like Esau, destined to degenerate and prove a failure. (2) Selfishness and trickery bring only injustice to others and cowardice and suffering to the wrong-doer. He who soweth the wind shall reap the whirlwind. (3) God himself cannot make a man out of an idle drifter; but he who has ambition and persistence is never impossible. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 25: 025. XIII. JACOB’S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE ======================================================================== § XIII. JACOB’S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE Genesis 28:10-22 a, Genesis 29:1-35, Genesis 30 1. Jehovah’s promise to Jacob and his descendants. Now when Jacob set out from Beersheba, he went toward Haran. And when Jacob arrived at a certain place, he passed the night there, because the sun had set. And he took one of the stones which were there, and put it under his head, and lay down in that place to sleep. Then he dreamed and saw a ladder set up on the earth with its top reaching to heaven; and, behold, the Messengers of God were ascending and descending on it. And, behold, Jehovah stood beside him and said, I am Jehovah, the God of Abraham thy father and the God of Isaac. The land upon which thou art lying—to thee will I give it and to thy descendants. And thine offspring shall be as the dust of the earth, and thou shalt spread abroad to the west, and to the east, and to the north, and to the south, and a blessing like thine and that of thy descendants shall all the families of the earth ask for themselves. And, behold, I am with thee, and will keep thee wherever thou goest, and will bring thee again to this habitable land; for I will not leave thee until I have done that which I have promised thee. 2. Origin of the name Bethel. And when Jacob awoke from his sleep, he said, Surely Jehovah is in this place, and I knew it not. And he was filled with awe and said, How awful is this place; this is none other than the house of God [Beth-el] and this is the gate of heaven. 3. Origin of sanctuary at Bethel. So Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the stone that he had put under his head, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of it. Therefore he called the name of that place Bethel [House of God], although the earlier name of the city was Luz. And Jacob made a vow saying, If God will be with me and keep me in this journey which I am making, and give me bread to eat and clothing to put on, and I come again safe and sound to my father’s house, then shall Jehovah be my God and this stone which I have set up for a pillar, shall be a house of God. 4. Scene at the well in Haran. Then Jacob went on his journey, and came to the land of the children of the East. And he looked, and saw a well in the field, and there were three flocks of sheep lying down by it; for out of that well they watered the flocks; but the stone upon the mouth of the well was large. And when all the flocks were gathered here, they used to roll the stone from the mouth of the well and water the sheep, and then put the stone again in its place upon the mouth of the well. 5. Jacob’s conversation with the shepherds. And Jacob said to them, My friends, whence are you? And they said, We are from Haran. Then he said to them, Do you know Laban the son of Nahor? And they said, We know him. And he said to them, Is it well with him? And they said, It is well; indeed, see Rachel his daughter coming there with the sheep. And he said, Behold, the sun is still high! it is not time for the cattle to be gathered together. Water the sheep and let them go to feed. But they said, We cannot until the flocks are gathered together and they roll the stone from the well’s mouth, then we water the sheep. 6. Meeting of Jacob and Rachel. While he was yet speaking with them, Rachel came with her father’s sheep; for she was a shepherdess. Now when Jacob saw Rachel the daughter of Laban, his mother’s brother, and Laban’s sheep, he went near and rolled the stone from the mouth of the well, and watered the flock of Laban, his mother’s brother. Then Jacob kissed Rachel and wept loudly. And when Jacob told Rachel that he was a kinsman of her father, and that he was Rebekah’s son, she ran and told her father. 7. Jacob’s reception at her house. But as soon as Laban heard the tidings regarding Jacob, his sister’s son, he ran to meet him, and embraced and kissed him, and brought him to his house. Then Jacob recounted to Laban all these things. And Laban said to him, Surely you are of my bone and of my flesh. So he remained with him about a month. 8.Agreement to serve Laban for Rachel. Then Laban said to Jacob, Because you are my kinsman should you therefore serve me for nothing? Tell me what shall be your wages? Now Laban had two daughters: the name of the elder was Leah, and the name of the younger was Rachel. And Leah had weak eyes, but Rachel was beautiful in form and feature. Therefore Jacob loved Rachel and he said, I will serve you seven years for Rachel your younger daughter. And Laban said, It is better for me to give her to you than that I should give her to another man. Stay with me. So Jacob served seven years for Rachel, and they seemed to him but a few days, because he loved her. 9. Laban’s deception. Then Jacob said to Laban, Give me my wife, for my days are fulfilled and let me go in unto her. Accordingly Laban gathered together all the men of the place and made a feast. And it came to pass in the evening that he took Leah his daughter and brought her to him, and Jacob went in unto her. And Laban gave Zilpah his maid-servant to his daughter Leah for a maid. When in the morning he found it was Leah, he said to Laban, What is this you have done to me? Did I not serve you for Rachel? Why then have you deceived me? And Laban said, It is not customary among us to give the younger in marriage before the elder. Remain with this one during the marriage week, then we will give to you the other also for the service which you shall render me for seven more years. Therefore Jacob did so: he remained with Leah during the marriage week. Then Laban gave him Rachel his daughter as wife. Laban also gave to Rachel his daughter Bilhah his maid-servant to be her maid. Then he went in to Rachel, but he loved Rachel more than Leah. Thus he had to serve him seven years more. 10.Birth of Leah’s children; Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah. When Jehovah saw that Leah was hated, he opened her womb; Rachel, however, was barren. Accordingly Leah conceived and bore a son whom she named Reuben [Behold a son]; for she said, Jehovah hath beheld my affliction; now my husband will love me. And she conceived again and bore a son; and said, Because Jehovah hath heard that I am hated, he hath therefore given me this one also; hence she called his name Simeon [Hearing]. And she conceived again and bore a son, and said, Now this time will my husband become attached to me, because I have borne him three sons: therefore his name was called Levi [Attached]. And she conceived again, and bore a son, and said, This time will I praise Jehovah: therefore she called his name Judah [Praise]; then she ceased to bear children. 11. ByZilpah:Gad andAsher. When Leah saw that she had ceased to bear children, she took Zilpah her maid-servant and gave her to Jacob as a wife. And Zilpah Leah’s maid-servant bore Jacob a son. And Leah said, Fortunate am I! therefore she called his name Gad [Fortune]. And Zilpah Leah’s maid-servant bore Jacob a second son. And Leah said, Happy am I! for women are sure to call me happy; therefore she called his name Asher [Happy]. 12. Rachel’s children by Bilhah: Dan and Naphtali. And when Rachel saw that she bore Jacob no children, Rachel was jealous of her sister, and said to Jacob, Give me children or else I die. But Jacob’s anger was aroused against Rachel, and he said, Am I in God’s stead? Who hath withheld offspring from thee? And she said, Here is my maid Bilhah, go in unto her, that she may bear upon my knees and I also may obtain children by her. And so she gave him Bilhah her maid for a wife, and Jacob went in unto her. And when Bilhah conceived and bore Jacob a son, Rachel said, God hath judged me and hath also heard my voice and hath given me a son. Therefore she called his name Dan [He judged]. And Bilhah Rachel’s maid conceived again, and bore Jacob a second son. And Rachel said, With superhuman wrestlings have I wrestled with my sister, and have prevailed; therefore she called his name Naphtali [Obtained by wrestling]. 13. Leah’s later children: Issachar and Zebulun. And God heard Leah, and she conceived and bore Jacob a fifth son. Then Leah said, God hath given me my hire, because I gave my maid to my husband; therefore she called his name Issachar [There is a hire]. And Leah conceived again, and bore a sixth son to Jacob. And Leah said, God hath endowed me with a good dowry; now will my husband dwell with me, because I have borne him six sons: and she called his name Zebulun [Dwelling]. And afterwards she bore a daughter and called her name Dinah. 14.Birth of Rachel’s son, Joseph. And God remembered Rachel, and God hearkened to her, and opened her womb. So she conceived and bore a son and said, God hath taken away my reproach. And she called his name Joseph [He will add], saying, Jehovah will add to me another son. 15.The contract between Jacob and Laban. Now when Rachel had borne Joseph, Jacob said to Laban, Send me away, that I may go to my own place, and to my country. But Laban said to him, If now I have found favor in your eyes—I have divined that Jehovah hath blessed me for your sake. And Jacob answered him, You know how I have served you, and what your cattle have become under my charge, for it was little which you had before I came, but now it has greatly increased, since Jehovah hath blessed you wherever I went. But now, when am I to provide for my own house as well? Then he said, What shall I give you? And Jacob said, You shall not give me anything. If you will do this thing for me, I will again feed your flock: remove from it every speckled and spotted one; then whatever is born to the flock henceforth speckled or spotted shall be mine. And Laban said, Good, let it be as you say. So he removed that day the he-goats that were striped and spotted, and all the she-goats that were striped and spotted, every one that had white on it, and gave them into the hands of his sons. Then he put the distance of a three days’ journey between himself and Jacob; and Jacob fed the rest of Laban’s flocks. 16. Jacob’s crafty trick. Now Jacob took fresh rods of white poplar, and of the almond and of the plane tree, and peeled white streaks in them, exposing the white which was in the rods. And he set the rods which he had peeled before the flocks in the watering-troughs, where the flocks came to drink (and they conceived when they came to drink), so that the flocks conceived before the rods. Therefore the flocks brought forth striped, speckled and spotted offspring. And whenever the stronger animals of the flock conceived, Jacob laid the rods in the troughs before the eyes of the flock, that they might conceive among the rods. But when the animals were weak, he put them not in; so that the weaker ones were Laban’s, and the stronger Jacob’s. Thus the man increased in wealth exceedingly, and had large flocks, and maidservants and men-servants, and camels and asses. I. The Divine Promise. The late priestly narrative (Genesis 35:6; Genesis 35:9-15) and Hosea (Hosea 12:4) place the divine revelation and promises to Jacob after his return from Aram. This may have been its original position, for the promises come more naturally after he has learned in the hard school of experience the lessons which were necessary for his development. On the other hand, the representation that God appeared to him at the time of his greatest spiritual need also rings true to the teachings of the prophets. Both the Judean and Northern Israelite narratives (which have been closely blended) agree in placing the vision on Jacob’s journey to Haran. II.The Vision at Bethel. About ten miles north of Jerusalem, a little to the right of the great highway that leads from Hebron and Jerusalem northward to Shechem and on to Damascus, are found the ruins of the ancient sanctuary of Bethel. It is on a slight limestone elevation, strewn with rocks. Here the Hebrews revered the sacred rock on which, according to their traditions, Jacob pillowed his head, as he dreamed of the ladder leading up to the abode of God and of the divine messengers passing back and forth from earth to heaven. There the fugitive, paying the bitter penalty for his meanness and treachery, yet craving a revelation from heaven, was given anew the promise already proclaimed to Abraham (§ VII). To this was added the assurance of God’s personal care and protection. According to Hebrew tradition, it was because God (El) revealed himself here to Jacob that Bethel received its name and became a famous sanctuary. The belief that the spirit of the Deity resided in certain sacred stones was widely current among early peoples. Many stone circles or gilgals and pillars at temple sites, as, for example, those recently discovered in the ruins of Gezer, testify that the ancient inhabitants of Palestine shared the same belief. The Old Testament also refers frequently to these sacred stones or pillars that stood beside every ancient altar. At first only rude bowlders, they were in time carved into artistic pillars (cf. Hosea 10:1). The present story gives the accepted explanation of the sanctity of the pillar that stood beside the altar of Bethel. The reformation of Josiah in 621 B.C. made all of these high-places, with their heathen symbols and associations, illegal, but the present story evidently comes from the early period, when sacred pillars were still regarded as perfectly legitimate. III.The Wooing and Winning of Rachel. The scene at the well near Haran is repeated many times in Arabia to-day, except that few sons of the desert manifest the same chivalrous zeal in serving the modern Rachels. Jacob’s kisses and tears are characteristic of the emotional Oriental. Even the crafty Laban embraced and kissed the stranger; but in the heart of Jacob was stirring a love which mastered even the selfish schemer. By his services for seven years, practically as a slave, Jacob paid the bride-price which every oriental father demands. The custom still survives in Syria. The length of the service or the amount of the bride-price is proportionate to the wealth and position of the parents. The cruel deception, of which Jacob was the victim, was a further retribution for the atrocious deceit which he had practised upon his father and brother. Laban’s excuse, however, did not palliate his act Like most of the dealings between him and Jacob, it was justified by custom but not by moral law. IV.Jacob’s Family. In connection with the account of the birth of Jacob’s eleven sons the popular derivation of their names is given. Apparently the stories grew out of the meaning suggested by each name. In nearly every case the etymology is based simply on assonance and not on the real derivation. The picture which these early prophetic stories give of Jacob’s home life is far from attractive. The polygamy that was forced upon him and the resulting favoritism and jealousy are but the after fruits of his own deceit and treachery. The early prophets make no attempt to conceal the hideousness of it all, for therein was taught most forcibly its obvious moral lessons. V.His Dealings with Laban. The original story-tellers doubtless took a certain delight in the account of the shrewd dealings between Jacob and Laban. They reflect the low ethics of the desert where “a lie is the salt of a man,” and successful knavery is secretly more admired than plain honesty. It is a case of Shylock versus Shylock, of steel cutting steel: Laban is sharp and unprincipled, but Jacob is able to surpass him in the game of wits. Laban readily agrees that Jacob’s pay shall consist simply of the young sheep and goats abnormally marked. By the use of a device well known to cattle-breeders in antiquity (cf. Oppian, Kynegetica, I. 327-356), Jacob so contrives that all the strong offspring of the flock become his by legal although not by moral right. His entire life at Haran is a strange mixture of faith and selfishness, of chivalry and meanness, of true affection and jealousy, of faithful service and trickery. VI.Historical Significance of the Stories. The marvellous simplicity of these stories deepens the impression that the hero was an individual rather than the representative of a race. A careful analysis, however, reveals much that is typical of the character and experiences of early Israel. The twelve sons of Jacob are in reality the twelve tribes which were first brought together and united under a common head in the days of Saul and David. To them Jacob was their common traditional ancestor. These stories were therefore important forces in Israel’s national life, for they gave all members of the various composite tribes, that finally coalesced, the sense of blood-kinship as well as of political unity. The tribes whose ancestry is traced to Jacob are divided into three classes, according to the relative dates when they settled in Palestine, their importance and the purity of their descent. These classes include: (1) the descendants of the favorite wife, Rachel. These were Joseph and the youngest son, Benjamin. The two traditional sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh, were the powerful tribes of central Canaan which play the leading role in early Hebrew history. (2) The sons of the hated wife Leah—Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar and Zebulun—tribes that stand next in importance, in purity of blood and in final geographical position to the Rachel tribes. Of these Leah tribes the first four, which found homes in the south, constitute the earlier group. (3) The four sons of the slave wives, Dan, Naphtali, Gad and Asher, the outlying tribes which contained the largest native Canaanite element, and were never very strong or closely assimilated with the other Hebrew tribes. Thus tradition has woven into these stories the facts of later history which it also seeks to explain. The account of the shrewd dealings between Laban and Jacob doubtless reflect the bitter conflict waged for over two centuries after the days of David, in the public markets and on the battle-field, between the Arameans and the Israelites. VII.Aim and Teachings. The aims of the original narratives were evidently, (1) to trace the origin of the name and sanctuary of Bethel, (2) to reassert Israel’s divine destiny, (3) to emphasize the purity of its Aramean origin, and (4) to establish the popular belief that all the Hebrew tribes were of one blood. These stories were also of interest to the prophets because they illustrated certain universal and distinctly religious truths. The experiences of Jacob emphasize the supreme fact that: (1) The divine love and pity follow even the fugitive who flees, pursued by his own crimes. (2) In the most discouraging environment and in the saddest moments of life come the most glorious revelations. (3) Heaven and God himself are very near the earth, and the way of communication is close and direct. (4) Strong, pure love can evoke devoted service even from a mean man. (5) The consequences of a man’s base acts pursue him wherever he may go, affecting his own fortunes and the happiness of all connected with him. 1.Reasons for the departure from Aram. Now Jacob heard Laban’s sons say, Jacob has taken all that was our father’s, and from that which was our father’s he has acquired all these riches. And Jehovah said to Jacob, Return to the land of thy fathers, and to thy kindred, and I will be with thee. 2. The escape. Then Jacob arose and set his sons and his wives upon the camels, and drove away all his cattle. And while Laban was gone to shear his sheep, Rachel stole the household gods that were her father’s. So he fled with all that he had, and set out on his way toward Mount Gilead. 3. Laban’s charge. Then Laban took his tribesmen with him, and pursued after Jacob seven days’ journey, and overtook him in Mount Gilead. Now Jacob had pitched his tent in the mountain; and Laban with his tribesmen encamped in Mount Gilead. And Laban said to Jacob, Why did you flee secretly, stealing away from me without telling me, else I might have sent you away with mirth and with songs, with tambourine and with harp. But now since you are surely going, because you long so earnestly for your father’s house, why have you stolen my gods? And Jacob said to him, The one with whom you find your gods shall not live; in the presence of our kinsmen investigate for yourself what is with me and take it. Jacob, however, did not know that Rachel had stolen them. So Laban went into Jacob’s tent and into Leah’s, and into the tent of the two maid-servants, but he did not find them. Then he went out of Leah’s tent, and entered Rachel’s. Now Rachel had taken the household gods and put them in the camel’s saddle and was sitting upon them, so that when Laban had searched all about the tent, he did not find them. And she said to her father, Let not my lord be angry that I cannot rise before you, for the manner of women is upon me. And he searched thoroughly, but did not find the household gods. 4. Jacob’s encounter protest. Then Jacob was angry and brought a charge against Laban; and Jacob answered and said to Laban, What is my trespass ? what is my sin, that you have pursued hotly after me? Although you have searched all my goods, what have you found of all your household possessions? Declare it here before my kinsmen and yours, that they may decide which of us two is in the right. These twenty years have I been with you; your ewes and she-goats have not cast their young, neither did I eat the rams of your flocks. That which was torn of beasts I did not bring to you; I bore the loss of it myself; from my hand you required it, whether stolen by day or stolen by night. Thus I was: in the day the drought consumed me, and by night the frost, and my sleep fled from my eyes. 5 The covenant between Laban and Jacob. Then Laban answered, Come, let us make a covenant, I and you, and let there be a witness between me and you. Therefore Jacob said to the members of his family, Gather stones. And when they had taken stones and made a heap, they ate there by the heap. And Laban called it Jegar-saha-dutha [Heap of witness]; but Jacob called it Galeed [Heap of witness]. And Laban said, This heap is a witness between me and you to-day. Therefore he called it Galeed. Moreover Laban said to Jacob, Behold, this heap, which I have set between me and you, is a witness that I will not pass over this heap to you, and that you shall not pass over this heap to me, for harm. The God of Abraham and the God of Nahor (the God of their ancestors) judge between us. 6.Jacob’s message to Esau. And Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his brother to the land of Seir, the territory of Edom. And he commanded them saying, Speak thus to my lord Esau: ‘Your servant Jacob says, “I have prolonged my sojourn with Laban until now, and I have oxen and asses, flocks and men-servants, and maid-servants, and I have sent to tell my lord, that I may find favor in your sight.”’ And the messengers returned to Jacob saying, We came to your brother Esau, even as he was coming to meet you with four hundred men. 7.His present to Esau. Then Jacob was greatly afraid and distressed. And he took from that which he had with him a present for Esau his brother: two hundred she-goats and twenty he-goats, two hundred ewes and twenty rams, thirty milch camels and their colts, forty cows and ten bulls, twenty she- asses and ten foals. And he delivered them into the hands of his servants, each drove by itself, and said to his servants, Pass over before me, and leave a space between the droves. And he commanded the foremost, saying, When Esau my brother meets you and asks you saying, ‘To whom do you belong? and where are you going? and whose are these before you?’ then you shall say, ‘Your servant Jacob’s; it is a present sent to my lord Esau; and he himself is just behind us.’ Thus he commanded also the second, and the third, and all that followed the droves, saying, In this manner shall you speak to Esau, when you find him, and you shall say, ‘Moreover thy servant Jacob is just behind us.’ (For he said to himself, ‘I will appease him with the present that goes before me, and not until then will I see his face; perhaps he will receive me.) So the present passed over before him, but he himself lodged that night in the camp. 8.Crossing the Jabbok. Then he rose up that night, and took his two wives, and his two maid-servants, and his eleven children, and sent them over the ford of the Jabbok. 9.The long struggle and the divine blessing. Jacob was left alone, and one wrestled with him until break of day. And when he saw that he did not prevail against Jacob, he smote the hollow of his thigh and the hollow of Jacob’s thigh was strained, as he wrestled with him. Then he said, Let me go, for the day is breaking. But Jacob replied, I will not let thee go except thou bless me. And he said to him, What is thy name? And he replied, Jacob. Then he said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel [God’s struggler]; for thou hast struggled with God and with men, and hast prevailed. And Jacob asked him, saying, Tell me, I pray thee, thy name. And he said, Why is it that thou dost ask my name? So he blessed him there. 10. Sanctity of the hip muscle. But the sun rose as soon as he had passed beyond Penuel, and he limped upon his thigh. This is why to this day the Israelites do not eat the hip muscle, which is at the hollow of the thigh, for he touched the hollow of Jacob’s thigh on the hip muscle. 11.Meeting of the two brothers. And when Jacob lifted up his eyes he saw Esau coming with four hundred men. Then he apportioned the children to Leah and to Rachel, and to the two maid-servants. And he put the maid-servants and their children in front, and Leah and her children next, and Rachel and Joseph in the rear. Then he himself passed over before them, and bowed himself to the ground seven times, until he came near to his brother. And Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept. When he lifted up his eyes, and saw the women and the children, he said, Who are these with you? And he answered, The children whom God hath graciously given your servant. Then the maid-servants together with their children approached, and bowed themselves. Leah also and her children approached, and bowed themselves, and afterwards Joseph and Rachel approached, and bowed themselves. 12. Jacob’s present to Esau. And Esau said, What do you mean by all this company which I met? And Jacob replied, To find favor in the sight of my lord. And Esau said, I have plenty, my brother; keep what you have. But Jacob replied, Nay, I pray you, if now I have found favor in your sight, receive my offering from my hand; for I have looked upon your face as one looks upon the face of God, and you have regarded me favorably. Take, I pray you, my gift that is brought to you, because God hath dealt graciously with me, and because I have enough. Thus he urged him importunately until he took it. 13.The peaceful parting. Then Esau said, Let us set out and go on our way, and let me go before you. But he replied to him, My lord knows that the children are tender, and that I have flocks and herds with their young; and if they overdrive them one day all the flocks will die. Let my lord, I pray you, pass over before his servant, and I will proceed leisurely according as the cattle which I am driving, and the children are able to endure, until I come to my lord at Seir. Then Esau said, Let me at least leave with you some of the people who are with me. But Jacob replied, What need is there? let me only find favor in the sight of my lord. So Esau returned that day on his way to Seir. 14. Jacob at Succoth and Sheehem. But Jacob journeyed to Succoth, and built there a house for himself, and made huts for his cattle; therefore the name of the place is called Succoth [Huts]. Then Jacob came in peace to the city of Shechem in the land of Canaan, and encamped before the city. And he bought the piece of ground where he pitched his tent, from the sons of Hamor, the father of Shechem, for four hundred shekels; and he erected there an altar and called it El, God of Israel. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 26: 026. XIV. JACOB’S RETURN TO CANAAN ======================================================================== § XIV. JACOB’S RETURN TO CANAAN Genesis 31, Genesis 32, Genesis 33 I.Jacob’s Flight from Laban. At last Jacob found his position in Haran intolerable. His overshrewd dealings gave him no courage to face the suspicions of Laban’s sons. Hence he improved the first favorable opportunity to collect his many possessions and to flee from Laban back toward Canaan. Rachel, brought up in the school of deceit, did not hesitate to steal her father’s household gods, that their protection might go with the fugitives. Thus Jacob fled ignominiously from the consequences of his immediate acts to face those of his youth. Laban quickly pursued and overtook the fugitives. Consistently with his shrewd, hard character, he suggested ironically that if they had but expressed the wish to go, he would have speeded their departure with mirth and songs! He also inquired why they had stolen his family gods. Jacob, who was ignorant of the theft, gave him full permission to search for them; but Rachel so cleverly concealed the stolen images, that Laban was unable to prove his charge. Jacob improved this opportunity to recount his services to Laban and the hardships which he had endured. He omitted, however, all mention of his own doubtful dealings. The conclusion of their half hostile meeting was a covenant, according to which each agreed not to pass beyond a certain boundary set up between them in the territory of Gilead. II.The Supreme Crisis of Jacob’s Life. Leaving behind the fear of his father-in-law, Jacob faced the brother whom he had wronged. With his usual diplomacy, he first dispatched messengers to Esau with conciliatory greetings. Still trusting to the potency of the material possessions for which he had striven so hard, he next sent ahead a princely gift for his brother. Then stealthily by night he sent on his wives and children, while he himself remained alone in the darkness by the noisy east-Jordan stream whose name (Jabbok) meant Struggler. It was the supreme crisis in his life. He had struggled for flocks and herds and material honors, and in each contest had succeeded; but with the success had come haunting fear, and an inevitable sense of failure. Hitherto he had conquered men by sheer energy, persistency and superior wit; but now he struggled alone all the night through with a more than human antagonist. He came forth from the fateful struggle with bodily strength forever impaired. Yet from this contest, by virtue of his indomitable persistency, he again emerged a victor. Henceforth he was to be called not Jacob, the Supplanter, but Israel, the one who had struggled and prevailed with God. It would seem that in this strange ancient tale the early prophet aimed to portray the victory of the nobler and more spiritual impulses in Israel’s complex character over the more sordid, selfish tendencies. The prophetic interpretation of Hosea (Hosea 12:3-4) is suggestive in this connection: In the womb Jacob supplanted his brother, In a man’s strength he contended with God, He contended with the angel and prevailed, He wept and besought mercy of him. At Bethel Jehovah found him, And there he spoke with him. III.The Meeting with Esau. Jacob’s fears of his brother proved groundless. The meeting with Esau was in marked contrast to the bickering attendant upon his final interview with Laban. Esau manifested a generous brotherly spirit. Jacob, however, was still suspicious of the brother whom he had wronged, and so preferred to go on his way alone. At Shechem he found for a time a peaceful home, until the crimes of his sons Levi and Simeon compelled him to flee to southern Canaan. At this point the interest of the narrative in Genesis suddenly passes from Jacob to Joseph. IV.The Historical Facts Back of the Stories. Back of the Laban stories is the memory of the later struggles between the Israelites and the Arameans. Gilead, the place of the covenant between Jacob and Laban, was the debatable territory and the scene of many battles. Doubtless tradition pointed to a certain heap of stones or sacred cairn as the scene of the treaty between the ancestors of these two related but hostile peoples. The story of Jacob’s return at the head of a large tribe probably records a third Aramean migration, reenforcing the two represented by the coming of Abraham and Rebekah. These Jacob stories also give the popular explanation of the origin of the names Penuel (Face of God) and of Succoth, and of the sanctuary at Shechem. V.Aim and Teachings. In the portrayal of the character of Jacob, the prophets who combined these early stories clearly realized their primary aim. Though exceedingly complex, that character is remarkably consistent. Jacob’s faults are those which Orientals most easily condone. Our modern western world, on the contrary, will forgive almost anything more readily than the lack of truth and honesty. Jacob’s religious professions also seem but hypocrisy. Hypocrisy, however, involves a degree of spiritual enlightenment which he did not possess. Although his religion was of the bargaining type, it was genuine and the most powerful force in his life. Energy, persistency and ambition were the other qualities which enabled him at last to triumph over his glaring faults of meanness, deceit and selfishness. His life, as portrayed, vividly illustrates the constant conflict going on in every man between his baser passions and his nobler ideals. Jacob is the classic prototype of Robert Louis Stevenson’s Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. His experiences show clearly how, in divine Providence, the varied fortunes, and especially the misfortunes of life, may develop the nobler impulses in the human heart, and how the meanest and most unpromising men are never beyond the pale of the divine care. It is only the base and false in man that destroy his happiness and prevent him from gaining clear visions of God’s gracious purpose. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 27: 027. XV. JOSEPH SOLD BY HIS BROTHERS INTO EGYPT ======================================================================== § XV. JOSEPH SOLD BY HIS BROTHERS INTO EGYPT Genesis 37, Genesis 39:1-23 1. Joseph’s life at home. Joseph at the age of seventeen was a shepherd with his brothers, and he was a lad with the sons of Bilhah, and with the sons of Zilpah, his father’s wives. And Joseph brought an evil report of them to their father. Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the son of his old age; and he had made him a long tunic with sleeves. And when his brothers saw that their father loved him more than all his other sons, they hated him, and could not speak peacefully to him. 2.His dreams. And Joseph had a dream, and told it to his brothers, and they hated him still more. And he said to them, Hear, I pray you, this dream which I have had; for it seemed to me that we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my sheaf arose and remained standing, while your sheaves surrounded and made obeisance to my sheaf. And his brothers said to him, Will you assuredly be king over us? or will you indeed rule over us? So they hated him still more because of his dreams and his words. Then he had yet another dream, and told it to his brothers, saying, Behold, I have had another dream, and it seemed to me that the sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. And when he told it to his father and his brothers, his father rebuked him, and said to him, What is this dream that you have had? Shall I and your mother and your brothers indeed come to bow ourselves to the earth before you? And his brothers envied him; but his father kept the thing in mind. 3. His mission to his brothers. And his brothers went to pasture his father’s flocks in Shechem. Then Israel said to Joseph, Are not your brothers pasturing the flocks in Shechem? Come now I will send you to them, and he replied, Here am I. And his father said to him, Go now, see whether it is well with your brothers, and well with the flock, and bring me word again. So he sent him out from the valley of Hebron, and he came to Shechem. And a certain man found him, as he was wandering in the field, and the man asked him saying, What are you seeking? And he said, I am seeking my brothers; tell me, I pray you, where they are pasturing the flock. And the man said, They have gone from this place, for I heard them say, ‘Let us go to Dothan.’ So Joseph went after his brothers and found them in Dothan. 4. Seized by his brothers. And when they saw him in the distance, but before he came near to them, they conspired against him to slay him. And they said one to another, See, here comes that master-dreamer. Now come, let us slay him, and throw him into one of the cisterns, and then we will say, A fierce beast has devoured him, and we shall see what will become of his dreams. Judah, however, when he heard it, delivered him from their hands, and said, Let us not take his life. Do not shed blood; throw him into this cistern, that is in the wilderness; but do not lay hands upon him. He said this that he might deliver him from their hands to restore him to his father. Nevertheless, when Joseph came to his brothers, they stripped him of his long tunic, the tunic with sleeves that was on him. Then they took him and threw him into the cistern. And the cistern was empty, there being no water in it. 5. Carried to Egypt. Then they sat down to eat bread, and as they lifted up their eyes and looked, behold, a caravan of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead, and their camels were loaded with spices and balsam and ladanum, on their way to carry it down to Egypt. Thereupon Judah said to his brothers, What do we gain if we kill our brother and conceal his blood? Come, let us sell him to the Ishmaelites, and let not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother, our flesh. And his brothers listened to him. And drawing up Joseph they sold him to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver. And they brought Joseph to Egypt. 6. Reported as dead. Thereupon they took Joseph’s coat, and killed a he-goat, and, dipping the coat in the blood, they sent the tunic with sleeves and brought it to their father, saying, We found this; see whether it is your son’s coat or not. And he recognized it and said, It is my son’s coat! a fierce beast has devoured him! Joseph is without doubt tom in pieces. Then Jacob rent his garments, and put sackcloth on his loins; and he mourned for his son many days. And all his sons and all his daughters rose up to comfort him, but he refused to be comforted, saying, I shall go down to Sheol to my son, mourning. Thus his father wept for him. 7.Sold as a slave to an Egyptian. Joseph, however, was brought down to Egypt, and Poti- phar, an officer of Pharaoh’s, the chief executioner, an Egyptian, bought him from the Ishmaelites, who had brought him there. 8.Intrusted with the care of his master’s household. Now Jehovah was with Joseph so that he became a prosperous man, and was in the house of his master the Egyptian. When his master saw that Jehovah was with him, and that Jehovah always caused everything that he did to prosper in his hands, Joseph found favor in his eyes as he ministered to him, so that he made him overseer of his house, and all that he had he put into his charge. Then it came to pass from the time that he made him overseer in his house, and over all that he had, that Jehovah blessed the Egyptian’s house for Joseph’s sake, and the blessing of Jehovah was upon all that he had in the house and in the field. So he left all that he had to Joseph’s charge, and had no knowledge of anything that he had except the bread which he ate. 9. Tempted by his master’s wife. Now Joseph was handsome in form and appearance. And it came to pass after these things, that his master’s wife cast her eyes upon Joseph; and she said, Lie with me. But he refused, saying to his master’s wife, Behold my master has no knowledge of what is with me in the house, and he has put all that he has into my charge; he is not greater in this house than I; neither has he kept back anything from me but you, because you are his wife; how then can I do this great wickedness and sin against God? And although she talked thus to Joseph day after day, he did not listen to her, to lie with her or to be with her. But once about this time when he went into the house to do his work, when none of the men of the household were at home, she caught hold of his garment, saying, Lie with me; but he left his garment in her hand and fled out of the house. 10.Falsely charged with infidelity. And it came to pass when she saw that he had left his garment in her hand and had fled away, she called to the men of her household, and said to them, See, he has brought a Hebrew in to us to insult us. He came to me to lie with me, and I cried with a loud voice, and it came to pass, when he heard me crying out loudly, he left his garment with me and fled out of the house. And she kept his garment by her until his master came home; then she told him the same story, saying, The Hebrew servant whom you have brought to us, came to me to insult me; but it came to pass that when I lifted up my voice and cried, he left his garment with me and fled away. 11. Imprisoned by his master. Then it came to pass when his master heard the statements of his wife which she made to him, saying, After this manner your servant did to me, that he was very angry, and Joseph’s master took him and put him into the prison,— the place where the king’s prisoners were bound. Thus he was there in prison. 12.Trusted by his jailer. But Jehovah was with Joseph and showed kindness to him, and gave him favor in the sight of the keeper of the prison, so that the keeper of the prison committed to Joseph’s charge all the prisoners who were in the prison, and for whatever they did there he was responsible. The keeper of the prison did not attend to anything that was in his charge, because Jehovah was with Joseph, and whatever he did, Jehovah always caused it to prosper. I.General Characteristics of the Joseph Stories. No stories are more vividly told or more closely knit together than those which gather about the name of Joseph. The dramatic interest rises and falls as the narrative runs on, but it never ceases to hold the reader’s attention. The charm of the stories is found in their simple, picturesque style, in their dramatic contrasts, and in the powerful appeal which they make to universal human interests. The reiterated promises to the race and the supernatural elements, go prominent in preceding stories, suddenly disappear. The nomad tents are also soon left behind; the background of the narrative is the highly developed civilization of Egypt. In these stories the interest is still centred in one main character, but attention is gradually turned from the traditional nomadic ancestors of the Hebrews to the opening events of their national history. Traces are found of two slightly variant versions of these stories, the one current in the north and the other in the south. Thus, for example, in the Judean version Judah is the first-born, who seeks to save Joseph’s life, and the Ishmaelites are the merchantmen who bear away the young Hebrew to Egypt. In the northern group of narratives Reuben and the Midianites take the place of Judah and the Ishmaelites. The variations are so slight, however, that they can ordinarily be disregarded and the blended prophetic narrative may be followed without confusion. II.Joseph, the Spoiled Child. The Joseph stories are so clearly and simply told that they need little interpretation. They open with the picture of Joseph’s home at Hebron. Rachel had died as Jacob journeyed southward from Shechem and Bethel. Joseph, the eldest son of the patriarch’s beloved wife, was the favorite of his old age. Jacob, like many a fond and foolish father, made the fatal mistake of showing partiality within his own household. Joseph he clad in one of the long-sleeved tunics which were worn by nobles and were better adapted to a life of luxury than of hard, manual labor. Joseph added to the jealous hatred of his brothers by reporting their misdemeanors to his father, and by telling to them those boyish dreams, which revealed his own lofty ambitions and implied that he was destined some time to rule over them. Not suspecting the attitude of his sons, Jacob sent Joseph on a long journey northward to his brothers. He found them at Dothan, south of the plain of Esdraelon, and doubtless near the spring beside which the flocks still find excellent pasturage. Joseph’s presence, however, only aroused the murderous hate of his brothers. Judah, feeling the responsibility of an eldest son, alone counselled moderation. Accordingly Joseph was seized, stripped of his tunic and cast into one of the many bottle-shaped cisterns that are still found about Dothan. Thence he was drawn out and sold as a slave for a paltry sum (about twelve dollars), to a passing caravan of Arab traders, who carried him to Egypt. There he was resold (according to the Northern Israelite version) to a certain Potiphar, whose name means in Egyptian, He whom Ra (the sun god) gave. I.Joseph’s Temptation. In the household of his new master Joseph’s real character and ability were soon revealed. So faithfully did he perform his every task that he soon succeeded in winning the complete confidence of the Egyptian. In time, everything in the household was entrusted to his care. This responsibility soon brought an almost overwhelming temptation. The standards of morality are low in the East, and especially in households where there are slaves. The crime which his master’s wife urged him to commit was easily overlooked by the ancient Orient. The appeal to Joseph’s pride and passion was exceedingly strong. To refuse an unprincipled and determined woman meant sure disgrace and imprisonment, if not death. It was a supreme crisis in Joseph’s life. His noble refusal, because he would not betray the trust imposed on him or sin against God, is one of the most significant incidents recorded in the Old Testament. II.The Character of Joseph and Its Significance. The prophetic historians have here presented to their readers a character very different from those of Abraham and Jacob, and yet none the less important. Abraham is the calm, far-seeing, faithful servant of God; Jacob, the clever, crafty, persistent struggler, who sees visions and ultimately wins the divine blessing, is the type of the Israelite race; Joseph represents the faithful and successful man of affairs. Each step in the development of his character is distinctly traced. In his boyhood home Joseph was fettered by that paternal favoritism which is fittingly represented by the long-sleeved tunic. He grew up a spoiled, egotistical boy, with false ideas of life. His faults, however, were those of inexperience. If he had remained at home he would never have realized the possibilities suggested by his crude boyish dreams. The awakening at the hands of his vindictive brothers was painful but necessary. Their cruel act brought him into contact with real life and the greater world of opportunity. Amidst the new and trying circumstances he revealed the qualities that win true success in the struggle of life. Not a word of complaint escaped his lips. A faith expressed in action, not in words, upheld him. Even though it promised no personal reward, he was absolutely faithful to every trust. Armed with his strong fidelity and faith, he emerged unscathed from the most insidious temptation that could assail a youth. Unjust adversity could not crush or daunt him, for his integrity of character, his perennial cheerfulness and his spirit of helpfulness were invincible. The practical truths illustrated by Joseph’s character and experience are too obvious to need formulation. For every one in the stream of life they are a constant guide and inspiration, for they show clearly how, in the face of injustice and temptation, a man may “find his life by losing it.” ======================================================================== CHAPTER 28: 028. XVI. JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT ======================================================================== § XVI. JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT Genesis 40:1-23, Genesis 41, Genesis 47:13-26 1. Assigned to two official prisoners. Now it came to pass after these things that the cupbearer of the king of Egypt and his baker offended their lord the king of Egypt, so that Pharaoh was angry with his two officers, the chief of the cupbearers and the chief of the bakers, and imprisoned them in the house of the chief executioner, in the same prison where Joseph was confined. And the captain of the guard assigned Joseph to wait on them; and they remained in confinement for some time. 2. His offer to interpret their dreams. Meanwhile the king of Egypt’s cupbearer and baker, who were confined in prison, both in the same night had a dream, each of different interpretation. Therefore when Joseph came in to them in the morning, he saw plainly that they were sad. So he asked Pharaoh’s officers who were imprisoned with him in his master’s house, saying, Why do you look so sad to-day? And they said to him, We have had a dream, and there is no one who can interpret it. Then Joseph said to them, Does not the interpretation of dreams belong to God ? tell them to me, I pray you. 3. The cupbearer’s dream. Then the chief cupbearer told his dream to Joseph, and said to him, In my dream I seemed to see a vine before me, and on the vine three branches, and it was as though it budded, it put out blossoms and its clusters brought forth ripe grapes. And Pharaoh’s cup was in my hand, and I took the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh’s cup, and gave the cup into Pharaoh’s hand. Then Joseph said to him, This is the interpretation of it: the three branches are three days; within three days shall Pharaoh lift up your head and restore you to your place, and you shall give Pharaoh’s cup into his hand as you used to do when you were his cupbearer. But may you keep me in remembrance when it is well with you, and may you show kindness to me and make mention of me to Pharaoh, and bring me out of this house; for I was unjustly stolen from the land of the Hebrews, and here also I have done nothing that they should put me into the dungeon. 4. The baker’s dream. When the chief baker saw that the interpretation was favorable, he said to Joseph, I also saw in my dream, and, behold, three baskets of white bread were on my head, and in the uppermost basket there were all kinds of baked food for Pharaoh; and the birds were eating them out of the basket upon my head. And Joseph answered and said, This is its interpretation: the three baskets are three days; within three days Pharaoh will take off your head, and hang you on a tree, and the birds shall eat your flesh from off you. 5. Their fulfilment. And it came to pass the third day, which was Pharaoh’s birthday, that he made a feast for all his servants. Then he lifted up the head of the chief cupbearer and the head of the chief baker among his servants. And he restored the chief cupbearer to his office so that he again gave the cup into Pharaoh’s hand. The chief baker, however, he hanged, as Joseph had interpreted to them. Yet the chief cupbearer did not remember Joseph, but forgot him. 6. Pharaoh’s dreams. Now it came to pass after two full years, that Pharaoh had a dream in which he seemed to be standing by the Nile and to see coming up from the Nile seven cows, sleek and fat, which had been feeding in the reed grass. Then he seemed to see seven other cows coming up after them out of the Nile, bad-looking and lean, and standing by the other cows on the bank of the Nile. And the bad-looking cows ate the seven sleek, fat cows. Then Pharaoh awoke. Afterward he slept and had a second dream, and he seemed to see seven good ears of grain growing on one stalk. Also he seemed to see seven ears, thin and blasted by the east wind, springing up after them. And the thin ears swallowed up the seven plump, full ears. Then Pharaoh awoke, and, behold, it was a dream. 7. Failure of his wise men to interpret them. And it came to pass in the morning that his spirit was troubled, and he sent and called all the sacred scribes and wise men of Egypt; and Pharaoh told them his dreams, but there was no one who could interpret them to Pharaoh. 8. The cupbearer’s testimony. Then the chief cupbearer spoke to Pharaoh saying, My sins I now recall: Pharaoh was very angry with his servants, and imprisoned me and the chief baker in the house of the chief executioner; and we both had a dream the same night, each having a dream of different interpretation. And there with us was a Hebrew youth, a servant of the chief executioner; and we told him and he interpreted to us our dreams, to each man differently according to his dream. And exactly as he interpreted our dreams to us so they came to pass: me they restored to my office, and him they hanged. 9. Joseph before Pharaoh. Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out of the dungeon; and he shaved himself and changed his clothes and came to Pharaoh. And Pharaoh said to Joseph I have had a dream, and there is no one who can interpret it. Now I have heard it said of you that when you hear a dream, you can interpret it. And Joseph answered Pharaoh, saying, Not I; God alone will give Pharaoh a favorable answer. 10.Repetition of Pharaoh’s dreams. Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, In my dream as I was standing on the bank of the Nile, I saw seven cows, fat and sleek which had been feeding in the reed grass. Then I seemed to see coming up after them seven more cows, thin, bad- looking and lean, worse than I ever saw in all the land of Egypt; and the lean and bad-looking cows ate the first seven fat cows; and when they had eaten them up, one could not tell that they had eaten them, for they were still as bad- looking as at the beginning. Then I awoke. Again I dreamed and seemed to see coming up on one stalk seven ears, full and good; and then seven ears, withered, thin, blasted with the east wind, sprang up after them; and the thin ears swallowed up the seven good ears. And I have told it to the magicians, but there is no one who can inform me regarding it. 11. Joseph’s interpretationofthem. Then Joseph said to Pharaoh, What Pharaoh has dreamed signifies the same thing; what God is about to do he hath declared to Pharaoh. The seven good cows are seven years, and the seven good ears are seven years. It is one and the same dream. And the seven lean and ugly cows that came up after them are seven years, and also the seven empty ears blasted with the east wind shall be seven years of famine. That is why I said to Pharaoh, What God is about to do he hath showed to Pharaoh. Behold, there are coming seven years of great plenty throughout the land of Egypt, and there shall be after them seven years of famine, so that all the plenty shall be forgotten in the land of Egypt; and the famine shall consume the land; and the plenty shall not be known in the land by reason of that famine which follows; for it shall be very severe. As for the fact that the dream came twice to Pharaoh, it is because the thing is established by God, and God will shortly bring it to pass. Now therefore let Pharaoh choose a man discreet and wise, and set him over the land of Egypt. Let Pharaoh take action and appoint overseers over the land and take up the fifth part of the produce of Egypt in the seven plenteous years. And let them gather all the food of these good years that come, and lay up grain under the authority of Pharaoh for food in the cities, and let them keep it. And the food shall be a provision for the land against the seven years of famine which shall be in the land of Egypt, that the land may not perish because of the famine. 12.Pharaoh’s reward. And the plan pleased Pharaoh and all his servants. And Pharaoh said to his servants, Can we find one like this, a man in whom is the spirit of God? And Pharaoh said to Joseph, See, I have appointed you over all the land of Egypt. And Pharaoh took off his signet ring from his finger and put it upon Joseph’s finger, and clothed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain about his neck, and made him ride in the second chariot which he had. Then they cried before him, Bow the knee! Thus he set him over all the land of Egypt. Pharaoh also said to Joseph, I am Pharaoh, but without your consent shall no man lift up his hand or his foot in all the land of Egypt. Pharaoh also called Joseph’s name Zaphenath-paneah, and gave him as a wife Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera, priest of On. 13. His provisions for the famine. And Joseph went out over all the land of Egypt, and gathered up all the food of the seven full years, which were in the land of Egypt, and stored the food in the cities, putting in each city the products of the fields about it. 14.Theseven years of famine. And the seven years of famine began to come, just as Joseph had said. And when all the land of Egypt was famished, the people cried to Pharaoh for bread, and Pharaoh said to all the Egyptians, Go to Joseph; and what he tells you do. And when the famine was upon all the earth, Joseph opened all the storehouses and sold to the Egyptians. But the famine was severe in the land of Egypt. 15.Pharaoh’s tribute: all the money of Egypt. And there was no bread in all the land, since the famine was very severe, so that the land of Egypt languished because of the famine. And Joseph gathered in all the money that was found in the land of Egypt, for the grain which they bought; and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh’s house. 16.Allthe herds. And when the money was all spent in the land of Egypt, all the Egyptians came to Joseph, and said, Give us bread; for why should we die before your eyes, because our money fails? Then Joseph said, Give your cattle, and I will give you grain for your cattle, if money has failed. So they brought their cattle to Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread in exchange for the horses, the flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle and the asses. Thus for that year he sustained them with bread in exchange for all their cattle. 17. All the land except that of the priests. And when that year was ended, they came to him the second year, and said to him, We do not hide it from my lord, now that our money is all spent; and even the herds of cattle are my lord’s; there is nothing left to give to my lord but our bodies and our lands. Why should we perish before your eyes, both we and our land? take possession of us and our land in return for bread, and we and our land will become possessions of Pharaoh; and give us seed, that we may live, and not die, so that the land may not become desolate. So Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh; for the Egyptians sold every man his field, because the famine was severe upon them. Thus the land became Pharaoh’s. And as for the people, he reduced them to servitude from one end of Egypt even to the other. Only the land of the priests he did not buy, because the priests had a definite allowance from Pharaoh, and ate their portion which Pharaoh gave them; hence they did not sell their land. 18. Establishment of a permanent tax. Then Joseph said to the people, Behold, I have bought you and your land to-day for Pharaoh. Here is seed for you, and you shall sow the land. And at the ingatherings you shall give a fifth to Pharaoh, and four parts shall be your own, for seed for the field, and for your food, and for those of your households, and for food for your little ones. And they said, You have saved our lives; let us find favor in the sight of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh’s servants. Thus Joseph made it a statute concerning the land of Egypt to this day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth; only the land of the priests did not come into the possession of Pharaoh. I.Dramatic Contrasts in the Story of Joseph. Nothing more dramatic can be imagined than the sudden and striking contrasts in Joseph’s experiences. The pampered favorite of his father suddenly finds himself a slave in Egypt. The trusted head of his master’s household is in a moment cast into a dungeon with little hope of release. From this same dungeon he is now raised to a position of highest honor and responsibility in the most powerful and brilliant empire of the age. This marvellous transformation takes place not through a miracle, but because the great need found the man, and the man had been fitted by his varied experiences to meet the need. Joseph’s destiny turned upon his attitude toward his fellow-prisoners and the opportunities for helpfulness which they offered. Apparently like himself the royal cupbearer and baker were victims of oriental injustice. The ancients believed universally that the gods spoke to them through dreams. According to the Egyptian inscriptions the kings were often guided in determining their policy by intimations conveyed to them in dreams. Among Orientals the intuitions are highly developed, and it is not impossible that in some cases their intuitions were reflected in their dreams. The dreams of Joseph’s fellow-prisoners were each suggestive. It required, however, a keen-sighted, courageous man like Joseph to discern and declare their meaning. II.The Prisoner Raised to High Authority. The good deed done and the interpretation fulfilled, two years more of discouraging, yet patient waiting passed before the dungeon door opened. In the light of Egyptian religious belief, Pharaoh’s dream was especially significant. Cows were sacred to the cow-headed goddess Hathor, and to Isis who seems to have sometimes symbolized the land fertilized by the Nile. Fat, sleek cows, as well as full ears of grain, also suggested plenty. Joseph, however, is the only one in all the land who could clearly and convincingly interpret the meaning of Pharaoh’s strange dreams. More important still, he was able to outline a wise and definite policy to be pursued. None of the varied and painful experiences that had come to the young Hebrew, who in his youth had also dreamed dreams, were in vain. Pharaoh and his counsellors recognized the man of the hour and were not slow to act. All the honors that an oriental despot could confer were at once heaped upon Joseph. The Egyptian name given to him appears to mean Nourisher of the land, Giver of Life or God spake and he came into life. Asenath, the name of his wife, means, Belonging to the goddess Neith. With these honors came responsibility. Joseph first wisely provided for the needs of the people. At the same time he showed his loyalty to his master by adding greatly to Pharaoh’s wealth and authority. Today we would condemn Joseph’s policy as unjust and tyrannical. The ancient East, however, thought little of the rights of the masses. The early Hebrew story-tellers record the incident simply as further proof of Joseph’s fidelity. Under the first twelve Egyptian dynasties the land was almost entirely owned by the nobles. The change in land tenure here ascribed to Joseph appears to have been brought about by Aahmose I, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, who freed Egypt from the rule of the invading Hyksos. The priests in the earlier period were supported by the offerings and revenues which came from the temple lands. In later times, at least, the kings made liberal gifts and concessions to different temples, with the result that the priests held a large part of the total wealth of Egypt. III.Aim and Teachings. Again the primary aim of these stories is realized in the vivid portrayal of the experiences and character of Joseph. His patience and cheerfulness in the most unfair and adverse circumstances, his eagerness to seize every opportunity for service, his unique organizing and executive ability, and his fidelity to his masters are vividly illustrated. Chief among the many teachings of these stories are: (1) The trials which come to each individual are essential for the development of his character and ability. (2) Therefore, “Those whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.” (3) “All things work together for good to those who love God.” (4) The only successful way to forget one’s own burdens is to help bear another’s. (5) Men forget, but God never forgets his faithful servants. (6) He alone who improves the small opportunities will not miss the great chance of life. (7) “ Whosoever would become great among you shall be your minister, and whosoever would be first among you shall be your servant.” (8) Trained ability is essential to success and the highest honor. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 29: 029. XVII. JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS ======================================================================== § XVII. JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS Genesis 42-44 1. Journey of Joseph’s brothers to Egypt. Now when Jacob saw that there was grain for sale in Egypt, Jacob said to his sons, Why do you stand looking at each other? And he said, Behold, I have heard that there is grain for sale in Egypt; go down there and buy for us from thence, that we may live and not die. So Joseph’s ten brothers went down to buy grain from Egypt. But Benjamin, Joseph’s own brother, Jacob did not send with his brothers; for he said, Lest harm befall him. Thus the sons of Israel came among others to buy grain; for the famine was in the land of Canaan. 2. His first interview with them. Now Joseph was the governor over the land; he it was who sold to all the people of the land. Therefore Joseph’s brothers came and bowed themselves before him with their faces to the earth. And when Joseph saw his brothers he knew them, but he acted as a stranger towards them and talked harshly to them, and said, Whence do you come? And they said, From the land of Canaan to buy food. Thus Joseph knew his brothers, but they did not know him. Then Joseph remembered the dreams which he had had about them and said to them, You are spies come to see the defenselessness of the land. And they said to him, Nay, my lord, but your servants have come to buy food. We are all one man’s sons; we are honest men; your servants are not spies. But he said to them, Nay, to see the defenselessness of the land you have come. They replied, We your servants are twelve brothers, the sons of one man in the land of Canaan; and, behold, the youngest is to-day with our father, and one is no more. And Joseph said to them, It is just as I said to you, ‘You are spies.’ By this you shall be proved: as sure as Pharaoh lives you shall not go from here unless your youngest brother comes hither. Send one of you, and let him bring your brother, while you remain in confinement, that your words may be proved, whether or not there be truth in you. Or else, as sure as Pharaoh lives, you are indeed spies. And he put them all together into prison for three days. 3. The second interview. Then Joseph said to them the third day, This do, and live; for I likewise fear God. If you are true men, let one of your brothers remain bound in your prison-house; but you go, carry grain for the needs of your households, and bring your youngest brother to me. So shall your words be verified, and you shall not die. And they did so. And they said to each other, Truly we are guilty in regard to our brother, in that when we saw the distress of his soul, while he was beseeching us for pity, we would not hear; therefore this distress has come upon us. But Reuben also answered them, saying, Did I not say to you, ‘Do not sin against the boy,’ but you would not listen? therefore now also his blood is required. And they did not know that Joseph understood them, for he had spoken to them through an interpreter. He, however, turned himself about from them and wept; then he returned to them, and spoke to them and took Simeon from among them, and bound him before their eyes. Then Joseph commanded to fill their vessels with grain, and to restore every man’s money into his sack, and to give them provision for the way. And thus it was done to them. 4. Return of the brothers and their report toJacob. So they loaded their asses with their grain, and departed. And when they came to Jacob their father in the land of Canaan, they told him all that had befallen them, saying, The man who is lord in that land spoke harshly to us, and put us in prison as though we were spying out the country. And we said to him, We are honest men; we are not spies; we are twelve brothers, sons of our father; one is no more and the youngest is to-day with our father in the land of Canaan. And the man who is lord in that land said to us, By this shall I know that you are honest men: leave one of your brothers with me, and take the grain for the needs of your households, and go your way; bring your youngest brother to me, then shall I know that you are not spies, but that you are honest men; so will I give up your brother to you and you shall be free to go about in the land. 5. Discovery of the money in their sacks. But as they were emptying their sacks, they found that every man’s purse of money was in his sack; and when they and their father saw their purses of money, they were afraid. And their hearts failed them and they turned trembling to one another, saying, What is this that God hath done to us ? And Jacob their father said to them, You bereave me of my children: Joseph is no more and Simeon is no more, and you would take Benjamin also; all these things have befallen me. But Reuben said to his father, You may put my two sons to death, if I do not bring him to you. Put him in my charge and I will bring him back to you. Then Jacob said, God Almighty give you mercy before the man, that he may release to you your other brother and Benjamin. But I—if I be bereaved of my children, I am bereaved. 6. The need of grain. And the famine was severe in the land. And when they had eaten up the grain which they had brought from Egypt, their father said to them, Go again, buy us a little food. And Judah said to him, The man protested strongly to us saying, ‘You shall not see my face unless your brother is with you.’ If you will send our brother with us, we will go down and buy you food, but if you will not send him, we will not go down; for the man said to us, ‘ You shall not see my face unless your brother is with you.’ And Israel said, Why did you bring evil upon me by telling the man you had another brother? And they said, The man asked particularly about us and our kindred, saying, ‘ Is your father yet alive? have you another brother?’ So we informed him according to the tenor of these questions. How were we to know that he would say, ‘Bring your brother down?’ But he said, My son shall not go down with you; for his brother is dead and he only is left. If harm befall him on the way by which you go, then you will bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to Sheol. 7. Judah’s proposal. Judah, however, said to Israel his father, Send the lad with me, and we will arise and go that we may live, and not die, both we and you and also our little ones. I will be surety for him; from my hand you may require him; if I do not bring him to you and set him before you, then let me bear the blame forever; for if we had not lingered, surely we would now have returned the second time. Therefore their father said to them, If it must be so, then do this: take some of the products of the land in your vessels, and carry down a present to the man: a little balsam and a little grape syrup and ladanum, pistacia nuts, and almonds. Take also twice as much money in your hands, and the money, that was returned in the mouth of your sacks, carry back with you; perhaps it was a mistake. Take also your brother, and arise, go again to the man. So the men took this present with twice as much money in their hands, and Benjamin, and rose up, and went down to Egypt, and stood before Joseph. 8. Their reception at Joseph’s house. Now when Joseph saw Benjamin with them, he said to the steward of his house, Bring the men into the house, and slay, and make ready, for these men will dine with me at noon. And the man did as Joseph said, and brought the men to Joseph’s house. The men, however, were afraid, because they were brought to Joseph’s house, and they said, Because of the money that was returned in our grain-sacks at the first are we brought in, that he may seek occasion against us, and fall upon us, and take us for bondmen, together with our asses. And when they came near to the steward of Joseph’s house, they spoke to him at the door of the house, and said, Oh, my lord, we simply came down the first time to buy food; and it came to pass, when we reached the place, where we were to pass the night, that we opened our sacks, and, behold, every man’s money was in the mouth of his sack, our money in full weight; and we have brought it back with us. And we have brought down other money in our hands to buy food; we do not know who put our money into our sacks. And he said, Peace be to you, fear not; your God and the God of your father hath given you treasure in your sacks; I had your money. Then he brought Simeon out to them. And the man brought the men into Joseph’s house, and gave them water that they might wash their feet, and he gave their asses fodder. Then they made ready the present in anticipation of Joseph’s coming at noon, for they had heard that they were to eat there. 9. Joseph’s royal hospitality toward them. Now when Joseph came to the house, they brought in to him the present which was in their hands, and bowed down before him to the earth. And he asked them regarding their welfare and said, Is your father well, the old man of whom you spoke? Is he yet alive? And they said, Your servant, our father, is well, he is yet alive. And they bowed their heads, and made obeisance. And Joseph lifted up his eyes and saw Benjamin his brother, his mother’s son, and said, Is this your youngest brother, of whom you spoke to me? And he said, God be gracious to you, my son. And he made haste; for his heart yearned toward his brother; and he sought a place to weep; and he went into his room and wept there. Then he bathed his face and came out and controlled himself, and said, Bring on food. And they brought on food for him by himself, and for them by themselves, and for the Egyptians who ate with him, by themselves, because the Egyptians might not eat with the Hebrews; for that is an abomination to the Egyptians. And they sat before him, the first-born according to his birthright, and the youngest according to his youth; and the men looked at each other in astonishment. And he took portions from before him for them; But Benjamin’s portions were five times as much as any of theirs. And they drank and were merry with him. 10.Concealment of his cup in Benjamin’s sack. Then he commanded the steward of his house, saying, Fill the men’s grain-sacks with food as much as they can carry, and, put my cup, the silver cup, in the mouth of the sack of the youngest. And he did according to the word that Joseph had spoken. 11.Command to pursue and recover the cup. When the morning dawned, the men were sent away, together with their asses. They had gone out of the city, but were still not far away, when Joseph ordered his steward, Rise, pursue the men; and when you overtake them, say to them, ‘Why have you repaid evil for good ? Why have you stolen my silver cup? Is not this that in which my lord is accustomed to drink, and by which he divines? you have done wrong in so doing.’ 12. Its discovery in Benjamin’s sack. So he overtook them and said these words to them. And they said to him, Why does my lord speak such words as these? Far be it from your servants that they should do such a thing! Behold, the money which we found in our sacks’ mouths, we brought back to you from the land of Canaan; how then should we steal from your lord’s house silver or gold? That one of your servants with whom it is found shall die, and we will also be my lord’s bondmen. And he said, Now then let it be according to your words; he with whom it is found shall be my bondman; but you shall be blameless. Then they hastily took down every man his sack to the ground, and every man opened his grain-sack. And he searched, beginning with the oldest, and finishing with the youngest; and the cup was found in Benjamin’s grain-sack. Then they rent their clothes and every man loaded his ass and returned to the city. 13.The brothers before Joseph. So Judah and his brothers came back to Joseph’s house; and he was yet there; and they fell before him on the ground. And Joseph said to them, What deed is this that you have done? did you not know that a man like me could divine with certainty? And Judah said, What shall we say to my lord? what shall we speak? or how shall we clear ourselves? God hath found out the iniquity of your servants; behold, we are my lord’s bondmen, both we and he also in whose hand the cup is found. But he said, Far be it from me that I should do so! the man in whose hand the cup is found shall be my bondman; but you yourselves go up in peace to your father. 14. Judah’s appeal to Joseph. Then Judah came close to him, and said, Oh, my lord, let your servant, I pray you, speak a word in my lord’s ears, and do not let your anger be kindled against your servant; for you are as Pharaoh. My lord asked his servants saying, ‘Have you a father, or a brother?’ And we said to my lord, ‘We have a father, an old man, and a child of his old age, a little one; and as his brother is dead, he alone is left of his mother; and his father loves him.’ And you said to your servants, ‘ Bring him down to me, that I may set my eyes upon him.’ But we said to my lord, ‘ The lad cannot leave his father; for if he should leave his father, his father would die.’ Then you said to your servants, ‘Unless your youngest brother comes down with you, you shall not see my face again.’ And when we went up to your servant, my father, we told him the words of my lord. And our father said, ‘Go again, buy us a little food.’ But we said, ‘ We cannot go down. If our youngest brother is with us, then we will go down; for we may not see the man’s face unless our youngest brother is with us.’ And your servant, my father, said to us, ‘You know that my wife bore me two sons; and one went from me, and I said, “ Surely he is torn in pieces ”; and I have not seen him since; now if you take this one also from me, and harm befall him, you will bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to Sheol.’ And now if I come to your servant, my father, without having with us the lad in whose life his life is bound up, then when he sees that there is no lad, he will die; and your servants will bring down the gray hairs of your servant, our father, with sorrow to the grave. For your servant became surety for the lad to my father, when I said, ‘ If I do not bring him to you, then I shall bear the blame before my father forever.’ Now therefore let your servant, I pray you, remain instead of the lad as a bondman to my lord, but let the lad go up with his brothers. For how shall I go up to my father, if the lad is not with me?—lest I should see the sorrow that would come upon my father. 15. Joseph’s declaration of his identity. Now Joseph could not control himself before all those who were standing by him and he cried out, Cause every man to go out from me. Now there stood no man with him while Joseph made himself known to his brothers. But he wept so loudly that the Egyptians heard and Pharaoh’s household heard. Then Joseph said to his brothers, I am Joseph. Is my father yet alive? And his brothers could not answer him, so dismayed were they to see him. Then Joseph said to his brothers, Come near to me, I pray you. And they came near. And he said, I am Joseph your brother, whom you sold into Egypt. But now be not troubled, nor angry with yourselves that you sold me hither, for God sent me before you to preserve life. For now the famine has already been two years in the land. And there are yet five years in which there shall be neither plowing nor harvest. And God sent me before you to give you a remnant on the earth, to effect for you a great deliverance. So now it is not you that sent me here but God. And he hath made me a father to Pharaoh and lord of all his house and ruler over all the land of Egypt. 16.Command tobringhis fatherandkinsmen toEgypt. Hasten and go up to my father and say to him, Thus saith your son Joseph, God has made me lord of all Egypt, come down without delay. You shall dwell in the land of Goshen, and you shall be near me, and your flocks and your herds and all that you have, and there will I provide for you, for there are yet five years of famine, lest you be brought to poverty, together with your household and all that you have. And behold, your eyes see, and the eyes of my brother Benjamin, that it is my mouth that is speaking to you. And you shall tell my father of all my glory in Egypt and of all that you have seen, and you must quickly bring my father down hither. And he fell upon his brother Benjamin’s neck and wept, and Benjamin wept upon his neck. And he kissed all his brothers, and wept upon them; and afterwards his brothers talked with him. 17.Pharaoh’s command. And the report was heard in Pharaoh’s house, that Joseph’s brothers were come; and it pleased Pharaoh and his servants; therefore Pharaoh said to Joseph, Say to your brothers, ‘This do, load your beasts and go and enter the land of Canaan, and take your father and your households, and come to me, and I will give you the best of the land of Egypt, that you may eat the fat of the land.’ And he commanded them, This do, take wagons out of the land of Egypt for your little ones and for your wives, and bring your father and come. Also do not pay any attention to your household goods, for the best of all the land of Egypt is yours. And the sons of Israel did so. I.Literary Beauty of the Story. In the account of Joseph’s meeting with his brothers these stories reach their climax. In literary charm and depth of feeling they are unsurpassed. They also reveal the noblest qualities in Joseph’s character. A pathos runs through them all which tugs strongly at the heart-strings. Every scene is suffused with pent-up emotion. The anxiety of the brothers, the pathetic fears of the fond, aged father, the elder brother’s noble sense of responsibility, and the burning affection of Joseph react and blend in a marvellous series of pictures. The impassioned address of Judah (14) is also one of the strongest appeals in all literature. The story is a closely knit literary unit; to be fully appreciated it must be read and studied as a whole. II.Joseph’s Test of his Brothers. The story is so simply and fully told that it almost interprets itself. The background is the ancient oriental world in which the law of revenge was still the dominant principle in public codes and private ethics. The brother, who had been shamefully treated and pitilessly sold as a slave, now had his opportunity to avenge his wrongs. Joseph’s outward acts in the earlier part of the narrative suggest that this was his purpose; but the sequel reveals his real aim and the true greatness of his character. Experience had made Joseph a keen student of human nature. His knowledge of his brothers was limited to his boyhood experience. If their characters had not changed, to show them the many favors which it was in his power to bestow, would be but to cast pearls before swine. For their own sake it was necessary, that they should know his power and recognize his authority. The different tests to which he subjected them have these definite aims in view. Early in the story the narrator reveals to the reader the affectionate heart concealed behind the rude exterior. Joseph, however, held his own natural feelings in check until he could be sure of his brothers’ contrition, and until he knew that the opportune moment had arrived. III.The Crucial Test of Joseph’s Character. When he was assured that he could trust them, Joseph’s love for his father and for his brothers, who had so flagrantly wronged him, swept away all barriers. The scene which followed is one of the most dramatic in the Old Testament. All personal resentment was forgotten by Joseph in his zeal to help his kinsmen, and the divine quality of forgiveness found expression in the noblest words and deeds. For the honored and successful governor of Egypt to acknowledge as his own brothers the rude Canaanite nomads, who had given him every reason for repudiating them, called for the highest loyalty and devotion. Many men resist the temptations of youth, and attain positions of eminence, and then fail to pay the debt which they owe to their humble kinsmen who have helped them to success. With Joseph the debt, if any, was small. There was also no absolute necessity of revealing his identity, much less of inviting his uncouth kinsmen to the land of Egypt. His action, therefore, reveals a simple nobility of character rarely equalled in the past or present. IV.Teachings of the Story. Many vital truths are illustrated by this marvellous story. The chief perhaps are: (1) Every man who does wrong is confronted by the consequence of his act at the most unexpected and painful crises of his life. (2) Forgiveness and love are invincible. (3) God is ever overruling evil for good. (4) The severest tests of character come at the most unexpected moments and in the most unexpected forms. (5) A man’s loyalty to his humble kinsmen in the hour of his own success is the surest evidence of his nobility. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 30: 030. XVIII. JOSEPH’S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN ======================================================================== § XVIII. JOSEPH’S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN Genesis 45-50 1.Israel’s decision. Now when the sons of Israel told him all the words which Joseph had said to them, Israel said, It is enough: Joseph my son is yet alive. I will go and see him before I die. 2.Joseph’s reception of his kinsmen. Then Israel set out on his journey with all that he had. And he sent Judah before him to Joseph, that he might show him the way to Goshen. Now when they came into the province of Goshen, Joseph made ready his chariot, and went up to Goshen to meet Israel his father. And as he presented himself to him, he fell on his neck, and wept on his neck a long time. Then Israel said to Joseph, Now let me die, since I have seen your face, that you are yet alive. And Joseph said to his brothers, and to his father’s house, I will go up and tell Pharaoh and say to him, My brothers and my father’s house, who were in the land of Canaan, have come to me. Now the men are shepherds, for they have been keepers of cattle ; and they have brought their flocks and cattle and all that they have. And when Pharaoh shall call you, and shall say, ‘ What is your occupation?’ then say, ‘ Your servants have been keepers of cattle from our youth even until now, both we and our fathers,’ that you may dwell in the province of Goshen; for every shepherd is an abomination to the Egyptians. 3. Pharaoh’s provision for their needs. Then Joseph went in and told Pharaoh, and said, My father and my brothers with their sheep and cattle and all that they possess have come from the land of Canaan; and, behold, they are in the province of Goshen. And from among his brothers he took five men, and presented them to Pharaoh. And Pharaoh said to his brothers, What is your occupation? And they said to Pharaoh, Your servants are shepherds, both we and our fathers. They also said to Pharaoh, We have come to sojourn in the land, because there is no pasture for your servants’ flocks, since the famine is severe in the land of Canaan. Now therefore we pray, let your servants dwell in the province of Goshen. And Pharaoh spoke to Joseph, saying, In the province of Goshen let them dwell; and if you know any capable men among them, you may put them in charge of my cattle. So Joseph provided food for his father and his brothers and all his father’s household according to the number of the little children. And Israel dwelt in the land of Egypt and in the province of Goshen. 4. Israel’s instructions regarding his burial. Now when the time drew near that Israel must die, he called his son Joseph and said to him, If now I have found favor in your sight, put, I pray you, your hand under my thigh, and show kindness and faithfulness to me; do not bury me, I pray you, in Egypt; but when I lie down to sleep with my fathers, you shall carry me out of Egypt, and bury me in their burying-place. And Joseph replied, I will surely do as you have said. Then he said, Give me your oath: so Joseph gave him his oath. And Israel bowed himself toward the head of the bed. 5. His blessing upon Joseph’s sons. Then Israel strengthened himself and sat up on the bed, and said, Bring, I pray you, your two sons to me, and I will bless them. Now the eyes of Israel were dim with age, so that he could not see. And Joseph took them both,— Ephraim in his right hand toward Israel’s left hand, and Manasseh in his left hand toward Israel’s right hand, and brought them near to him. Then Israel stretched out his right hand and laid it upon the head of Ephraim, who was the younger, and his left hand upon the head of Manasseh, crossing his hands intentionally; for Manasseh was the first-born. And he blessed them, saying, The God before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac walked, the God who hath been my shepherd all my life long unto this day, the Messenger, who hath redeemed me from all evil, bless the lads; and let my name be perpetuated by them, and the name of my fathers Abraham and Isaac; and let them grow into a multitude in the. midst of the earth. But when Joseph saw that his father laid his right hand upon the head of Ephraim, it displeased him, and he seized his father’s hand to remove it from Ephraim’s head to Manasseh’s head. And Joseph said to his father; Not so, my father; this one is the firstborn; put your right hand upon his head. But his father refused and said, I know, my son, I know, he also shall become a people, and he also shall be great; nevertheless his younger brother shall be greater than he, and his descendants shall become a multitude of nations. 6. His death. Then Israel drew his feet up into the bed, and was gathered unto his people. And Joseph fell upon his father’s face and wept upon him and kissed him. 7. The embalming of Israel. Then Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father. So the physicians embalmed Israel, and they devoted forty days to it; for thus long the days of embalming last; and the Egyptians wept for him seventy days. 8. Pharaoh’s permission to bury him in Canaan. And when the days of weeping for him were past, Joseph spoke to the house of Pharaoh, saying, If now I have found favor in your sight, speak, I pray you, in the ears of Pharaoh, saying, ‘ My father made me take oath, saying, “ Lo, I am dying; in my grave which I have digged for myself in the land of Canaan, there you shall bury me.” ’ Now therefore let me go up, I pray you, and bury my father; after that I will return. And Pharaoh said, Go up and bury your father, as he made you take oath. 9. The public burial and mourning. So Joseph went up to bury his father; and with him went up all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of his house, and all the elders of the land of Egypt, and all the house of Joseph, and his brothers, and his father’s house. Only their little ones and their sheep and cattle they left in the province of Goshen. And there went up with him both chariots and horsemen, so that it was a very great company. And when they came to Goren-ha-Atad [Threshing-floor of the thorn bush] which is beyond Jordan, there they held a very great and solemn lamentation; and Joseph made a mourning for his father seven days. And when the inhabitants of the land, the Canaanites, saw the mourning in Goren-ha-Atad, they said, This is a solemn mourning which the Egyptians are holding. Therefore its name was called Abel-Mizraim [Mourning of the Egyptians]; it is beyond the Jordan. Then Joseph returned to Egypt after he had buried his father, together with his brothers and all who went up with him to bury his father. 10. Joseph’s assurances to his ’ brothers. Now when Joseph’s brothers saw that their father was dead, they said, What if Joseph should hate us, and should requite us all the evil which we did to him! So they sent a message to Joseph, saying, Your father commanded before he died saying, ‘Thus shall you say to Joseph, “0 forgive, now, the wickedness and sin of your brothers, in that they have treated you basely.” ’ So now, we pray, forgive the wickedness of the servants of your father’s God. And Joseph began to weep, as they were speaking to him. And his brothers also went and fell down before him and said, Here, take us as your slaves. But Joseph said to them, Do not be afraid; for am I in the place of God ? You meant evil against me, but God meant it for good, in order to accomplish that which is being done this day,— the saving of the lives of many people. Now therefore do not be afraid; I will provide food for you and your little ones. Thus he comforted them and spoke reassuringly to them. 11. His long and prosperous life. So Joseph dwelt in Egypt together with his father’s house. And Joseph lived a hundred and ten years. And Joseph saw Ephraim’s great-grandchildren; the children also of Machir, the son of Manasseh, were borne upon Joseph’s knees. 12.Instructions regarding his burial. Then Joseph said to his brothers, I am about to die; but God will surely visit you and bring you up from this land to the land which he confirmed by an oath to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Joseph then took an oath of the children of Israel, saying, When God visits you, as he surely will, then you shall carry up my bones from here. So Joseph died being a hundred and ten years old; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt. I.Joseph’s Provision for His Kinsmen. The opening paragraphs of this section record one of the noblest scenes in the Joseph stories. In the eyes of the Egyptians shepherds were regarded with scorn and hatred. Although, doubtless, well aware of this strong antipathy, Joseph was not content until he had introduced his aged father and shepherd brothers to Pharaoh and his court. According to the earliest narrative, his kinsmen were assigned to the territory of Goshen. This evidently included the fertile, low-lying lands extending eastward from the Delta of the Nile to the Isthmus of Suez and the desert. The agricultural resources of this region were not developed until the reign of Ramses II. In the days of Joseph these level plains were evidently still given up to flocks and herds. The land of Goshen, therefore, furnished an ideal home for these men from the wilderness. There they could still retain their tribal organization, their nomadic habits and, to a great extent, their independence. Through this territory ran the great caravan route from Egypt, back through the wilderness to Palestine, so that the Hebrews were able to keep in close touch with their kinsmen in Canaan and the South Country. An interesting parallel to the biblical story is found in an inscription of Merneptah, which comes from the latter part of the thirteenth century B.C. It tells of certain Shasu or Bedouin tribes coming from Aduma or Edom, which were allowed to pass “ the fortress of king Merneptah in Thuku (Succoth) to the pools of King Merneptah, which are in Thuku, that they might obtain food for themselves and for their cattle in the field of the Pharaoh, who is the gracious sun in every land.” II.Israel’s Dying Blessing, The intense interest which the Hebrews always felt in a father’s dying blessing again finds expression in the patriarchal stories. A later editor has introduced in connection with the story of the death of Israel, a group of tribal songs cast in the form of oracles. As will be seen later (§ XXXV), in their final form they probably come from the days of the united kingdom under David. In the original Judean narrative, Israel’s blessing is bestowed primarily upon the two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh. These represent the two great tribes of central Israel. Of these two, Ephraim was the more important, although the tribe of Manasseh was apparently the first to secure a permanent home (east of the Jordan), and was, therefore, regarded as the older. The later superiority of the tribe of Ephraim is recognized in the account of the patriarch’s blessing. Not upon the head of the older, Manasseh, but upon the head of Ephraim the younger, rested the right hand of Israel. In the writings of the northern prophet Hosea, Ephraim also represents Northern Israel as a whole, even as Judah stands for Southern Israel. The blessing itself is similar to that found on the lips of the earlier patriarchs: it promises political power and great increase in numbers. Thus, in a ripe old age, refined and softened by the struggles of his earlier years, the aged patriarch died surrounded by his sorrowing sons. Tradition adds that, followed by his children and the mourning Egyptians, his body was borne back in solemn procession and buried in the land of Canaan. Joseph continued, after the death of his father, to treat his conscience- stricken brothers with the same noble generosity, assuring them by word and deed of his complete forgiveness. To Joseph were granted the three superlative beatitudes: honor and respect, long life and loyal offspring. After his death, his body was embalmed and, according to the Northern Israelite narrative and in keeping with the solemn oath of his brothers, was later borne back by the returning Israelites, when they left Egypt and set their faces toward Canaan. III.The Various Elements in the Joseph Stories. No careful reader can fail to recognize the presence of a large ideal element in the Joseph stories. The aim of the prophetic story-tellers was evidently to portray a perfect type of the successful man of affairs. No history or literature contains a more vivid illustration of the qualities essential to success. Honesty, perseverance, cheerfulness in adversity, fidelity and eagerness to improve every opportunity are invincible in any age. According to the standards of Joseph’s day, these qualities were crowned by the highest conceivable rewards. Nothing that oriental imagination could suggest was wanting to fill the cup of Joseph to overflowing. Yet throughout, the portrait is true to life and especially to the life of the ancient East. As has already been indicated, the origin of certain Egyptian institutions, as for example, the agrarian laws, are also attributed to Joseph. The story of his temptation is strikingly similar to the Egyptian “Tale of the Two Brothers,” current probably long before the days of Joseph. The tendency to combine traditions, originally distinct, was perhaps at work here as elsewhere in the patriarchal stories; but back of the narratives as a whole, there is clearly a substantial basis of historic fact. IV.Archaeological Exactness of the Joseph Stories. The historical character of the Joseph stories- is strongly attested by their remarkable archaeological exactness. Where there was every opportunity for error, they are almost without exception faithful to their peculiar setting. No ancient civilization was more distinct and unique than that of Egypt. Highly developed, self-satisfied, and shut in by natural barriers, Egypt lived apart almost as a hermit nation. Her customs, her language and her system of writing were shared by no other peoples of antiquity, and yet at every point the narrator reveals a thorough familiarity with Egyptian life. Not only was he acquainted with Egypt’s peculiar system of taxation and with its current literature, but he also introduces several Egyptian names and words. Peculiar Egyptian customs are also reflected in the stories, as for example, the giving of the much-prized golden collar, which was bestowed upon a public servant for distinguished achievement. Thus, according to a well-known inscription, Aahmes, a famous admiral, received it for his prowess and courage in an important battle. Even the references to the famine may be paralleled by passages from contemporary Egyptian inscriptions. The number of years which Joseph lived—one hundred and ten —was in itself a realization of a characteristic Egyptian ideal. In this way, for example, the virtue of the ancient Egyptian sage, Ptah- hotep, was rewarded. V.The Josephs of Egyptian History. The court of Egypt, especially under the rulers of the eighteenth dynasty, offered, even to those of humble origin, rare opportunities of attaining prominence and authority. Relations with Asia were very close, and the later rulers of this dynasty not only made treaties with Asiatic kings but also entered into marriage with their daughters. A large number of Semitic words, as well as ideas and customs, gained admission at this time into the land of the Nile. During the reign of Amenhotep III, and especially that of his son, the great reforming king, Amenhotep IV, several Semites, whose names are recorded, rose to positions of great authority. Thus, for example, according to the contemporary el-Amarna tablets, a certain Dudu was one of the trusted officials of Amenhotep IV. He is addressed by one of the governors of Egypt as, “my lord, my father.” Even more interesting and significant are the references to another Semite, Yanhamu, who had control of the magazines of corn in the land of Jarmutu, which probably included the east Delta. He also directed the Egyptian rule in Palestine. The Egyptian governors of Palestine frequently refer to him in terms which suggest that his authority was second only to that of the Pharaoh himself. Rib-addi of Gebal, to secure a favorable settlement of certain of his grievances, asks the king of Egypt to say to Yanhamu, “Behold, Rib-addi is in thy power and anything which happens to him touches thee.” In another letter he asks the king to command Yanhamu to take the field at once with troops. The governor of Gaza and Joppa also speaks of having been brought, while still young, to the Egyptian court by the same Yanhamu. While Yanhamu may not be identical with the original Joseph of the Hebrew tradition, the analogy is exceedingly suggestive. In the light of all these facts the most satisfactory explanation of the Joseph stories is that they record, doubtless in a somewhat idealized form, the experiences of a young Semite, who by his personal ability attained to a position of great authority and honor in the land of Egypt. VI.The Age at WhichJosephLived. The older Egyptologists were inclined to find the background of the Joseph story in the days of the Hyksos conquest. Then Semitic rulers controlled the land of the Nile. To maintain their precarious position in the presence of a large and hostile population they would naturally encourage Asiatic immigration, and would show especial favors to men of Semitic origin. The Joseph stories, however, imply that not a foreign, but a native Egyptian king then ruled on the throne. The favors which came to Joseph were also won not by the sword, but by the ability and services of the hero. Furthermore, the evidence of the ancient inscriptions suggests that the ancestors of the Hebrews were not found in the land of Palestine in the days of the Hyksos conquest, but that they first began to appear as nomadic immigrants in the later days of the eighteenth dynasty, and at a date not earlier than 1500 B.C. In view of these facts and of the policy and characteristics of the later kings of the eighteenth dynasty it seems far more probable that Amenhotep III or IV was the Pharaoh at whose court the young Hebrew won signal distinction. The same period furnishes a most satisfactory background for the migration of certain Hebrew tribes toward eastern Egypt. This conclusion is also substantiated by the chronology of the oldest Hebrew narratives, which assign only about one hundred and fifty years to the sojourn of the Hebrews in Egypt (cf. § XIX, vi). Thus, if the exodus be dated about 1200, Joseph’s date would be near the middle of the fourteenth century B.C., when the rule of the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty was drawing to a close. VII.The Primary Value of the Patriarchal Stories. The literary, historical and archaeological value of the Joseph stories, and of the patriarchal narratives which precede, is obvious; but that which gives these ancient tribal stories their abiding interest and authority is the work of the later prophetic historians. These interpreters of the divine presence in human life emphasize in this concrete way the great truth that, before the dawn of Hebrew history, Jehovah was guiding the destinies of his chosen people. The individual men and races are but the actors in the great drama which illustrates the eternal laws of life and reveals God’s active participation in the affairs of men. If it should be proved that the patriarchs were but the creations of the prophetic story-teller’s art, Abraham, Jacob and Joseph would still live to inspire and guide men in resisting that which is evil and in choosing that which is good. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 31: 031. THE BONDAGE AND DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT ======================================================================== THE BONDAGE AND DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT ======================================================================== CHAPTER 32: 032. XIX. THE OPPRESSION OF THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT ======================================================================== § XIX.THE OPPRESSION OF THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT Exodus 1 1 .Rapid increase of the Israelites. Now Joseph died and all his brothers and all that generation. And the Israelites became numerous and powerful. Then there arose a new king over Egypt, who knew not Joseph. And he said to his people, See, the Israelite people are becoming more numerous and powerful than we; come, let us deal subtly with them, lest they become so numerous that, if a war arise, they will join our enemies, and fight against us, and go out of the land. 2.Measures to prevent their increase. Therefore the Egyptians set over them taskmasters to impose tasks upon them. And they built for Pharaoh store- cities, Pithom and Ramses. But the more the Egyptians afflicted them, the more numerous they became and the more they spread abroad so that the Egyptians became apprehensive of the Israelites. Therefore they made their lives bitter with hard service in mortar and in brick, but the people became very numerous and powerful. 3. Slaughter of the male- children. And the king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives, of whom the name of one was Shiphrah, and the name of the other Puah; and he said, When you perform the office of midwife for the Hebrew women, and see them upon the birth-stool; if it be a son, then you shall kill him; but if it be a daughter, she shall live. But the midwives feared God, and did not do as the king of Egypt commanded them, but saved the male-children alive. Therefore the king of Egypt called for the midwives, and said to them, Why have you done thus and saved the male-children alive? The midwives answered Pharaoh, Because the Hebrew women are not as the Egyptian women; for they are vigorous; before the midwife comes to them, they are already delivered. Therefore God dealt well with the midwives. And it came to pass, because the midwives feared God, that he built up their families. Then Pharaoh commanded all his people saying, Every son that is born to the Hebrews you shall cast into the river, but every daughter you shall save alive. I.The Stories Regarding the Bondage and Exodus. The book of Exodus marks the transition from early tribal stories to the real history of the Hebrews. The book itself is divided at the second verse of the nineteenth chapter into two distinct parts. The latter part consists of laws and detailed directions regarding the building of the ark, but the first half continues the history of Genesis. The same three great strands of narrative run through these first eighteen chapters, and, as in Genesis, they are so closely combined that they make one consecutive history. The late priestly material is comparatively unimportant. The main narrative is the early Judean, supplemented by extracts from the Northern Israelite prophetic stories. Each of these prophetic histories has its marked peculiarities. Thus, for example, in the Judean the Hebrews are settled in Goshen, an Egyptian province east of the Delta and bordering on Arabia. There they retain their flocks and tribal organization and soon become very numerous. The northern history, on the contrary, represents them as living among the Egyptians, and so few that two midwives suffice for the needs of the Hebrew mothers. In general, however, the two prophetic narratives closely agree. Both pass over the oppression very briefly and focus attention on Moses, the great prophetic character of the period. No definite dates are given in these early histories. Not even the names of the Pharaohs of the oppression and of the exodus are remembered. As in Genesis, the personality of the great leaders, the significance of Israel’s varied experiences, and the religious import of the different stories chiefly concern the prophetic writers. While the narrative contains much valuable historical data, it is more than a mere record, it is a religious philosophy of history. In the text adopted (in § XIX) the two prophetic versions of the oppression have been combined. The northern account has been placed at the end, since it contains the natural introduction to the birth of Moses. II.The Serf Class in Egypt. Changes in dynasties, with corresponding changes in policy, were frequent in Egypt. The victorious foreign campaigns conducted by the kings of the eighteenth dynasty (Introd. III, V) brought back many captives to swell the large serf class in Egypt. The policy of the later kings also called for vast levies of forced labor. The result was that the serfs so far outnumbered the free Egyptians that there was abundant ground for the fears suggested in the biblical narrative. Doubtless the painful memories of the Hyksos invaders also led the Egyptians to look with hatred and fear upon the Asiatic shepherds, settled on their eastern borders. Throughout most of its history, Egypt’s conquerors came from the east. In case of war these foreign Semitic settlers would naturally join with the foe. III.The Discovery of Pithom. As a result of the excavations of the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1883, Pithom has been identified with certain ruins in the Wady Tumilat, not far from the eastern terminus of the modern railway which runs from Cairo to the Suez Canal. It lay, therefore, within the biblical land of Goshen. Naville, who excavated at this point, found several inscriptions apparently bearing the Egyptian name of the city, P-atum, House of the god Atum. In later Egyptian geographical lists P-atum appears as the name of a local province. The excavations disclosed a great square brick wall with the ruins of a temple and store-chambers inside. These large store-houses or granaries were peculiar to these ruins. They were large structures containing many rectangular chambers of various sizes, surrounded by walls, two or three yards in thickness, made of crude bricks. The chambers were not connected. From contemporary inscriptions it appears that they were filled with grain from the top and were emptied in the same way, or through a door at the side. The excavations have also shown that the city was founded by the great builder, Ramses II. During the first twenty years of his reign, he developed and colonized for the first time the territory lying east of the Delta. This was the region known to the biblical writers as the land of Goshen or Rameses. An Egyptian papyrus also states that one of the chief cities founded by him in this territory and evidently not far from Pithom was “the house of Ramses,” with a royal residence and temples. A later poet speaks of it as being situated between Egypt and Syria. From this it may be inferred that it was one of the fortified cities that guarded the Asiatic frontier. IV.The Pharaoh of the Oppression. In the light of these facts there is little doubt that Ramses II, who reigned from about 1292 to 1225 B.C., was the Pharaoh of the oppression. All that is stated in the biblical narratives is in perfect harmony with the character and policy of that energetic, splendor-loving, tyrannical king, who filled all Egypt with huge statues of himself and memorials of his vast building enterprises. V.The Absence of References to the Hebrews in Egypt. The fact that the Egyptian inscriptions contain no reference to the Hebrews in Egypt has led certain scholars to question whether or not the Israelites were ever in the land of the Nile. The one contemporary allusion to Israelites is found in the recently discovered triumphal stele of Merneptah, son of the great Ramses II (cf. vii). The Israelites there referred to are clearly living in the land of Palestine. In the face of this definite contemporary testimony, it is necessary to weigh carefully the comparative evidence. That certain Israelite tribes were for a time found in the land of Egypt is attested by the following considerations: (1) Nearly all the earliest Old Testament writers allude to it as a well-established incident in their national history. Their unanimous and independent testimony is best explained by a common basis of historical fact. (2) It is improbable and practically inconceivable that a story, so humiliating to the pride of the Hebrews, would have been invented in a later period when Egypt was their ally, as in the days of Solomon, or when it was but a weak and waning power. (3) There is fundamental agreement between the earliest biblical narratives and the contemporary inscriptions regarding the attitude of the Egyptians toward the foreigners in their midst. (4) In the light of Egyptian usage it is not strange that there is no reference to the Israelite serfs in the land of Egypt. Under the nineteenth dynasty, as a result of the many successful campaigns and the building policy of the reigning Pharaohs, an exceedingly large serf class was found in the land of the Nile. These aliens are designated, not according to their racial origin, but as a distinct class. Therefore, if any reference was made to the Israelites, it would have been by this general designation. VI.Duration of the Sojourn. While there is little doubt that there were Hebrews in the land of Egypt, it is evident that the biblical narratives must be interpreted in the light of contemporary records and conditions. The different sources are not in agreement regarding many details. The early Judean narrative is silent regarding the duration of the sojourn. In Genesis 15:16, which belongs to the Northern Israelite history, it is stated that the Hebrews were to return to Palestine in the fourth generation. This implies a period of between one hundred and one hundred and fifty years. The same duration is suggested by the priestly writer in Numbers 26:57; Numbers 26:59. The late priestly writer of Exodus 616-20 states that Moses was of the fourth generation from Levi, which would give the same relative period of one hundred and fifty years. On the other hand, a late editor, in Genesis 15:13, predicts that the period of foreign sojourn was to last exactly four hundred years. Another compiler, in Exodus 12:40, affirms that the time the Israelites dwelt in Egypt was four hundred and thirty years. With this passage definitely in mind, the author of Galatians 3:17 assigns four hundred and thirty years to the period from Abraham to Sinai. Josephus and the translators of the Samaritan and Greek versions, give the duration of the sojourn as two hundred and fifteen years, which is evidently a compromise between the shorter and the longer periods suggested by the earlier writers. With this conflicting biblical data the final decision must turn upon the testimony of the contemporary Egyptian records. If Amenhotep IV was, as seems very probable, the Pharaoh who raised the young Syrian, known to the Hebrews by the name of Joseph, to a position of commanding authority, the beginning of the Hebrew sojourn in Egypt would fall under the rule of that king (who reigned from 1375 to 1358 B.C.). Accepting Ramses II (who reigned from 1292 to 1225 B.C.) as the Pharaoh of the oppression, and dating the exodus about 1200 (cf. § XXII,V), the duration of the sojourn would be about one hundred and fifty years. It is significant that this conclusion is in substantial agreement with the earliest Hebrew records. On the other hand, if Joseph’s Pharaoh be identified with one of the Hyksos, who were expelled about 1580 B.C., the total period of the sojourn would be about four hundred or four hundred and thirty years. Josephus even went so far as to identify the Hebrews with the Hyksos. The longer period assigned by the latest biblical writers is probably the result of a similar identification. Either of these periods would give a sufficient time for the increase in the numbers of the Israelites suggested by the earlier traditions; but the shorter period on the whole accords best with the facts of Egyptian and Hebrew history. VII.The Hebrew Tribes in Egypt. Although inferred in the Joseph stories, it is by no means certain that all the Hebrew tribes went down to Egypt. References in the record of the campaigns of Seti I and Ramses II to a state called Asaru or Aseru, situated in western Galilee, would seem to indicate that the Northern Israelite tribe, which bore the corresponding name Asher, was already settled in Palestine. The reference in the account which his son Merneptah gives of the victorious campaign in Palestine, leaves no doubt that at that time a consider able portion of the people, which later crystallized into the Hebrew nation, was to be found in Canaan. The reference is as follows: Plundered is Canaan with every evil; Askalon is carried into captivity; Gezer is taken; Yenoam is annihilated, Israel is desolated, her seed is not, Palestine has become a widow for Egypt. All lands are united, they are pacified. Every one who is turbulent has been bound by King Merneptah. The earliest Hebrew records also indicate that several of the Arab tribes, which later coalesced into the tribe of Judah, had at an early time secured a foothold in southern Palestine. In the light of these facts it seems probable that only a part of the twelve Hebrew tribes went to Egypt. The prophetic narratives themselves suggest that these were the Joseph tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, and possibly the ancestors of certain other clans that ultimately found their home in central and southern Canaan. The earlier narratives do not agree regarding the number of Hebrews found in the land of Egypt. The fact that, according to the Northern Israelite version, two mid wives sufficed to meet the needs of the mothers in Israel implies that the Israelites at that time were to be numbered by hundreds rather than by thousands (cf. § XXIII, ii). VIII.The Effects of the Egyptian Sojourn. In addition to their rapid and important increase in numbers, the Hebrews clearly profited in many ways by their sojourn in Egypt. Although they appear to have largely retained their nomadic habits and traditions, and to have maintained their connection with the neighboring tribes of Palestine and the desert, they must have been influenced by the civilization of Egypt. That influence appears to have been material rather than religious. Living near the eastern frontier, they had ample opportunity to study the Egyptian methods of warfare and military equipment. To a certain degree they would also acquire a knowledge of the Egyptian arts of agriculture. Under the rule of the great Ramses II they were strongly affected, even though against their wills, by the highly organized social and political system which then bound together all the peoples in the land of the Nile. The influence, which appears to have left the deepest and lasting impression upon them, was, however, their reaction against the customs and religious ideas of their hated oppressors. The oppression itself also tended to bind together by the common bond of suffering the various clans who later, under the leadership of Moses, sought freedom and deliverance in the wilderness. Their suffering and need thus prepared the way for the work of Moses and the birth of the Hebrew nation. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 33: 033. XX. MOSES’S CHILDHOOD AND TRAINING ======================================================================== § XX. MOSES’S CHILDHOOD AND TRAINING Exodus 2 1.Moses’sbirthand concealment. Now a man of the house of Levi had married a daughter of Levi. And the woman conceived, and bore a son; and when she saw that he was a beautiful child, she hid him for three months. But when she could no longer hide him, she took for him an ark of papyrus reeds, and daubed it with bitumen and pitch, and after she had put the child in it, she placed it in the reeds by the bank of the Nile. And his sister stood at a distance to learn what would be done to him. 2.Adoption by Pharaoh’s daughter. Now the daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe in the Nile, and while her maids were walking along beside the Nile, she saw the ark among the reeds, and sent her waiting-maid to bring it. And when she opened it and saw the child, behold, the baby-boy was crying. And she had pity on him and said, This is one of the Hebrews’ children. Then his sister said to Pharaoh’s daughter, Shall I go and call a nurse of the Hebrew women, that she may nurse the child for you? And Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, Go. So the maiden went and called the child’s mother. And Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, Take this child away and nurse it for me, and I will give you wages. Then the woman took the child and nursed it. But when the child had grown up, she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter, and he became her son. And she called his name Moses, for she said, I drew him out of the water. 3. Moses’s murder of an Egyptian. Now it came to pass in those days, when Moses had grown up, that he went out to his kinsmen and saw their tasks; and he beheld an Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, one of his kinsmen. And he looked this way and that, and when he saw that there was no one in sight, he smote the Egyptian, and hid him in the sand. 4.Flight from Pharaoh’s court. And he went out on the following day and saw two men of the Hebrews striving together; and he said to the one who was doing the wrong, Why do you smite your fellow- workman? But he replied, Who made you a prince and a judge over us? do you intend to kill me as you killed the Egyptian? Then Moses was afraid and said, Surely the thing is known. When, therefore, Pharaoh heard this thing, he sought to kill Moses. But Moses fled from the presence of Pharaoh and took up his abode in the land of Midian. 5. His life in Midian. Now he was sitting down by a well. And the priest of Midian had seven daughters; and they came and drew water, and filled the troughs to water their father’s flock. But the shepherds came and drove them away; then Moses stood up and helped them and watered their flock. And when they came to Reuel their father, he said, How is it that you have come so early to-day? And they said, An Egyptian delivered us from the shepherds, and besides, he drew water for us, and watered the flock. Then he said to his daughters, And where is he? why have you left the man? Call him that he may eat bread with us. And Moses was content to dwell with the man; and he gave Moses Zipporah his daughter. And she bore a son, and she called his name Gershom [An alien resident there]; for he said, I have been an alien resident in a foreign land. I.The Moses Stories. With the second chapter of Exodus the narrative ceases to be a record of national experiences and again becomes a personal biography. Moses, however, stands as the representative of his age. Simply and with superlative dramatic power the narrative records the different stages in the training of the prophet. Poetic and prophetic imagination may have supplied the details in these wonderful stories; but the narratives themselves are in perfect harmony with conditions of the age. Stories regarding the birth of a great hero usually spring last into existence. The exquisite story of the birth of Moses was apparently not known to the earliest historians, for it is found only in the Northern Israelite group of narratives; but it is in harmony with the other facts in Moses’s life. II.Moses’s Birth and Early Training. The prophetic tradition associates Moses with the tribe of Levi, which figures in later history as the tribe especially devoted to the care of the sanctuaries and of Jehovah’s oracles. A very late priestly tradition also adds that Moses was the fourth in the line from Levi, the son of a certain Amram and Jochebed. The modem reader shares the fear of the mother, the keen interest of the watching sister, and the sense of relief and joy when the Hebrew baby is received into the palace of the Pharaohs and entrusted to the tender care of his own mother. Although the Old Testament histories do not record the fact, the statement in Acts 7:22 that Moses was instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians is in perfect accord with the implications of the story. Opportunity was thus given for the future prophet to become intimately acquainted with the policy and character of the reigning house of Egypt and to note the oppression of his people and to estimate intelligently the possibilities of their deliverance. Moses’s life in the Egyptian court also gave him that training and knowledge which were essential to his work as the leader of an infant nation. III.The Great Crisis in Moses’s Life. The great crisis in Moses’s life came to him unexpectedly. The event proved, however, that he was not unprepared to meet it. The temptation to luxury and to a false view of life, which were strong in the court of the Egyptians, had not dulled his sense of justice and loyalty to his race or his power to act. Judged by the laws of Egypt, his slaying of the Egyptian taskmaster was a crime. Measured by the universal laws which must govern men or nations at great critical moments in their history, when the issue is clear between intrenched injustice and the rights of classes or of the individual, Moses’s act was akin to that of the great patriots of the past and the present who have taken the sword to deliver their people from the hands of tyrants. His act may be condemned as hasty. In its immediate results it was as fruitless, as is every hasty and intemperate attempt to right a wrong by violence. It was significant, however, because it allied Moses definitely with his kinsmen. It also marked an important step in the making of the prophet. The great need, which is the first essential in the call of a prophet, had been clearly revealed to him, and he had responded to the call. Henceforth he was committed to the greater task of freeing his kinsmen from that oppression which had aroused his youthful wrath. With him it was a question of further training in knowledge and method. These came in the new field of experience which opened to him as he fled a fugitive out into the wilderness. IV.The Origin of the Jehovah Religion. Although it is not definitely stated, it is probable that he followed the great highway which runs from the Isthmus of Suez to the eastern arm of the Red Sea. He fled back to those nomad tribes on the border of Edom, which appear to have shared with his ancestors the worship of the same God. This conclusion is confirmed by the readiness with which he was received, even as Jacob of the patriarchal stories, by the Midianite chieftain, who soon adopted him as a member of his own family. In the early Judean narrative, this father-in-law of Moses bears the name of Hobab or Reuel, but in Northern Israelite stories he is known by the more familiar name of Jethro. The Midianites were a nomadic people who appeared sometimes to the southeast and sometimes to the east of Palestine. In general, however, they ranged up and down east of Edom and the eastern arm of the Red Sea. In the subsequent narratives Jethro is still further identified as a Kenite. In the earliest Hebrew traditions the Kenites figure as worshippers of Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews. The clear implication of these early narratives is that Moses worshipped the God of these local Midianite tribes, and from that God received the message which made him the prophetic leader of his people. From these facts the conclusion has been drawn by recent writers that Moses for the first time there learned of the new God, whom he worshipped and later proclaimed as the true God and deliverer of his kinsmen in Egypt. It has been urged that the religion of the Hebrews was unique, primarily because at the exodus they were delivered by this newly revealed God, and then that the debt of gratitude which they therefore felt was the basis of their national faith. While this inference is not impossible, it is only a conjecture, and not altogether satisfactory. At this early period the different tribes in southwestern Arabia, and especially to the south of Canaan, appear to have been closely bound together by tradition, custom and religious belief. This fact is definitely and repeatedly stated in the patriarchal stories. It is also difficult to conceive of a group of clans, like the Hebrews in Egypt, suddenly adopting the worship of a hitherto unknown god. It seems more probable, therefore, that Moses only appealed to the faith of his clansmen, which had perhaps been dimmed by the long and painful contact with the dominating civilization of Egypt. If this is true, Moses’s experiences in Midian, as the subsequent stories imply, meant simply that revival of his own faith in the God of his race, which was essential to his great prophetic work. V.Influence of the Wilderness Life upon Moses. The wilderness, with its barren wastes, its solitude, its rocky heights, its sense of dependence, ever intensified by the paucity of food and water, was well fitted to develop the religious instincts of the youthful fugitive. The close communication between Midian and the land of Egypt also enabled him to keep in constant touch with the needs of his kinsmen. In the quiet of the wilderness the great need, the divine message and the man to deliver it came together, and thus a prophet was born. VI.Aim and Teachings of the Stories. The primary aim of these stories is historical and biographical; but the truths which they illustrate find their basis in universal human experience. Even if tradition has contributed certain details to these fascinating narratives, they remain absolutely true to life. They reveal the working of the divine Providence which overrules for good the most cruel and despotic plans of men. (1) The seemingly trivial accidents of life are important factors in the realizing of God’s purpose in the lives of men and nations. (2) The blow struck hastily and in anger, even in behalf of a righteous cause, is usually futile. (3) The recognition of a crying public need is the first element in a prophet’s call. (4) Long and special training is required for every great service. (5) Opportunities for training come to each man whose spirit is right. (6) These opportunities lie along the ordinary paths of life. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 34: 034. XXI. MOSES’S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS ======================================================================== XXI. MOSES’S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS Exodus 2-6 Early Judean Prophetic Northern Israelite Late Priestly History 1. The divine revelation to Moses. Now it came to pass in the course of those many days that the king of Egypt died. Then the Messenger of Je­hovah appeared to [Moses] in a flame of fire out of the midst of a thorn bush; and he looked and be­hold the thorn bush burned with fire without being con­sumed. Then Moses said, I will turn aside now, and see this great sight, why the thorn bush is not burned. And when Jehovah saw that he turned aside to see, he said from the midst of the thorn bush, Draw not nigh hither; put off thy sandals from off thy feet, for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground. 1. The divine revelation to Moses. Now Moses was keeping the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law, the priest of Midian. And he led the flock to the back of the wilderness, and came to the mountain of God, to Horeb. Then God called to him, saying, Moses, Moses. And he said, Here am I. And he said, I am the God of thy father, the God of Abra­ham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. And Moses hid his face; for he was afraid to look upon God. 1. The divine revelation to Moses. Now the Israelites sighed by reason of the forced labor, and they cried, and their cry came up to God because of the forced labor. And God heard their groan­ing, and God re­membered his cov­enant with Abra­ham, with Isaac and with Jacob. And God looked upon the Is­raelites, and God knew. Therefore God spoke to Moses and said to him, I am Jehovah; and I ap­peared to Abraham, to Isaac and to Jacob, as El-Shaddai [God Almighty]; but by my name Jehovah I did not reveal myself to them. And I have also established my covenant with them, to give them the land of Canaan, the land in which they so­journed. 2. Moses’s commission. And Jehovah said, I have surely seen the af­fliction of my people that are in Egypt, and have heard their cry of anguish, because of their taskmasters, for I know their sorrows; and I am come down to deliver them out of the power of the Egyp­tians, and to bring them up out of that land to a land, beautiful and broad, to a land flowing with milk and honey; Go and gather the elders of Israel to­gether and say to them, Jehovah, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, hath appeared to me, saying, I have surely visited you, and seen that which is done to you in Egypt; and I have said I will bring you up out of the affliction of Egypt to a land flowing with milk and honey. And they shall hearken to thy voice; and thou shalt come, together with the elders of Israel, to the king of Egypt, and ye shall say to him, ‘ Je­hovah, the God of the Hebrews hath appeared to us; and now let us go, we pray thee, three days’ journey into the wilderness, that we may sacrifice to Jehovah our God.’ 2. Moses’s commission. Then God said, Now, be­hold, the cry of anguish of the Israelites has come to me ; more­over I have seen how sorely the Egyptians op­press them. Come now, therefore, and I will send thee to Pharaoh, that thou mayest bring forth my people the Israelites out of Egypt. But Moses said to God, Who am I, that I should go to Pharaoh, and should bring the Israelites out of Egypt ? And he said, I will surely be with thee; and this shall be the sign to thee,that I have sent thee: when thou shalt have brought forth the people out of Egypt, ye shall worship God upon this mountain. 2. Moses’s commission. And more­over I have heard the groan­ing of the Israe­lites, whom the Egyptians keep in bondage; and I have remem­bered my cove­nant. Therefore say to the Israel­ites, ‘I am Jeho­vah, and I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and I will deliver you from their forced labor, and I will redeem you with an outstretched arm, and with mighty judg­ments, and I will take you for my people, and I will be to you a God; and ye shall know that I am Jehovah your God, who bring- eth you out from under the bur­dens of the Egyp­tians. And I will bring you to the land which I sware to give to Abraham, to Isaac and to Jacob; and I will give it to you as a heritage, I am Jehovah.’ 3. His hesitation and the divine assurance. Then Moses answered and said, But, behold, they will not believe me, nor hearken to my voice; for they will say, ‘ Jehovah hath not appeared to you.’ And Jehovah said to him, What is that in thy hand? And he said, A staff. And he said, Cast it on the ground. And he cast it on the ground and it became a serpent; and Moses fled from before it. Then Je­hovah said to Moses, Put forth thy hand and take it by the tail (and he put forth his hand and laid hold of it, and it became a staff in his hand), that they may believe that Jehovah, the God of their fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath appeared to thee. And Jehovah said furthermore to him, Put now thy hand into thy bosom. And he put his hand into his bosom; and when he took it out, be­hold, his hand was leprous, as white as snow. And he said, Put thy hand into thy bosom again. (And he put his hand into his bosom again; and when he took it out of his bosom, behold, it had become again as his other flesh). And then, if they will not believe thee, nor hearken to the testi­mony of the first sign, they will believe the testimony of the other. But if they will not believe even these two signs, nor hearken to thy testimony, thou shalt take of the water of the Nile, and pour it upon the dry land; and the water which thou takest out of the Nile shall become blood upon the dry land. But Moses said to Jehovah, Oh, Lord, I am not eloquent, neither before nor since thou hast spoken to thy servant; for I am slow of speech, and slow of utter­ance. Then Jehovah said to him, Who hath given a man a mouth? or who maketh one dumb, or deaf, or seeing, or blind? is it not I, Jehovah? Now therefore go, and I will be with thy mouth, and teach thee what thou shalt speak. 3. His hesitation and the divine assurance. Then Moses said to God, Behold, if I go to the Israel­ites and say to them, ‘ The God of your fathers hath sent me to you,’ and they ask me, ‘What is his name?’ what shall I an­swer them? Then God said to Moses, I AM THAT I AM; and he said, Thus shalt thou say to the Israelites, ‘ I AM hath sent me to you.’ And God also said to Moses, Thus shalt thou say to the Israel­ites, ‘Jeho­vah, the God of your fa­thers, the God of Abra- h a m , the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath sent me to you’; this is my name forever, and by this shall I be remem­bered from generation to genera­tion. But I know that the king of Egypt will not give you leave to go, unless com­pelled by a mighty power. Therefore I will put forth my hand and smite Egypt with all my wonders which I will do in its midst; and after that he will let you go. 3. His hesitation and the divine assurance. Then Moses spoke thus to the Israelites; but they hearkened not to Moses for lack of courage, and because of the hard forced labor. Therefore Jehovah com­manded Moses, saying, Go in, speak to Pharaoh king of Egypt, that he let the Israelites go out of his land. But Moses spoke be­fore Jehovah, saying, Behold, the Israelites have not heark­ened to me; how then shall Pha­raoh hear me, who am not skilled in speak­ing? Then Je­hovah said to Moses, See, I have made thee as a god to Pha­raoh ; and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet. Thou shalt speak all that I com­mand thee; and Aaron thy broth­er shall speak to Pharaoh, that he let the Israelites go out of his land. But I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and make my signs and my wonders many in the land of Egypt. Never­theless Pharaoh will not hearken to you. Then I will lay my hand upon Egypt and bring forth my hosts, my people the Israelites, out of the land of Egypt by great judgments. And the Egyptians shall know that I am Jehovah, when I stretch forth my hand upon Egypt, and bring out the Israelites from among them. 4. Delivery of Jehovah’s message to the people. So Moses went and gathered together all the elders of the Israelites, and spoke all the words which Jehovah had spoken to him, and did the signs in the sight of the people. And the people believed; and when they heard that Jehovah had visited the Israelites, and that he had seen their affliction, they bowed low their heads in worship. 5.Pharaoh’s defiant refusal to let the Hebrews depart. Then Moses came to Pharaoh and said, The God of the Hebrews hath met with me; let us go, we pray, three days’ journey into the wilderness that we may sacrifice to Jehovah our God; lest he fall upon us with pestilence or with the sword. But Pharaoh said, Behold, the people of the land are now many, and would you make them rest from their tasks? And the same day Pharaoh commanded the taskmasters who were over the people, saying, You shall no longer give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore; let them go and gather straw for themselves. But the fixed number of bricks which they have been making heretofore, you shall lay upon them; you shall not diminish it at all, for they are idle; that is why they cry aloud, saying, ‘Let us go and sacrifice to our God.’ Let heavier work be laid upon the men, that they may labor therein and that they may not regard lying words. 6. The added oppression. Therefore the taskmasters of the people went out, and spoke to the people, saying, Thus saith Pharaoh, I will no longer give you straw. Go yourselves, get straw wherever you can find it; but none of your work shall be diminished. So the people were scattered abroad throughout all the land of Egypt to gather stubble for straw. And the taskmasters were urgent, saying, You must complete your daily work, just as when there was straw. And the overseers of the Israelites, whom Pharaoh’s taskmasters had set over them, were beaten, and asked, Why have you not completed today, as yesterday, your prescribed task in making brick? 7. Complaints of the overseers. Then the overseers of the Israelites came and complained to Pharaoh, saying, Why do you deal thus with your servants? There is no straw given to your servants, and yet they are saying to us, ‘ Make bricks,’ and now your servants are being beaten; and you wrong your people. But he said, You are lazy, you are lazy; therefore you say, ‘Let us go and sacrifice to Jehovah.’ Go at once to work, for no straw shall be given to you, yet you must deliver the required number of bricks. And the overseers of the Israelites saw that they were in an evil plight, when it was said, You shall not diminish anything from your daily total of bricks. And they met Moses and Aaron, who had stationed themselves there to meet them as they came forth from Pharaoh, and they said to them, Let Jehovah regard and pronounce judgment; because you have made us odious in the eyes of Pharaoh and in the eyes of his courtiers, in that you have put a sword in their hand to slay us. 8.Moses’s protest. Then Moses turned again to Jehovah, and said, Lord, Why hast thou brought calamity upon this people? why is it that thou hast sent me? For since I came to Pharaoh to speak in thy name, he has dealt ill with this people; and thou hast not delivered thy people at all. 9. Jehovah’s reassurance. And Jehovah answered Moses, Now thou shalt see what I will do to Pharaoh; for, compelled by a mighty power, he shall assuredly let them go, yea, compelled by a mighty power, he shall drive them out of his land. I.The Three Different Accounts of Moses’s Call and Commission. In the Old Testament, as in the Gospel narratives, the more important events are recorded in three and sometimes four different versions. Regarding Moses’s call there are three distinct accounts and each is important. Back of them all lies a deep spiritual experience, which determined not only the course of Moses’s life but that of Hebrew history. In conveying to their readers a definite impression of the nature of that inner experience, it was inevitable that each group of narrators should employ different literary figures. The task was comparable to that of the early Judean prophet, who in the third chapter of Genesis has pictured the struggle in the mind of the woman between appetite, aesthetic sense, curiosity and the love of knowledge on the one hand, and love and gratitude and obedience on the other. Each group of narrators, with marvellous skill, has succeeded in bringing out, in form intelligible to their readers, the essential facts. Regarding these facts they are also in fundamental agreement. II.The Earliest Version. The divine call, according to the early Judean narrative, came to Moses from a flaming thorn bush. The story reflects the primitive belief that the Deity sometimes spoke through trees (cf. § I, xi). The essential fact, which the ancient Hebrew story clearly sets forth, is that out of the midst of the wild life of the wilderness there came to the mind of Moses a vivid conception of Jehovah’s transcendent holiness and majesty, of the needs of the oppressed Hebrews, of the possibility of their deliverance, and of his own obligation to return and lead them forth. This version of the call of Moses is in many ways strikingly similar to that of the youthful Isaiah, recorded in the sixth chapter of his prophecy. Both felt the crying needs of their race, and the necessity that some one arise and proclaim the divine truth that alone promised deliverance. Both were also profoundly impressed by the majesty of the Almighty who thus spoke to them. Their call represented that unique moment in their experience, when the voices of duty calling to them from every side became the mighty challenge from God himself, to which they responded, “Here, Lord, send me.” III.The Later Prophetic and Priestly Versions. The early Northern Israelite narrators state that Moses led the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law, which he was guarding, to the back of the wilderness and came to the mountain of God. On that sacred mount, which probably stood out in striking contrast to the rolling, rocky wilderness, God spoke directly to the heart of the future prophet and received the desired response. The memories of the way in which that God had revealed himself in the life and experience of his ancestors rose clearly before the mind of Moses. Awe overwhelmed him in the presence of the Almighty, but above all there came to him the anguished cry of his countrymen, sorely oppressed by the Egyptians, and the personal call to deliver them from the hand of Pharaoh. With this call there came the divine assurance that in the strength of the God of the sacred mountain they should be led forth to worship him at that holy spot. The late priestly narrators give the needs of the oppressed Hebrews the same central place in the call of their prophetic deliverer. They likewise emphasize God’s revelation of himself in the past history of the race, and formulate in their characteristic legal language the assurance that by the divine hand the Hebrews shall be delivered from their cruel oppression, and that Moses is called to be the agent of that deliverance. II.The Divine Assurance. Moses’s hesitation in accepting the divine call is also brought out in each of the three versions. In the early Judean, his faith is strengthened by two miraculous signs which, in turn, are to be used as credentials, as he presents himself before the elders of his race. The chief reason for his hesitation is that he is not gifted in the art of public address. This excuse is answered by the divine assurance that Jehovah himself, who created the life of man, will be with his mouth and teach him what he shall speak. In the Northern Israelite version the revelation of the sacred name, Jehovah or Yahweh, is recorded for the first time. The popular meaning “I am that I am,” interpreted in the light of Jehovah’s work as creator and leader of his people, is made the earnest of the promised deliverance. Thus Moses’s fear that his mission will be fruitless is dispelled by the divine assurance, based on the character of God, as already revealed in the life of man. The late priestly narrators, interested in the history of their traditional father Aaron, meet Moses’s objection that he is not a gifted speaker by providing that Aaron shall be his spokesman. In the classic passage, which illustrates the Hebrew conception of the true character of the prophet, Aaron is appointed as Moses’s prophet, that is, one who, like the prophets of Jehovah, shall first learn the will and message of the one he represents, and then, in form adapted to the intelligence of the people, proclaim it to them clearly and authoritatively. III.The Underlying Facts. The later events of Hebrew history point definitely to a personality and work like that of Moses. His work is, in turn, explained only by some deep spiritual experience which turned his activity into the channels of national leadership. Early Hebrew history, therefore, as a whole, confirms the testimony of these variant traditions that in some mysterious way the divine call came to Moses and that in response to it he became a prophet. These variant narratives also suggest the different factors that entered into that call: the pitiable oppression of his kinsmen and the need of an enlightened leader, who would bind them together and champion their cause, even in the presence of the tyrannical Pharaoh. The background—the wilderness with its solitude, with its life emphasizing the constant need of divine care and protection, the manifestations of the power of God in Nature, and the holy mountain with its historic associations—all these prepared the ear of the prophet to hear God’s still small voice. Moses’s hesitation, like that of Jeremiah, reveals his high sense of responsibility. His full appreciation of the greatness of the task and his faith in God’s power and ability to realize his divine purposes in human history are the unfailing marks of a true prophet. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 35: 035. XXII. THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES ======================================================================== § XXII. THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES Exodus 7:1 to Exodus 12:34 1. Jehovah’s warning to Pharaoh. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Pharaoh’s heart is stubborn; he refuseth to let the people go. But thou shalt say to him, ‘Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews, hath sent me to thee to say, “Let my people go that they may worship me in the wilderness; but hitherto thou hast not hearkened. Thus saith Jehovah, In this thou shalt know that I am Jehovah; behold, I will smite, and the fish that are in the Nile shall die, and the Nile shall become foul, so the Egyptians shall loathe to drink the water from the Nile.” ’ 2. Defilement of the Nile. Thereupon Jehovah smote the Nile, and the fish that were in the Nile died, and the Nile became foul, so that the Egyptians could not drink the water from the Nile. And all the Egyptians dug round about the Nile for water to drink; for they could not drink the water of the Nile. 3. Swarms of frogs. When seven full days had passed after Jehovah had smitten the Nile, Jehovah commanded Moses, Go in to Pharaoh, and say to him, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “Let my people go that they may worship me. And if thou refuse to let them go, then I will smite all thy territory with frogs; and the Nile shall swarm with frogs which shall go up and come into thy house, and into thy bedchamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy courtiers, and upon thy people, and into thine ovens and kneading troughs; and the frogs shall come up even upon thee and thy people and all thy courtiers.” ’ Thereupon Jehovah smote the land of Egypt with frogs. 4. Pharaoh’s request. Then Pharaoh called for Moses and said, Make supplication to Jehovah, that he may take away the frogs from me, and my people; then I will let the people go, that they may sacrifice to Jehovah. And Moses said to Pharaoh, Will you graciously inform me at what time I shall make supplication in your behalf and in behalf of your courtiers and people, that the frogs be destroyed from your palaces and be left only in the Nile ? And he answered, To-morrow. Then Moses said, Be it as you say; that you may know that there is none like Jehovah our God. The frogs shall depart from you, and from your palaces, from your courtiers and people, they shall be left only in the Nile. 5. His perfidy. Then when Moses had gone out from Pharaoh, he cried to Jehovah in regard to the frogs which he had brought upon Pharaoh. And Jehovah did according to the word of Moses; and the frogs died out of the houses, out of the courts, and out of the fields. And they gathered them together into innumerable heaps; and the land was filled with a vile odor. But when Pharaoh saw that a respite had come, he hardened his heart. 6.Swarms of gadflies. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Rise up early in the morning, and stand before Pharaoh, just as he goes out to the water, and say to him, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “Let my people go that they may worship me. For if thou wilt not let my people go, then I will send swarms of gad-flies upon thee, thy courtiers, and thy people, and into thy palaces, so that the houses of the Egyptians shall be full of swarms of gad-flies, as well as the ground whereon they are. And I will set apart in that day the land of Goshen, in which my people dwell, so that no swarms of gad-flies shall be there, in order that thou mayest know that I am Jehovah in the midst of the earth. And I will put a division between my people and thy people; by to-morrow shall this sign be.” ’ And Jehovah did so; and there came troublesome swarms of gadflies into the palace of Pharaoh; and in all Egypt the land was ruined because of the swarms of gad-flies. 7. Pharaoh’s consent and request. Then Pharaoh called Moses, and said, Go, sacrifice to your God here in this land. But Moses said, It is not advisable so to do; for we shall sacrifice to Jehovah our God that which the Egyptians abhor; if now we sacrifice before their eyes that which the Egyptians abhor, will they not stone us? We wish to go three days’ journey in the wilderness and sacrifice to our God, as he shall command us. And Pharaoh said, I will let you go, that you may sacrifice to Jehovah your God in the wilderness; only you shall not go very far away. Make supplication in my behalf. And Moses said, I am now going out from you, and I will make supplication to Jehovah that the swarms of gad-flies may depart from Pharaoh, from his courtiers and people to-morrow; only let not Pharaoh again deal deceitfully by refusing to let the people go to sacrifice to Jehovah. 8. His repeated perfidy. So Moses went out from Pharaoh and made supplication to Jehovah. And Jehovah did according to the word of Moses; and he removed the swarms of gad-flies from Pharaoh, from his courtiers and people, until not one was left. But Pharaoh was stubborn in heart this time also, and he did not let the people go. 9. Death of the cattle of the Egyptians. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Go in to Pharaoh and tell him, ‘Thus saith Jehovah the God of the Hebrews, “Let my people go that they may worship me. For if thou refuse to let them go and still holdest them, then will the hand of Jehovah be upon thy cattle which are in the field, upon the horses, the asses, the camels, the herds and the flocks, in the form of a very severe pest. But Jehovah will make a distinction between the cattle of Israel and the cattle of Egypt, and nothing shall die of all that belongs to the Israelites.” ’ Accordingly Jehovah appointed a set time, saying, To-morrow Jehovah shall do this in the land. And Jehovah did that thing on the morrow: and all the cattle of Egypt died; but of the cattle of the Israelites none died. Then Pharaoh sent and found that not even one of the cattle of the Israelites was dead. But the heart of Pharaoh was stubborn and he did not let the people go. 10. Destructive hail. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Rise up early in the morning, and stand before Pharaoh, and say to him, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews, “Let my people go, that they may worship me. Dost thou still exalt thyself against my people, in that thou wilt not let them go? Then tomorrow about this time I will send down a very heavy fall of hail, such as hath not been in Egypt since the day it was founded, even until the present.” ’ So Jehovah sent thunder and hail; and fire ran down upon the earth; and Jehovah rained hail upon the land of Egypt. And the hail was very severe, such as had not been in all the land of Egypt since it became a nation. And the hail smote all the vegetation of the field, and shattered every tree of the field. Only in the province of Goshen, where the Israelites were, was there no hail. 11.Pharaoh’s continued perfidy. Then Pharaoh sent, and called for Moses, and said to him, I have sinned this time; Jehovah is in the right and I and my people are in the wrong. Make supplication to Jehovah —for there has been more than enough of these mighty thunderings and hail. I will let you go, and you shall stay no longer. Then Moses said to him, As soon as I am gone out of the city, I will spread out my hands in prayer to Jehovah ; the thunders shall cease, and there shall be no more hail, that thou mayest know that the land is Jehovah’s. But as for you and your courtiers, I know that even then you will not fear Jehovah. So Moses went out of the city from Pharaoh, and spread out his hands to Jehovah. Then the thunders and hail ceased, and the rain was no longer poured upon the earth. But when Pharaoh saw that the rain and the hail and the thunders had ceased, he sinned yet again and was stubborn in heart, he together with his courtiers. 12. Jehovah’s warning. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Go in to Pharaoh. So Moses went in to Pharaoh, and said to him, Thus saith Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews, ‘How long wilt thou refuse to humble thyself before me? let my people go that they may worship me. For if thou refuse to let my people go, to-morrow I will bring locusts into thy territory, and they shall cover the surface of the earth, so that one shall not be able to see the earth, and they shall eat the residue of that which is escaped, which remaineth to you from the hail, and shall eat every tree which groweth for you out of the field; and thy palaces shall be filled, and the houses of all thy courtiers, and of all the Egyptians; neither thy fathers nor thy fathers’ fathers have seen the like, since the day that they were upon the earth to this day.’ Then he turned and went out from Pharaoh. 13.Partial consent of Pharaoh and his courtiers. Thereupon Pharaoh’s courtiers said to him, How long is this man to be a snare to us? Let the men go that they may worship Jehovah their God. Do you not know that Egypt is being destroyed ? So Moses was brought again to Pharaoh, and he said to him, Go worship Jehovah, your God; but who are they that shall go? And Moses said, We will go with our young, and with our old men, with our sons and with our daughters, with our flocks, and with our herds will we go; for we must hold a feast to Jehovah. And he said to them, May Jehovah then be with you. If I let you go together with your little ones, beware, for evil is before you. Nay, rather, you men go and worship Jehovah, for that is what you desire. Then they were driven out from Pharaoh’s presence. 14. Devastation of the land by locusts. And Jehovah caused an east wind to blow over the land all that day, and all the night; and when it was morning the east wind had brought the locusts, and they settled down in all the territory of Egypt, exceedingly many; before them there were never so many locusts as they, neither after them shall there ever be so many. For they covered the surface of the whole land, so that the land looked dark, and nothing green was left, either tree or herb of the field, throughout all the land of Egypt. 15.Pharaoh’s request. Then Pharaoh called for Moses in haste, and said, I have sinned against Jehovah your God, and against you. Now therefore forgive, I pray thee, my sin only this once, and make supplication to Jehovah your God, that he may at least take away from me this deadly plague. So he went out from Pharaoh and made supplication to Jehovah. And Jehovah caused to blow from the opposite direction an exceeding strong west wind, which took up the locusts and cast them into the Red Sea; not a single locust was left in all the territory of Egypt. 16. Moses’s final interview with Pharaoh. Then Pharaoh called Moses, and said, Go, worship Jehovah, only let your flocks and your herds remain behind; let your little ones also go with you. But Moses said, You must also give us sacrifices and burnt-offerings, that we may sacrifice to Jehovah our God. Our cattle also must go with us; not a hoof shall be left behind; for we must take these to offer to Jehovah our God; and we do not know what we must offer to Jehovah, until we come thither. Thereupon Pharaoh said to him, Begone from me, beware, never see my face again; for in the day you see my face you shall die. And Moses said, You have spoken truly, I shall never see your face again. 17. The final warning. But Moses said, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘About midnight I will go throughout the midst of Egypt; and all the firstborn in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of Pharaoh who sitteth upon his throne, even to the first-born of the maid-servant, that is behind the mill. And there shall be a great wail of lamentation throughout all the land of Egypt, the like of which has never been, and shall never be again.’ But against none of the Israelites shall a dog move his tongue, against neither man nor beast; that you may know that Jehovah doth make a distinction between the Egyptians and Israel. And all these your courtiers shall come down to me, and prostrate themselves before me, saying, ‘Go forth, together with all the people that follow you’; and after that I will go out. Thereupon he went out from Pharaoh in hot anger. 18. Directions regarding the departure. Then Moses called all the elders of Israel, and said to them, Draw out and take lambs from the herds and kill. And you shall take a bunch of hyssop, and dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and strike the lintel and the two door-posts with the blood that is in the basin; but, as regards yourselves, none of you shall go out of the door of his house. For Jehovah will pass through to smite the Egyptians; and when he seeth the blood upon the lintel, and on the two doorposts, Jehovah will pass over the door, and will not suffer the Destroyer to come into your houses to smite you. Then the people bowed low their heads in worship. 19. Death of the firstborn of the Egyptians. And it came to pass at midnight, that Jehovah smote all the first-born in the land of Egypt, from the first-born of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the first-born of the captive that was in the prison. Then Pharaoh rose up in the night, together with all his courtiers and the Egyptians, and there arose a great wail in Egypt for there was not a house where there was not one dead. And he called Moses and Aaron by night and said, Arise, go forth from the midst of my people, together with the Israelites; go, worship Jehovah as you have requested. Also take with you your sheep and your cattle, as you have requested, and go and ask a blessing for me. And the Egyptians urged the people strenuously, that they might send them quickly out of the land, for they said to themselves, Else we shall be dead. Therefore the people took their dough before it was leavened, their kneading troughs being bound up in their clothes upon their shoulders. I.The Different Groups of Plague Stories. In the remarkable treaty, which Ramses II concluded early in his reign with the Hittites who held northern Syria (Introd.III, vi), provision was made for cooperation in punishing delinquent subjects and in the extradition of political fugitives and immigrants, so that it was almost impossible to escape from the power of the Pharaoh. The problem of why the Israelite serfs were ever allowed to depart from Egypt was evidently in the minds of the later Hebrew narrators. All the traditions are agreed that the Egyptians did not consent until a series of remarkable calamities had broken their spirit and weakened their resources. Regarding the nature of these calamities each group of narrators had its characteristic version. In the late priestly narratives the plagues are all of a miraculous origin and character. They are, in fact, not so much plagues as wonders, performed in the presence of Pharaoh by Aaron’s magical staff, to prove his superiority over the Egyptian magicians. In the Northern Israelite narratives Moses himself wields the staff which calls forth the plague. In the early Judean narratives (cf. above) Jehovah sends the plagues after Moses has each time warned Pharaoh of the coming calamity. In these oldest records the plagues are not miracles, but simply natural phenomena characteristic of Egypt. Their magnitude and severity alone are unprecedented. Fortunately, this oldest history has been quoted fully, only two or three paragraphs having been lost. Separated from the later versions, it furnishes a closely connected account of seven distinct plagues. II.The Oldest Account of the Plagues. Each plague is introduced by the same formulas and scenes. Each succeeding plague is more severe than the preceding, until the divine judgment reaches it culmination in the death of the first-born. They also appear to stand in a certain logical and chronological order. The defilement of the waters of the Nile may well have occurred in July or August, when the river is at its height. The second plague would fall most naturally in September, when frogs are most common in Egypt. Their rapid increase would naturally follow from the defilement of the waters. In the hot climate of Egypt the huge heaps of decaying frogs would inevitably breed great swarms of flies in the following months of October and November. The flies would in turn spread abroad the disease germs which attacked the animals and flocks in the pest-ridden region of the Nile. In the land of Egypt the plague of hail would be possible only in the rainy month of January. The great swarms of locusts, which may have obscured the sun, causing the local darkness described in the Northern Israelite narratives, came most naturally in the early spring just before the Passover, with which the last plague was associated. III.The Egyptian Background of the Plagues. Owing to the presence of vegetable matter or minute organisms washed down by the Nile when it rises in June, the water is first colored green and then later turns to a dull reddish tinge. Many early travellers have commented on the unwholesomeness of the water at this stage. To-day, as in the past, the Nile is the only source of water supply in lower Egypt. Any unusual natural or local cause, which would corrupt the water of this sacred river, would bring in its train the plagues which immediately follow each other in the biblical stories. Early writers report repeated plagues of frogs in different parts of the ancient world. Gnats and stinging flies of various kinds are perennial plagues in the land of the Nile. Cattle plagues are also common. One was reported in 1842, which destroyed forty thousand oxen. In the late priestly account the plague attacked men as well as animals. The Hebrews, living apart in the land of Goshen, were in a different zone and would naturally escape those plagues which appear, according to the earliest records, to have been confined to the lower Nile valley. Thunder storms, with lightening and hail, although very rare in Egypt, are not unknown during the rainy months. One observer saw hail storms but three times in twelve years. Lepsius states that “in December, 1843, there was a terrific storm with hail which made the day dark as night.” The statement in the Northern Israelite version that the plague came “when the barley was in the ear and the flax was in the bloom” fixes the date about the middle of January. Although the locust plagues are more common in Palestine, travellers in Egypt have observed great swarms of these insects, which often obscure the light of the sun and destroy all vegetation in their path. From ancient times Egypt has been the home of many kinds of pestilence. Its hot climate and dense population favor the propagation and spread of contagious diseases. The preceding plagues had prepared the way for the sudden and terrible pestilence which spared neither young nor old, strong nor weak, cutting off the flower (the first-born) of every Egyptian home. Again, however, the Hebrews, living apart from the afflicted district, escaped the dread scourge. IV.Historical Facts Underlying the Plague Stories. The contemporary Egyptian records contain no direct references to the biblical plagues. Merneptah, in his old age, succeeded his father Ramses II. For ten years at least, until 1215 B.C., he maintained the Egyptian rule in Palestine. He also succeeded in repelling the Libyan hordes which came from the northwest, and died peacefully and was buried with his ancestors at Thebes. After the death of Merneptah, however, a series of calamities overtook Egypt, which are probably the basis of the Hebrew plague stories. Rival pretenders contended for the throne and civil war broke out in many parts of the empire. By the close of the thirteenth century complete anarchy prevailed. The local nobles and chiefs improved the opportunity to proclaim their independence or to make war upon each other. The land was deluged with blood. A later king (Ramses III) states that, “Every man was thrown out of his right; they had no chief ruler for many years until later times. The land of Egypt was in the hands of the nobles and rulers of towns; each slew his neighbor, great and small” (Harris Papyrus, IV, 398). Famine with all its misery and horrors followed. At this time also a certain Syrian proclaimed himself king. “ He made the entire land tributary to him; he united his companions and plundered their possessions. They made the gods like men and no offerings were presented at the temples ” (.Harris Papyrus). While no one would attempt to identify this Syrian with Moses, the narrative reveals a state of affairs in Egypt, which made it very easy for the Hebrews on the eastern borders to break away from their hateful bondage. The Libyans and other foreign invaders also improved this opportunity to invade and plunder Egypt. In the hot, unsanitary climate of the Nile, the anarchy and bloodshed and famine that prevailed may well have given rise to a series of plagues culminating in a terrible pestilence, as recorded in the oldest Hebrew traditions. Although differing in details, the oldest biblical narratives and the contemporary records are therefore in fundamental agreement. V.The Significance of the National Calamities. The Egyptian king, who finally succeeded in restoring order, implies in the account of his work that the preceding disasters were due to the disfavor of the gods. With true insight Israel’s prophetic historians saw in these same events the hand of Jehovah preparing the way for the deliverance of his people. As the traditions were handed down, each succeeding generation expressed this truth in more definite and concrete terms, until the stories have assumed their present form. Underlying these stories is the great truth that there is no chance in God’s universe. The seemingly important and unimportant events in human history all conserve his divine purpose. No human power—the will of kings nor the might of empires—can hinder the realization, of that purpose. Those who resist it are broken, but those who, like the Israelites, act in accord with the divine will are trained for service and led on to a noble destiny. VI.The Traditional OriginofthePassover. Both the early and the late Hebrew traditions agree in tracing the origin of the feast of the Passover to the great deliverance from Egypt. Moses’s original request of Pharaoh was that the Hebrews might go out three days’ journey into the wilderness to sacrifice to their God. The object was evidently to celebrate the spring festival which had long been an established institution among the Semitic ancestors of the Hebrews. At this ancient feast all members of a clan or tribe came together to renew the covenant with their tribal god. A lamb was sacrificed and its flesh eaten amidst feasting and rejoicing (cf. St. O.T., IV, p. 258). It was a time of joy and thanksgiving. In associating it with the great deliverance from Egypt, the later Hebrew prophets and priests gave it a new meaning, and yet at the same time emphasized the original content of the old Semitic feast. Even as the ancient Teutonic and Roman festivals were transformed into Christmas, so the old Semitic feast of thanksgiving became the Hebrew Passover. It remained preeminently the festival of the family or clan. The pascal lamb symbolized the renewal of the covenant with Jehovah. The blood sprinkled on the door-posts and lintels, the dish of bitter herbs, the girded loins, the sandals on the feet, and the staff in hand all recalled the great deliverance. The songs and prayers appropriately voiced the gratitude of the race for this and the subsequent proofs of Jehovah’s tender love and care. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 36: 036. THE EXODUS ======================================================================== THE EXODUS ======================================================================== CHAPTER 37: 037. XXIII. THE EXODUS ======================================================================== § XXIII. THE EXODUS Exodus 12-15 1. The departure from Egypt. Now the Israelites went forth from Egypt, about six hundred thousand men on foot, not including children. And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and flocks and herds, even very great possessions. And they baked unleavened cakes of the dough which they had brought forth out of Egypt; for it was not leavened, because they had been driven out of Egypt, and could not wait, neither had they prepared for themselves any food for the way. 2. Jehovah’s guideance. And Jehovah went before them by day in a pillar of cloud, to show them the way, and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them light; that they might march by day and by night; the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night did not depart from before the people. 3. Pharoah’s pursuit of the Israelites. When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, the feeling of Pharaoh and his courtiers toward the people was changed, and they said, What is this we have done, that we have let Israel go from serving us? And he made ready his chariot, and took his people with him, and all the chariots of Egypt. 4. Terror of the Israelites. And when Pharaoh drew near, the Israelites lifted up their eyes and saw the Egyptians marching after them; and they were exceedingly afraid, and they said to Moses, Was it because there were no graves in Egypt, that you have taken us away to die in the wilderness? Why have you dealt thus with us, in bringing us forth out of Egypt? Is not this what we told you in Egypt, when we said, ‘Let us alone, that we may serve the Egyptians? For it was better for us to serve the Egyptians than that we should die in the wilderness.’ And Moses said to the people, Fear not, stand still and see the deliverance which Jehovah will accomplish for you to-day; for as surely as you now see the Egyptians, you shall never see them again forever. Jehovah will fight for you, and you are to keep still. Then the pillar of cloud changed its position from before them and stood behind them. And the cloud lighted up the night; yet throughout the entire night the one army did not come near the other. And Jehovah caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the bed of the sea dry. And it came to pass in the watch before the dawn, that Jehovah looked forth through the pillar of fire and of cloud upon the host of the Egyptians, and he bound their chariot wheels, so that they proceeded with difficulty. Then the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before Israel; for Jehovah fighteth for them against the Egyptians. But the sea returned to its ordinary level towards morning, while the Egyptians were flying before it. And Jehovah overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea, so that not one of them remained. Thus Jehovah saved Israel that day out of the power of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore. 6. Song of thanksgiving. Then Moses and the Israelites sang this song to Jehovah, using these words: I will sing to Jehovah for he is greatly exalted; Horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea. Jehovah is my strength and my song, For to me hath he brought deliverance; This is my God, him I praise, My fathers’ God, him I extol. 7. Jehovah’s might as a warrior. Jehovah is indeed a warrior, Jehovah is his name: The chariots of Pharaoh and his host hath he cast into the sea; And the best of his captains have sunk down in the Red Sea; The floods cover them, they have gone down into the depths like a stone. Thy right hand, O Jehovah, is glorious in power, Thy right hand, O Jehovah, shattereth the foe. Through the greatness of thy majesty thou over- throwest thine opposers. Thou sendest forth thy wrath, it consumeth them like stubble. 8. His overthrow of the Egyptians. By the wrath of thy nostrils were the waters piled up, The surging waters stood upright as a heap. The floods were congealed in the midst of the sea. The foe said, ‘I will pursue, yea, I will overtake, I will divide spoil, on them shall my desire be satisfied, I will draw my sword, my hand shall destroy them.’ Thou didst blow with thy breath, the sea covered him, Down in the mighty waters they sank like lead. I.The Triple Tradition of the Exodus. As in the case of each important event in early Hebrew history, there are three distinct accounts of the deliverance from Egypt. These have been closely blended into a continuous narrative, but the task of separating them is not difficult. The early Judean prophetic and the late priestly versions are each complete. The Northern Israelite account has been quoted only in part, but can be supplemented in the light of Joshua’s address found in Joshua 24. These three distinct versions illustrate well the transformation through which the story passed, when transmitted from generation to generation through different groups of teachers. In the earliest account the narrative is circumstantial and in harmony with conditions pictured in the contemporary Egyptian inscriptions. The instrument of deliverance, the east wind which blows back the waters, is in perfect keeping with the means used by Jehovah to accomplish his purposes, in the present as in the past. The late priestly version, however, which comes from those exilic teachers who were more profoundly impressed by God’s transcendent power than by the actual ways in which he accomplishes his ends, magnifies the supernatural element. II.The Number of the Hebrews. In the early Judean narrative it is stated that the Hebrew refugees included six hundred thousand men, not counting children. This number is repeated in Exodus 12:37, which belongs to the same source. Possibly the Hebrew text originally read and should be translated, six hundred dans. Inasmuch as definite numbers are rarely given in this early source, it is also possible that the present statement was added by some later compiler. Certainly it is not supported by the evidence which comes from the subsequent stories. As has already been noted, the Northern Israelite narrative of Exodus 1:7-9 suggests that they numbered hundreds rather than thousands. Even in the days of Deborah, when they had absorbed many other desert and Canaanite tribes, only about forty thousand warriors rallied on the battle-field. In the days of David the census of the larger northern tribes reveals but eight hundred thousand fighting men. The stories of the deliverance, the wilderness wanderings and the conquest, all indicate that not more than a few thousand Hebrews were included in that nucleus of the later nation which escaped from the land of bondage. III.Their Probable Route. The late priestly narrative states that the Hebrews rallied at Succoth (Egyptian Thuku, cf. § XVIII, i), which may be identical with the Pithom of the earliest records. Two routes lay before them. One ran to the north, then turned to the northeast along the shore of the Mediterranean. This was known as the “Way of the Philistines” and led directly to the land of Palestine. It was, however, more exposed to Egyptian attack, and advance was barred on the borders of Palestine by the Philistines, who were a strongly intrenched, energetic people. Escape along this route, therefore, was almost impossible. The Hebrews evidently chose the so-called, “Way of the Red Sea,” the highway which ran straight out into the desert along the caravan route which ultimately led to Elath and central Arabia. A journey of fifteen or twenty miles along the valley, which extended eastward toward the desert, brought them to the frontier fortresses which guarded the eastern entrance to the land of Egypt. From the reign of Merneptah comes a list, prepared by an officer of one of the frontier garrisons which guarded the caravan route, of those who passed by on this great artery of communication between Asia and the land of the Nile. It would seem that this frontier fortress was built near either the western arm of the Red Sea or the series of shallow lakes which marked its northern extension. It is also probable that a frontier wall ran from the fortress and connected with these lakes, compelling all who entered or departed from the land of Egypt to pass through its gates. IV.The MethodofTravel in the Wilderness. The early Judean narrative gives a vivid picture of the way in which the Hebrews marched. The underlying historical facts are suggested by the way in which caravans still journey through the wilderness. The leader who goes in front often bears aloft, on the end of a long pole, a brazier filled with smoking coals from which rises a column of smoke. In the clear light of the desert, this column of smoke can be seen by the different members of the caravan, even though they lag many miles behind. Thus it is possible to determine at all times the position of the leader and the direction in which the caravan is moving. By night these glowing coals, held on high, accomplish the same end and make possible the long midnight journeys, which are often required in order to reach the distant springs. In the inimitable language of the early story-tellers, the fundamental truth that Jehovah through his prophet was ever leading them by day and by night on to their destiny is forcibly set forth. V.The Great Deliverance. Soon after the news of the flight of the Hebrew serfs is brought to the Egyptian authorities, a detachment of cavalry is in hot pursuit. As the Hebrews approach the border fortress they evidently find its gates closed and their way of escape cut off. In the light of the Egyptian records and the topography of the region the situation can readily be imagined: before them, the fortress with walls which extended out into the shallow waters of the Sea of Reeds; behind them, the pursuing Egyptians; and in their own ranks fear and distrust of the prophet, who had held up before them in the name of Jehovah the definite promise of deliverance. Escape seems impossible to all save the undaunted leader, whose trust is fixed in the God who had revealed himself on the sacred mount. The more familiar late priestly narrative pictures Moses, as simply stretching out his hand over the sea, and then leading his followers through the divided waters, which stand as a wall on either side. The older and simpler narrative, however, suggests the historical facts. In the time of their direst need the God, who controlled the forces of Nature, sent forth a strong east wind, which drove back the shallow waters of the Sea of Reeds, making it possible for his people to escape around the guarding walls across the bed of the sea and out into the freedom of the desert. The Egyptians, pursuing with their heavy chariots, were caught and overwhelmed in the returning waters. VI.Similar Natural Phenomena. Many analogies to the phenomenon here recorded might be cited from modem records. As is well known, the Russians, in 1738, entered and captured the Crimea through a passage made by the wind through the Putrid Sea. The closest analogy, however, is recorded by Major-General Tulloch, who states that the shallow waters of Lake Menzaleh, which lies a short distance north of the scene of the deliverance of the Hebrews, were driven back seven miles by a strong wind, leaving the bottom of the lake dry (Journal of the Victorian Institute, Vol. XXVIII, p. 267, and Vol. XXVI, p. 12). A recent illustration of the power of wind over water, especially when reenforced by the tide, is found in the Galveston disaster of 1900. VII.The Song of Thanksgiving. The prophetic narrators have quoted two lines of the refrain, and possibly certain other stanzas of the song which the grateful Hebrews sang after the signal deliverance. The later poets, familiar with the present composite narrative, have extended this refrain into a noble and commemorative ode, which recalls the different scenes in that great crisis which revealed so clearly God’s power and love for his people. VIII.Significance of the Great Deliverance. The fact that God used natural means “his wonders to perform” makes the deliverance none the less significant. It simply illustrates the truth that there is no chance in his universe. Not so much the method, but the opportuneness of the deliverance clearly revealed the divine hand. At the moment of their supreme need, he showed not only his power but his eagerness to deliver his people. The great deliverance confirmed the authority of Moses and made it possible to impress profoundly his personality and teaching upon the character and consciousness of his race. It also established a basis for that covenant which they conceived of as existing between them and the God, who had thus signally saved them. All Hebrew literature abounds in references to this event. Amos and Hosea appeal to it as the supreme reason why Israel should be loyal to its God. In the laws of Deuteronomy, generosity toward the slave, kindness and justice toward the resident alien, and charity toward the poor and needy, are all urged “because thou wast a slave in the land of Egypt and Jehovah thy God redeemed thee.” ======================================================================== CHAPTER 38: 038. XXIV. THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI ======================================================================== §XXIV. THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI Exodus 15, 16, 19, 24, 34 1. Experiences at Marah. Then Moses led Israel onward from the Red Sea, and they went out into the wilderness of Shur and marched three days into the wilderness, without finding water. Then they came to Marah, but could not drink the water of Marah because it was bitter. Hence its name was called Marah [Bitterness]. Therefore the people murmured against Moses, saying, What shall we drink? And he cried to Jehovah, and Jehovah showed him a tree, and he cast it into the waters, and the waters were made sweet. 2. At Elim. And they came to Elim where there were twelve springs of water, and seventy palm-trees, and they encamped there by the waters. 3.March to Sinai. Then they journeyed from Elim, and they came to the wilderness of Sinai and encamped in the wilderness. 4.The divine directions. Then Jehovah said to Moses, I will come down in the sight of all the people upon Mount Sinai. And thou shalt set bounds for the people all about, with the command, ‘ Take heed to yourselves that ye go not up on the mountain nor even approach its base; whoever toucheth the mountain shall surely be put to death; nothing shall touch it without being stoned to death or shot through; whether it be beast or man; he shall not live.’ 5.The advents of Jehova. And Mount Sinai was wholly enveloped in smoke, because Jehovah came down upon it in fire; and the smoke of it ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked violently. And when Jehovah came down upon Mount Sinai to the top of the mountain, he called Moses to the top of the mountain; and Moses went up. And Jehovah said to Moses, Go down, warn the people solemnly lest they press forward to see Jehovah, and many of them perish. And let the priests also, who come near Jehovah, sanctify themselves lest Jehovah break forth upon them. So Moses went down to the people and told them. 6. The two tablets of stone. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Hew out two stone tablets, and be ready by morning, and come up in the morning to Mount Sinai, and present thyself there to me on the top of the mountain. And no one shall come up with thee; neither let any one be seen in any part of the mountain, nor let the flocks and herds feed before that mountain. So he hewed out two stone tablets; and Moses rose early in the morning, and went up to Mount Sinai, as Jehovah had commanded him, and took in his hand two stone tablets. And Moses stood with him there and called on the name of Jehovah. 7. The terms of the early covenant. And Jehovah said, Behold, I make a covenant. Observe that which I command thee to-day: THOU SHALT WORSHIP NO OTHER GOD. THOU SHALT MAKE THEE NO MOLTEN GODS. THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD SHALT THOU OBSERVE. EVERY FIRST-BORN IS MINE. SIX DAYS SHALT THOU TOIL, BUT ON THE SEVENTH THOU SHALT REST. THOU SHALT OBSERVE THE FEAST OF WEEKS AND INGATHERING AT THE END OF THE YEAR. THOU SHALT NOT OFFER THE BLOOD OF MY SACRIFICE WITH LEAVEN. THE FAT OF MY FEAST SHALL NOT BE LEFT UNTIL MORNING. THE BEST OF THE FIRST-FRUITS OF THY LAND SHALT THOU BRING TO THE HOUSE OF JEHOVAH THY GOD. THOU SHALT NOT SEETHE A KID IN ITS MOTHER’S MILK. 8. Recording the ten words. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Write these words; for in accordance with these words have I made a covenant with thee and with Israel. And he was there with Jehovah forty days and forty nights; he neither ate bread nor drank water. And he wrote upon the tablets the words of the covenant, the ten words [Decalogue]. 9. Acceptance of the ten words. Then Moses came and called for the elders of the people, and set before them all these words which Jehovah commanded him. And all the people answered together, and said, All that Jehovah hath spoken we will do. And Moses reported the words of the people to Jehovah. 10.The sacrificialmeal. And Jehovah said to Moses, Come up to Jehovah, together with Aaron, and Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, and worship afar off; and Moses alone shall come near to Jehovah; but they shall not come near; neither shall the people go up with him. So Moses went up together with Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, and they saw the God of Israel; and under his feet it was like a pavement of sapphire stone, and like the very sky for clearness. And against the nobles of the Israelites he did not stretch out his hand; so they beheld God and ate and drank. I.The Records of the Revelation and Covenant at Sinai. Sinai, the sacred mountain of God, was regarded by succeeding generations as the spot where the covenant between Israel and Jehovah was established and where all of Israel’s laws were promulgated. The further removed from the days of Moses, the more firmly did each succeeding generation cherish this tradition. Each new code, although it incorporated new principles and laws adapted to new conditions, was attributed to Moses. In time all of these codes naturally found a place in the growing body of legislation that was connected with Mount Sinai. The earliest prophetic narratives suggest the historical basis of this later expanded tradition. In slightly different form, they each picture the revelation at Sinai and preserve that primitive decalogue, which appears to have been the basis of the original covenant between Jehovah and his people. II.The March Through the Desert. The earliest narrative implies that the Hebrews, on leaving Egypt, marched directly across the desert. After three days’ journey they found one of the brackish springs, which characterize that desert region. A little later they come to Elim, with its twelve springs of water and grove of palm-trees. The only satisfactory identification of this fertile spot is at the head of the north eastern arm of the Red Sea. As the name suggests, it is probably to be identified with the biblical Elath, the important port which connected the trade of Canaan and Edom with Arabia, India and Africa. It was also at the end of the caravan route which led directly across the desert from Egypt (cf. map opp. p. 185). It was a journey of about two hundred miles, and could be comfortably made by a caravan in about a week. That Moses would lead his fugitive followers along the same direct highway to the land of Midian, as he himself had followed years before, was to be expected. In this way it would be possible most quickly to escape beyond the rule and pursuit of the Egyptians into a friendly asylum among kindred peoples. His aim was, doubtless, also to lead them to the sacred mountain of Jehovah, where he, a short time before, had received his divine call to lead forth his people from the bondage of Egypt. III.The Situation of Mount Sinai. The course of the march of the Israelites turns in part upon the identification of Mount Sinai. The tradition, which identifies it with one of the imposing peaks in the southern part of the Sinaitic peninsula, cannot be traced earlier than the third or fourth century of the Christian era. It comes from those centuries in which the process of identifying biblical sites advanced most rapidly. It was an age in which conjecture and zeal to fix the background of every important event were regnant, with the result that nine out of every ten of these identifications have been shown by modern excavation and research to be incorrect. All the Old Testament references to Sinai indicate clearly that the mountain was in the vicinity of Edom and probably one of the many imposing peaks to the southwest of Mount Seir. In the ancient song of Deborah, Judges 5, Sinai is associated with Mount Seir and the land of Edom (§XXXV, ii). In the early poem, found in Deuteronomy 33, the parallelism is equally significant. “Jehovah came from Sinai, And beamed forth from Seir, And shone forth from Mount Paran.” Elijah’s journey (recorded in 1 Kings 19:3-8) from Beersheba to Mount Horeb would have been possible if the mountain of God had been one of the southwestern spurs of Mount Seir, but practically impossible, if at the southern end of the Sinaitic peninsula. In the light of the Egyptian inscriptions and the recent excavations conducted by Professor Petrie (cf. Researches in Sinai), it is evident that there were important quarries and mines guarded by Egyptian garrisons on the eastern side of the peninsula. It is highly improbable, therefore, that the Hebrews would have journeyed along a caravan route thus guarded by Egyptian soldiers. Even if they had succeeded in reaching the traditional Mount Sinai, they would not have escaped Egyptian pursuit. The statement that Moses, when he received his call, arrived at the sacred mountain with the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law, after a journey of only three days, indicates that it was not far from the land of Midian. The implication that Mount Sinai was the mountain at which the Midianites worshipped the same God as the Israelites, clearly points to a northern rather than a southern site, for at this period the Midianites were found only to the south and east of Mount Seir. Mount Sinai also appears to have been near Kadesh (only fifty miles south of Beersheba, cf. map, opp. p. 185) the centre of the Hebrew life in the wilderness. Thus, with remarkable unity, all the early evidence points to one of the southwestern spurs of Mount Seir as the sacred mountain of Jehovah. IV.Nature of the Revelation at Sinai. The Old Testament contains three distinct accounts of the divine revelation at Sinai. In the late priestly, the cloud is represented as covering the mountain and the appearance of the glory of Jehovah is like a devouring fire on the top of the mountain. Into this cloud Moses ascends and there receives the law. In the Northern Israelite version a thick cloud likewise envelopes the mountain, which is designated as Horeb or simply the mountain. When, at God’s command, the people approach, they are so terrified by the thunder and the lightnings that they request Moses to receive for them the divine message. In the early Judean version the people are forbidden to approach Mount Sinai, which is enveloped with smoke and quakes violently. Moses himself alone ascends to receive the divine message. The three narratives, therefore, agree in the statement that a bright cloud, lighted up by flames of fire, shrouded the mountain. The Northern Israelite version implies that a raging thunder storm revealed to the waiting people below the presence of their God. The picture in the early Judean and late priestly narratives perhaps suggests an active volcano. Either phenomenon, so majestic and awe-inspiring, was calculated to make a profound impression upon the consciousness and memory of a primitive people, accustomed to the dry, almost rainless tracts of Egypt and the desert. Thus it is that, in language peculiar to itself, each tradition records the fact that the Deity made his presence powerfully felt at this initial stage in the life of his people. V.Meaning of the Covenant in Ancient Semitic Life. The well- authenticated tradition that a covenant was established between Jehovah and his people at Sinai is in harmony with the peculiar customs of the ancient nomadic East. To-day, as in the past, a covenant is the strongest bond that can bind together men or tribes. In certain parts of Arabia, as in the ancient East, a covenant is established between two individuals, when they have drunk their mingled blood. Such a solemn covenant carries with it an obligation on the part of each to protect the other, even at the cost of life. Henceforth they owe to each other the same duties, as do those who are descended from common ancestors. Thus it was that tribes in ancient times made alliances with each other. The ancient Semites also conceived of their deities as dwelling in certain definite abodes and capable of entering into solemn covenants with men and tribes. This prevalent Semitic conception clearly underlies the Hebrew tradition of the covenant at Sinai. VI.The Giving of the Law at Sinai. In welding into a nation the scattered fugitives from Egypt and the kindred tribes of Midian, it was natural that Moses should employ the well-established Semitic institution of the covenant. That he did so is confirmed by combined testimony of the earliest records. Sinai would naturally be chosen as the scene of this covenant, for it was a covenant binding together those tribes, which regarded the sacred mountain as Jehovah’s abode. Both of the earlier prophetic narratives record a solemn sacrificial feast, which symbolized the establishment of this covenant. According to the Northern Israelite version, oxen were sacrificed and the blood was sprinkled upon the people, as in the later Hebrew ritual. The essential element, however, in the covenant was not the symbolism but the terms of agreement to which each of the contracting parties subscribed. Jehovah’s promises to deliver and protect his people had already been proclaimed by Moses and fulfilled in the marvellous deliverance from Egypt. The oldest traditions state that the obligations assumed by the people were formulated in ten brief commands. According to the early Judean narrative in Exodus 34, these commands were inscribed by Moses on two stone tablets which he had prepared by divine command. In the later versions of the story, Jehovah himself is represented as having inscribed with his own finger these ten words on two tablets which he gave to Moses. VII.The Original Decalogue. In the present order of the narratives in Exodus, two distinct decalogues are given, the familiar one in Exodus 20 and the more distinctly ceremonial decalogue in Exodus 34. The implication of the narratives, however, is that the same decalogue was promulgated in both cases, and there is no suggestion that its original form was changed in the second account of the giving of the law. In the light of the variations between the two decalogues, two distinct questions arise: Which was the older and original of these decalogues? and, What is the explanation of their present position and order ? The contents of the decalogue given in Exodus 34 at once suggest that it is the older of the two. It demands absolute loyalty to Jehovah. This loyalty is to be expressed, however, in the observation of the ancient festivals, in the sacrificial gifts from the flocks and herds and field, and in conformity to the requirements of the early ritual. It contains in outline that ancient, popular definition of religion, which prevailed among the Hebrews, until the great ethical prophets, like Amos, Hosea and Isaiah placed the emphasis on spirit and deeds. It is, therefore, in harmony with the point of view of Moses’s age. Furthermore, its language is that of the early Judean narrative. In its original form it was apparently the immediate sequel of the account of the divine revelation in Exodus 19. Practically all of its regulations are repeated in slightly different form in the corresponding Northern Israelite laws found in Exodus 20:22 to Exodus 23:19. Thus the two oldest prophetic narratives testify that this ceremonial decalogue was a common heritage coming from the earliest period of Hebrew history. It is also significant that each of its regulations is repeated in the Old Testament at least three, and some of them six or seven times. It would seem, therefore, to represent the foundation of Israel’s legal system. Moreover, these distinct yet converging oldest lines of evidence all point to Moses as the great prophetic leader, who first formulated in this simple direct form the duties of the new-born nation. VIII.The Duty of Loyalty to Jehovah. The first command demands the entire loyalty of the Hebrews to Jehovah. The denial of the existence of other gods is left to a later age; but within the ranks of that bond of Arab tribes known as Israel, the first command leaves no place for the worship of other desert deities. Henceforth Israel’s strength lay in the fact that it was a people which acknowledged one rather than many gods. The second command does not forbid the worship of those family gods and graven images which appear to have been found in the home of every early Israelite (as for example, that of David, 1 Samuel 19, cf. also § XXXIV). Isaiah and Jeremiah first openly denounced this time- honored practice. The ancient command is rather a protest against the molten gods of heathen nations, such as the Egyptians, the Babylonians and the Phoenicians. It is, therefore, but a further application of the great principle laid down in the first command. It may also be a result of that strong reaction against the polytheism and idolatry of the Egyptians, which is traceable in the early Hebrew religion. The third command enforces the obligation to observe the ancient Semitic spring festival; although the fact that it is called the feast of unleavened bread may reveal later Canaanite influence. The fourth and ninth commands specify the tribute which each member of the nation should bring to his Divine King as evidence of loyalty and devotion. They but reiterate the more or less clearly defined customs already in vogue throughout the Semitic world. IX.The Seventh Day of Rest. The law of the sabbath presents many problems. The life of the nomad with his flocks and herds gives little opportunity for rest from labor. It is only on the agricultural stage that the command to rest on the seventh day could be fully carried out; yet it seems probable that the institution of the sabbath was already in existence in the days of Moses; for the most satisfactory explanation of its origin connects it with the primitive worship of the moon. The moon god was especially worshipped at the cities of Ur and Haran, which the Hebrews regarded as the home of their ancestors. Recent archaeological discoveries also indicate that the moon god was revered throughout Arabia. This worship was natural among a people who regarded the sun, with its hot, burning rays, as hostile, and the moon, with its cold, clear light, as friendly. Even to a modern observer no object in the heavens is as impressive as the moon with its changing phases. To the ancient nomads, as they pastured their flocks or made their long journeys by night through the desert, the moon was a never- ceasing miracle. Its four distinct phases—the crescent moon, at its first appearance in the west, the half moon, when the circle was clearly divided between light and darkness, the full moon, with its rounded orb, and the gibbous moon, with its peculiar form—each made its profound impression upon early man, who saw in the wonderful and unusual the highest revelation of the Deity. Many early peoples held sacred each of the four days at which the moon entered its different quarters. Among the Hebrews the new moon and the sabbath were closely connected. Both of these sacred days were apparently observed by the same ceremonies and the same rest from labor. As Strabo states, rest from labor was demanded by the ancients on all sacred days. If the sabbath, therefore, was originally a sacred day, observed at the beginning of each new phase of the moon, there is every reason to believe that it was already an established institution among the Midianites and the ancestors of the Hebrews. It was natural that the sabbath law should also have found a place in the decalogue coming from the days of Moses. The emphasis upon rest perhaps reflects that nobler social and philanthropic interpretation of the sabbath, which was first clearly formulated by the later prophets and reasserted by Jesus, when he declared that “the sabbath is for man and not man for the sabbath.” X.Ceremonial Laws. The sixth command requires the observation of the ancient Semitic feast of the ingathering at the end of the year. The seventh, eighth, and tenth demand the careful observation of certain ceremonial rites, the origin of which goes back to such a primitive stage in the history of religion that it is difficult to determine the original motive. Possibly leaven was not to be used in connection with the sacrificial blood because it represented corruption. Since the fat and the blood were the parts especially sacred to the Deity, the law that the fat should not be left until the morning was probably to guard against the possibility of decay and to insure its being offered by fire to Jehovah. XI.The History of the Oldest Decalogue. The tradition that this decalogue was written on two tablets of stone is found in both of the early prophetic histories. Possibly these tablets with the ten words were first set up in the temple of Solomon that their contents might be read and thus impressed upon the consciences of the people. The brief decalogue form suggests, however, that the ten words were originally intended to be written not on stone, but upon the popular memory. The simplest explanation of their decalogue and pentad form is that they originally consisted of two groups of five short commands or words, each of which was to be remembered in connection with a finger of the two hands. Ten clearly defined decalogues are found in Exodus 20-23, and the parallel passages in Deuteronomy (cf. §§ LIX, LX). Others are included in the so-called “Holiness Code” of Leviticus 17-26. The decalogue would appear to have been the form in which, from earliest times, Israel’s popular laws were cast. This simple but effective method of impressing vital truths upon untrained minds is well worthy of the inspired genius of a great prophetic leader like Moses. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 39: 039. XXV. MAN’S INDIVIDUAL DUTIES TO GOD AND MAN ======================================================================== § XXV. MAN’S INDIVIDUAL DUTIES TO GOD AND MAN Exodus 20:3-17 a God also spoke all these words: 1. THOU SHALT HAVE NO OTHER GODS BEFORE ME. 2. THOU SHALT NOT MAKE FOR THYSELF ANY GRAVEN IMAGE. 3. THOU SHALT NOT TAKE THE NAME OF THE LORD THY GOD IN VAIN. 4. REMEMBER THE SABBATH DAY TO KEEP IT HOLY. 5. HONOR THY FATHER AND THY MOTHER. 6. THOU SHALT NOT KILL. 7. THOU SHALT NOT COMMIT ADULTERY. 8. THOU SHALT NOT STEAL. 9. THOU SHALT NOT BEAR FALSE WITNESS. 10. THOU SHALT NOT COVET. I. Character of the Prophetic Decalogue. The laws considered in the preceding section define the obligations of the nation Israel to Jehovah. If they had stood alone in Exodus 20-34, no one would have failed to recognize in them the ten words originally promulgated by Moses. The decalogue, however, now most closely associated with Moses and the covenant at Sinai, contains the familiar ten words of Exodus 20. Its superior ethical value is incontestible. It represents “the com,” if not “ the full corn in the ear,” while the decalogue of Exodus 34 is but “the blade.” It defines religion in the terms of life and deed, as well as worship. The noble standards maintained by Amos and Isaiah are here formulated in short, forcible commands. This prophetic decalogue certainly represents one of the high water-marks of Old Testament legislation. It fully merits the commanding position at the head of the Old Testament laws and its unique place in the hearts of Jews and Christians. II.Its Literary History. A careful examination of the context of Exodus 19-34 reveals much editorial revision. In view of the transcendent importance of Sinai and Moses in the thought of later generations, such revision was almost inevitable. In their present setting the presence of two distinct decalogues, written on tablets of stone, is explained by the story of the apostasy of the Israelites in connection with the golden calf. The evidence, however, is strong that the story of the golden calf is one of the later additions to Exodus, and that it was not found in the early Judean history. The earlier prophets, and even Elijah and Elisha, make no protest against the calves or bulls, overlaid with gold, which Jeroboam I set up in the national sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan (cf. § LXI). The obvious protest, which the story of the golden calf contains, clearly comes from the more enlightened age, when prophets like Amos and Hosea had begun to look askance at the practices which flourished at the popular shrines. A later compiler has found or made a place for the ancient decalogue of Exodus 34 in the light of the statement that Moses, at the sight of the golden calf, destroyed the first two tablets. The compiler fails, however, to explain why the two versions differ so widely in theme and content. When the late material has been removed, the original decalogue in Exodus 34 appears as the immediate sequel of the Judean account of the revelation at Sinai. Similarly the sequel of the Northern Israelite version of the revelation is not the decalogue in the first part of Exodus 20, but the closing verses of that chapter and the laws which follow. It would seem, therefore, that a later compiler made the words, “Moses spoke and God answered him” (at the close of chapter 19), the occasion for introducing the nobler ethical decalogue of Exodus 20. III.The Parallel Version in Deuteronomy 5. This decalogue is found again in a very different setting in Deuteronomy 5. It is attributed to Moses, but the occasion is not the establishment of the covenant at Sinai but his farewell address on the plains of Moab. In the sabbath command the older term observe is used in the Deuteronomic version rather than remember, suggesting that the Deuteronomic version is the older of the two. Otherwise the original ten brief words in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 are identical. Each version has, however, been supplemented by many explanatory and hortatory notes. Those in Deuteronomy 5 agree in part and differ in part from those in Exodus 20, showing that each version has passed through different hands. Thus, for example, to the exhortation in Exodus 20 to “honor thy father and thy mother that thy days may be long,” the version in Deuteronomy adds, “and that it may go well with thee.” IV.The Real Character of the Decalogue in Exodus 20. As has been already noted, the decalogue in Exodus 34 defines the religious and ceremonial obligations of the nation to Jehovah. The ten words in Exodus 20 (Deuteronomy 5) define the obligations of the individual to God, to his parents and to other members of society. The two are not antithetic but rather supplement each other. While the decalogue of Exodus 34 was in all probability the basis of the original covenant at Sinai, the ten words of Exodus 20 may also represent the personal obligations which Moses impressed upon each individual Israelite. V.Date and Authorship of the Decalogue in Exodus 20. The date and authorship of the noblest of the decalogues can never be definitely determined. Because of its high ethical standards and its close relationship with the teachings of the later prophets, it has been assigned by many modern scholars to the eighth or seventh century B.C. The law against making graven images embodies a principle first clearly proclaimed in the seventh century before Christ. These wooden images apparently survived in the homes of the Hebrews long after the public idols were tom down. They correspond to the sacred pictures and images of the Virgin and saints that are still tolerated by certain Christian churches. Even such a spiritual prophet as Hosea continued in the eighth century to regard them as legitimate (Hosea 3:4). In its earliest form the second command, like the first, may have been a duplicate of the corresponding law in the older decalogue, and have read molten instead of graven image. The command not to covet reveals a highly developed moral sense; but otherwise there is no law in this decalogue, which might not in its extant form have come from Moses. Most of the principles which underlie it were already in force in the days of Hammurabi, although the great prophets of Israel were the first to make them the basis of religion. Although the settings of the different versions of this prophetic decalogue are late, the prominence which is given to it indicates that it is much older than its present literary settings. In the light of all these facts there is a strong probability that the traditions, which trace its origin back to Moses, are substantially historical; at least, it is more than probable that, as the judge and prophet of the Israelite tribes in the wilderness, he laid down and enforced the principles which are incorporated in these ten words. VI.Meaning of the Different Commands. The laws fall into two groups. The first pentad defines the duties of the individual to his divine and human parents. The meaning of most of the commands is clear. Originally the first may have simply demanded that Jehovah be given the first place in the faith and worship of Israel. Later prophets, like Elijah, and Isaiah, interpreted it as excluding all other cults. The second command was made very explicit by later commentators. All attempts to represent the Deity by any image or likeness, or the worship of these sacred objects was absolutely forbidden. The strongest possible warnings and promises guard the observance of the law. In the third command the Hebrew idiom, “Thou shalt not take the name,” means, “thou shalt not invoke the name of Jehovah thy God in vain.” The meaning of the command turns on the expression “in vain.” The Hebrew term thus translated means, (1) purposelessly and therefore flippantly and irreverently; (2) for destruction, as, for example, in cursing another; (3) for nothing, that is in swearing to what is false, and (4) in connection with any form of sorcery or witchcraft. It is possible that the command was intended to include all these different ways in which the sacred name and reputation of Jehovah might be desecrated by his people. The later Hebrew law of Leviticus 24:16 made death the penalty for blaspheming the name of Jehovah. VII.The Law of the Sabbath. The fourth command, like the fifth, emphasizes the obligation to observe the sabbath as a day holy to Jehovah. In this law the earliest significance of the institution is emphasized and its social and humane significance is only implied. The prophetic commentators, however, have brought out this later and nobler meaning very clearly. It is the day of rest for all who toil, whether master or slave or guest or wearied ox. A still later commentator has quoted, as an added reason for observing it, the late priestly account of Jehovah’s resting after he had completed the work of creation (Genesis 2:2-3). In the parallel version in Deuteronomy, however, the reason urged rests upon the noblest ethical basis; it is the responsibility of the employer to the employed. The motive is the debt of gratitude which the Israelites owe to Jehovah who delivered them, a race of slaves, from the bondage of Egypt. VIII.The Obligation to Parents. In their oldest form the first four commands define those personal obligations to Jehovah which are to be expressed in personal loyalty, in the worship, in speech, and in the institution of the sabbath. The fifth command enjoins respect and loyalty to parents. It recognizes the fact that obedience to human parents was necessary to the development of the proper reverence and obedience to the Divine Parent. The primitive Hebrew laws (Exodus 21:15-17) punished by death the child who struck or cursed his father or his mother. The very old Sumerian law of Babylon made slavery the punishment for the son who repudiated his father. The fifth command provides no penalty, however, but appeals simply to the moral sense. The prophetic commentators add the promise of long life and prosperity to him who obeys. IX.Obligations to Others. The second pentad deals with the relations of the individual to other members of society. All primitive peoples punished the crime of murder; but in dealing with lesser crimes most nations were more rigorous than the Hebrews, who ever had a high regard for the sanctity of human life (cf. St. O.T., IV. § 83). Adultery, with its baneful consequences, was also made a capital offence (cf. St. O.T., IV. §§ 70, 71). Not without reason, most primitive Semitic peoples punished this and kindred crimes against society even more severely than they did murder. The penalties for theft were double or fourfold restitution (cf.Deuteronomy 22:1-4 St. O.T., IV. § 90). The last command rises from the plane of action to the impelling motive. Even as did Jesus, it traces the crime back to the thought in the mind of man. To make the law definite later prophets have added a list of those things which the ordinary man was most in danger of coveting. In its simpler and original form the command is even more comprehensive and impressive. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 40: 040. XXVI. MOSES’S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET ======================================================================== § XXVI. MOSES’S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET Exodus 18:1-27; Exodus 33:5-11 1. The visit of Jethro. Now when Jethro the priest of Midian, Moses’s father-in- law, heard of all that God had done for Moses and for Israel his people, how that Jehovah had brought Israel out of Egypt, Jethro, Moses’s father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses’s wife, and her two sons, of whom the name of one was Gershom [An alien resident there]; for he said, I have been a resident alien in a foreign land; and the name of the other was Eliezer [My God is a help]; for he said, The God of my father was my help, and delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh; and Jethro, Moses’s father-in-law, came with his sons and his wife to Moses in the wilderness where he was encamped, at the mountain of God. And he said to Moses, I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am coming to you with your wife, and her two sons with her. And Moses went out to meet his father-in-law, and bowed before him, and kissed him; and when they had asked regarding each other’s welfare, they came into the tent. Then Moses told his father-in-law all that Jehovah had done to Pharaoh and the Egyptians for Israel’s sake, all the hardship they had encountered on the march, and how Jehovah had delivered them. Then Jethro rejoiced because of all the goodness which Jehovah had done to Israel, in that he had delivered them from the power of the Egyptians. And Jethro said, 2. His song of thanksgiving and sacrificial offering. Blessed be Jehovah Who hath delivered them from the power of Pharaoh; Who hath delivered the people from under the power of the Egyptians. Now I am persuaded that Jehovah is greater than all gods, For in that, wherein they acted so arrogantly toward them, hath he thrown them into confusion. Moreover Jethro, Moses’s father-in-law, took a burnt-offering and sacrifices for God, and Aaron came with all the elders of Israel to eat bread with Moses’s father-in-law before God. 3. Moses’s duties asjudge. Now on the next day Moses sat as judge to decide cases for the people, and the people stood about Moses from morning until evening. But when Moses’s father-in-law saw all that he was doing for the people, he said, What is this thing that you are doing for the people? Why are you sitting all alone, while all the people stand about you from morning until evening? And Moses answered his father- in-law, Because the people keep coming to me to inquire of God. Whenever they have a matter of dispute, they come to me, that I may decide which of the two is right, and make known the statutes of God, and his decisions. 4. Appointment of minor judges. Then Moses’s father-in-law said to him, This thing which you are doing is not good. Both you and these people who are about you will surely wear yourselves out, for the task is too heavy for you; you are not able to perform it by yourself alone. Now hearken to me, I will give you good counsel, so that God will be with you: You be the people’s advocate with God, and bring the cases to God, and you make known to them the statutes and the decisions, and show them the way wherein they must walk, and the work that they must do. Moreover you must provide out of all the people able, God-fearing, reliable men, hating unjust gain; and place such over them to be rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens; and let them judge the people at all times. Only every great matter let them bring to you; but every small matter let them decide themselves; so it will be easier for you, and they will bear the burden with you. If you do this thing—and God command you so—then you will be able to endure, and all these people also will go back to their places satisfied. So Moses hearkened to the advice of his father-in-law, and did all that he had said. And Moses chose able men out of all Israel, and made them heads over the people, rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties and rulers of tens. And they judged the people at all times; the difficult cases they brought to Moses, but every small matter they decided themselves. Then Moses let his father-in-law depart, and he went his way to his own land. 5. Making of the tent of meeting. And Jehovah said to Moses, Say to the Israelites, ‘Ye are a wilful people; if I go up into the midst of thee for one moment, I shall consume thee; therefore put off thy ornaments from thee, that I may know what to do to thee.’ So the Israelites despoiled themselves of their ornaments from Mount Horeb onward, and with these Moses made a tent.... 6. Jehovah’s revelation through Moses. Now Moses used to take the tent and pitch it outside the camp at some distance from the camp, and he called it the tent of meeting. And whenever any one wished to consult Jehovah, he would go out to the tent of meeting, which was outside the camp. And whenever Moses went out to the tent, all the people would rise and stand, every man at his tent door, and look after Moses until he had gone into the tent. And when Moses had entered into the tent, the pillar of cloud would descend, and stand at the door of the tent, while Jehovah spoke with Moses. And whenever the people saw the pillar of cloud standing at the door of the tent, all the people stood up and worshipped, every man at his tent door. Thus Jehovah used to speak with Moses face to face, as a man speaks to his friend. Then he would return to the camp; but his attendant Joshua, the son of Nun, a young man, did not leave the tent. I.Moses’s Activity as Tribal Judge. The present section is found for the most part in the Northern Israelite prophetic group of narratives. It is, therefore, one of the older sources in the Pentateuch, and throws clear light upon the vexed question of Moses’s relation to Hebrew legislation. Its background is Mount Sinai, at the period immediately following the establishment of the covenant between Jehovah and the nation. As they are encamped at the foot of the sacred mountain, Moses’s father- in-law, the priest of Midian and worshipper of Jehovah, the God of Sinai, visits Moses. It is significant that he, not Moses, takes the initiative in offering the sacrifices to the common God worshipped by the Hebrews and their Kenite kinsmen. In the ancient East the duty of deciding questions of dispute between tribes and individual members of the tribes, always fell to the civil authorities. Even in ancient Babylon there does not appear to have been a distinct class of judges, but instead, every man in authority was called upon to discharge at certain times judicial, as well as administrative functions. The historical basis of this characteristically oriental usage is found in the customs of the desert. Then, as to-day, the head of the tribe was the one to whom all questions of dispute were referred. While he had no absolute authority to execute his decisions, he was accepted by both parties to the dispute as their arbiter, and his renderings were accepted as final. These decisions were in accordance with oral or customary law. Unusual and difficult cases, however, were necessarily decided according to the judgment of the arbiter. Thus, a great opportunity was given for each individual judge to establish new precedents and to contribute to the ever-growing body of customary law. As the acknowledged leader of the different Hebrew tribes, it was inevitable that many legal cases would be referred to Moses. That this was so is definitely stated in the present narrative. Jethro, recognizing that Moses was overwhelmed by his judicial duties, wisely counselled that he should appoint certain reliable men as judges. These were to decide ordinary questions in accordance with the established precedents and customs. The difficult cases, presenting new problems, were still to be laid before Moses. II.Moses’s Relation to Hebrew Legislation. In this simple, definite way Moses made known to the Israelites the laws and principles which they were to observe. It illustrates very definitely Moses’s relation to Hebrew legislation as a whole. The precedents, which he thus established, were based upon the divine principles which he, as Jehovah’s prophet, was endeavoring to impress upon the conscience of his race. They were thus constantly held up before the eyes of the people, not in abstract but in concrete and permanent form. The precedents in time inevitably developed into fixed customs which regulated the life of the nation. As new needs arose, the principles underlying these customary laws were applied, and the resulting decisions supplemented still further the constantly growing body of customary law. Their present literary form indicates that in time the more important customary laws crystallized into decalogues, each containing ten short words, which were originally treasured in the memory of succeeding generations. When these decalogues and customary laws became so numerous that they could not easily be remembered, and when the Hebrews learned the art of writing, these laws were naturally put into written form. It is evident, however, that the development of written codes was one of the later stages in the history of Hebrew law. It is unimportant whether or not Moses ever wrote down any of the laws found in the Old Testament. On this point the earliest writers have little to say beyond the statement that Moses inscribed the terms of the original covenant between Jehovah and the nation upon two tablets of stone. If Moses never wrote down a single statute, the claim that he was the father of Hebrew law is attested by the earliest Hebrew records and the evidence of later traditions. The prophet always precedes the lawgiver; the principle is enunciated before the detailed regulation appears, which formulates and applies the principle to the needs of the age. As Jehovah’s prophet, Moses proclaimed those germinal principles which underlie the Old Testament laws. As judge, he formulated these principles in definite decisions, which in time grew into customary law, and then by slow stages were expanded into the evergrowing body of legislation. The process of growth was so gradual and the connection with Moses so close that each succeeding generation naturally and inevitably regarded Moses as the author of each and every code. III.The Tent of Meeting. The early Judean narratives, in their present form, contain no references to the tent of meeting or dwelling. In the Northern Israelite history is found a very brief account of the making of this tent of meeting. Originally this account was evidently much fuller, but it has been curtailed to make way for the later priestly account of the dwelling or tabernacle. The earliest account states that the tent of meeting was made from the ornaments which the Israelites contributed. It was apparently a simple tent of goats’ hair and was pitched at a little distance outside the camp. Thither the people went, as did the ancient Arabs to the kahin or seer, to receive from Moses the divine teaching or decisions which he, as Jehovah’s prophet, stood ready to give them. This simple story has been expanded by the later priestly writers into the elaborate plan and description of the tabernacle, to which the later part of the book of Exodus is largely devoted. IV. Moses’sTrue Prophetic Character. In this oldest form of the story of the tent of meeting is recorded the all-important fact that Moses was recognized by his own and later generations, as not only a judge and therefore a lawgiver, but above all as a prophet. Jehovah declares, in the ancient poem found in Numbers 12, that through the early prophet he made known his will by means of the vision or dream, but “Not so with my servant Moses; In all my house he is faithful. Mouth to mouth do I speak with him, Plainly and not in enigmas, And the form of Jehovah doth he behold.” Not through the various devices used by the ancient seers and augurs, but directly, as the spirit of Jehovah touched the spirit of Moses, came that message which made him the great prophetic leader and teacher of his race. The character of his message and nature of his work confirm the testimony of this ancient poem: in the method in which he saw the truth, in his sense of the imminent presence of God, and in his practical grasp of the existing conditions and forces, Moses stands side by side with the great prophets of the later age, such as Amos, Isaiah and Jeremiah. Although his conception of the character of God and of the truth was by no means as complete, as that of the later prophets, his unique relation to his race and their peculiar needs gave him an opportunity, shared by no other prophet in Hebrew history, to impress his personality and message upon his nation. His was the privilege not only of proclaiming but of executing. The experiences in Egypt and of the exodus and the grim life of the desert turned the eyes of his followers toward him as their God-given and divinely commissioned leader. In their need they looked to him for counsel and deliverance. Not only once, but throughout the years of the wilderness sojourn, he was able in public and in private, by word and by symbol, by command and by act, to impress upon his race the few fundamental truths that constitute the essence of his divine message. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 41: 041. XXVII. THE LIFE OF THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS ======================================================================== § XXVII. THE LIFE OF THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS Numbers 1:33-36, Numbers 11, Numbers 12, Exodus 17:3-16 1. The plan of march. Then as they journeyed from the mountain of Jehovah, the ark of Jehovah went before them, to seek out a halting place for them. And whenever the ark started, Moses would say, Arise, O Jehovah, And let thine enemies be scattered; And let those who hate thee flee before thee. And when it rested, he would say, Return, O Jehovah, To the ten thousand of thousands of Israel. 2. Complaints of the people. Now the rabble which was among them began to have a strong craving, and even the Israelites began to weep again, and to say, O that we had flesh to eat. We remember the fish which we used to eat in Egypt without cost: the cucumbers, and the melons, the leeks, the onions and the garlic; but now we pine away; there is not a thing to be seen except this manna. 3.Moses’s discouragement and complaint. And the anger of Jehovah was greatly aroused. When therefore Moses heard the people weeping throughout their families, every man at the door of his tent, Moses was displeased. And Moses said to Jehovah, Why hast thou dealt ill with thy servant? and why have I not found favor in thy sight, that thou layest the burden of all this people upon me? Have I conceived all this people? Have I brought them forth, that thou shouldest say to me, Carry them in thy bosom, as a nursing-father carries the sucking child, to the land which thou swarest to their fathers? Whence should I have flesh to give to all this people? for they oppress me with their weeping, saying, ‘Give us flesh that we may eat.’ I am not able to bear all this people alone, because it is too heavy for me. And if thou deal thus with me, kill me, I pray thee, kill me, if I have found favor in thy sight; and let me not see my wretchedness. 4. Jehovah’s reply. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Say to the people, ‘Sanctify yourselves for to-morrow and you shall eat flesh, for you have wept loudly in the hearing of Jehovah, saying, “ O that we had flesh to eat! for it was well with us in Egypt.” Therefore Jehovah will give you flesh that you may eat. Not one day nor two, nor five, nor ten, nor twenty days shall you eat, but a whole month, until it comes out at your nostrils, and is loathsome to you; because you have rejected Jehovah who is among you, and have wept before him, saying, “ Why did we come out of Egypt?” ’ Then Moses said, The people among whom I am, are six hundred thousand men on foot; yet thou hast said, ‘I will give them flesh that they may eat a whole month.’ Can flocks and herds be slain sufficient for them? or can all the fish of the sea be gathered sufficient for them? But Jehovah said to Moses, Is Jehovah’s power limited? Now shalt thou see whether my promise to thee shall come to pass or not. 5. The quails and the divine judgment. Then Moses went out, and told the people the words of Jehovah. And a wind went forth from Jehovah and brought quails from the sea and scattered them upon the camp, about a day’s journey on this side, and a day’s journey on the other side, round about the camp, even about two cubits above the surface of the earth. Therefore the people spent all that day and all the night, and all the next day, in gathering the quails. He who gathered least gathered about one hundred bushels; and they spread them all out for themselves about the camp. While they were still eating the flesh, before the supply was exhausted, the anger of Jehovah was aroused against the people, and Jehovah smote the people with a very great plague. Hence the name of that place was called Kibroth-hattaavah [Graves of the Craving], because there they buried the people who had the craving. From Kibroth-hattaavah the people journeyed to Hazeroth, and remained at Hazeroth. Afterwards the people set forth from Hazeroth, and encamped in the wilderness of Paran. And the people were thirsty there for water, and murmured against Moses, and said, Why have you brought us up from Egypt to kill us with our children and cattle, with thirst? Moses answered, Why do you test Jehovah? So he called the name of the place Massah [Testing], because they tested Jehovah, saying, Is Jehovah among us or not? 7. The battle and victory. Then Amalek came and fought with Israel in Rephidim. And Moses said to Joshua, Choose men and go, fight with Amalek. To-morrow I will stand on the top of the hill, with the rod of God in my hand. So Joshua did as Moses had said to him, and fought with Amalek; and Moses, Aaron and Hur went up to the top of the hill. And whenever Moses held up his hand, Israel prevailed; and whenever he let down his hand, Amalek prevailed. But when Moses’s hands became weary, they took a stone and put it under him, and he sat on it, while Aaron and Hur held up his hands, the one on the one side and the other on the other. So his hands were supported until the going down of the sun. And Joshua laid Amalek and his people low with the edge of the sword. 8.Cause of the hereditary hostility against the Amalekites. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Write this for a memorial in a book and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua: that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven. Then Moses built an altar, and called the name of it Jehovah-nissi [Jehovah my Banner]; and he said, Jehovah hath sworn; Jehovah will have war with Amalek from generation to generation. I.The Records of the Life in the Wilderness. It is not surprising that the records of the experiences of the Hebrews during this wilderness period are incomplete and often confusing. The later priestly writers, with their elaborate plans of the tabernacle and of the arrangement of the different tribes, represent the period as one of solemn procession through the desert wastes. There is little connection between their idealized picture and the actual wilderness background and the condition of the Hebrew tribes at this stage in their development. Rather these later stories represent the projecting backward, upon this ancient background, of the ideas and institutions peculiar to the post-exilic Jews. The early prophetic narratives, embedded in the late priestly laws and traditions in the book of Numbers, give, however, certain glimpses of the real life and meaning of the period. II.Geographical Background. The background is the wilderness which lies to the south of Canaan. It contains many miles of burning sands and rocky desert, but much of this territory in the past, as to-day, supports a large nomadic population. The term, wilderness, which in the Hebrew means a lonely place, unoccupied by cities or towns, truly describes it. In the north and east there are rolling, rocky plateaus and jagged mountain peaks. These are, for the most part, parched and treeless, but in the valleys are found at rare intervals gushing springs, which supply the simple needs of nomads. The South Country marked the gradual transition from the more barren wilderness on the south and west to Judah on the north. To the Hebrews it must have seemed, in contrast to the desert, a land of plenty. In later times it contained many strong and populous cities, but it ever remained a land where Nature was very niggardly with her gifts of food and water. III.The Lifeofthe Wilderness. The life of the Arab tribes, which to-day inhabit this same region, reveals in minutest detail the life of the ancient Israelites. Probably in ancient times the costume worn by the men was the same long tunic with the goats’ hair mantle which protected them by day from the sun and rain. By night it was their bed. Beside the sacred springs the Hebrews pitched their black or striped goats’ hair tents and lived for the most part out in the open air, exposed to the inclemency of the changing seasons, ever journeying from place to place in quest of food and water. As to-day, their chief article of diet was probably the laban or curds, which they made from the milk from the herds and flocks which they had brought with them when they came forth from the Land of Goshen. At the feast days and marriages and special celebrations, animals from the herd were slain. At the proper season they also doubtless hunted the quails and other game which is found in this wilderness region. Sometimes, when all their resources failed they gathered, like the modem Arab, the gum that exudes from the tamarisk tree or the lichens from the rocks, and from these, which probably represent the manna of the wilderness, they made a coarse flour and bread. This unpalatable food kept them alive until the winter rain again brought comparative plenty. It was a life of freedom, of constant activity, of privation and often of suffering. The lack of food and water was an ever-present spur, and constantly led them to turn with anxious longing toward the green hills and pasture lands of Palestine. It was a life full of danger and fear, not only lest grim Nature should fail to meet their natural wants, but lest their foes should overpower them. Barren though it was, the South Country was a territory for the possession of which many hostile tribes were contending with an intensity and cruelty proportionate to the scarcity of food and water. Any day, any hour, a hostile tribe might suddenly attack them, rob them of their possessions, slay the men and bear away the wives and children to lives of slavery and ignominy. Their life developed, therefore, the habit of constant watchfulness and the sense of dependence. It bound together all members of the tribe by the closest possible bonds. It also, in turn, bound the tribe to its tribal God by the powerful bonds of fear and dependence and gratitude. IV.Duration of the Sojourn. As usual, only the latest narratives give any definite data regarding the duration of the sojourn in the wilderness. In the Old Testament the number forty is constantly used as the concrete equivalent of many. The absence of any definite data in the early prophetic narratives leaves the question of time entirely open. If, as seems probable, the date of the exodus was about 1200 B.C., the Israelite conquest of southern Palestine would not have been possible before about the middle of the twelfth century. Ramses III of the twentieth Egyptian dynasty, reigned between 1198 and 1167 B.C. He succeeded in re-establishing and maintaining Egyptian authority in southern Canaan. While it would have been possible for small desert tribes to gradually press in to the outlying districts of southern and eastern Palestine, no general settlement of aliens would have been allowed by the Egyptian authorities. It is not clear, however, that the Egyptian rule was established east of the Jordan, so that it is possible that a partial conquest of that region by the Hebrews may have followed very soon after the exodus. The story of the spies, also indicates that an attempt was made to invade Canaan from the south, but that this was only partially successful. The majority of the Hebrew tribes appear, as the later tradition states, to have remained in the wilderness and the South Country for at least a generation. V.Tribal Organization. The oldest narratives suggest that the Hebrews quickly adapted themselves to the peculiar conditions of the wilderness. Probably dividing into different tribes, as the limited food and water supply of the desert made necessary, they subsisted by migrating from one pasture land to another, each tribe under its tribal leader. The centre of their life was Kadesh, which has been identified in recent times with the modern Ain Kadish, a famous spring fifty miles south of Beersheeba. As in the earliest times, it is still regarded by the natives as sacred, as its name (Holy Spring) suggests. The spring itself gushes forth from the side of a sheer rock, and its waters go coursing down through a rather broad valley which it irrigates. This little oasis stands in striking contrast to the dry, barren, rocky territory about. While the water supply was not sufficient to meet the needs of a numerous people, its perennial spring and the tillable soil about, doubtless furnished enough to meet the needs of Moses and of the leaders who joined with him in ruling the allied tribes. There the people doubtless came to him with their cases of dispute or to learn through him Jehovah’s will. Thither came the different tribes in the spring time and in the autumn, not empty handed, to present their gifts to Jehovah and to celebrate the sacred festivals. It appears to have been the common centre about which the different tribes revolved, and from which Moses exercised his leadership and direction. VI.The Tradition of the Manna. The later traditions represent the Hebrews as subsisting upon food supernaturaly supplied. The early Judean historians, on the contrary, clearly state that the Israelites lived on the natural products of the wilderness. The tradition that the Hebrews at this time numbered many thousands has clearly influenced the form of this narrative. It explains the fact that, while the source of the supply was natural, the quantity far exceeded that which the wilderness ordinarily supplies. Back of these stories of the manna and of the marvellous supply of water, is the historic truth that, in this barren environment and trying period of their history, Jehovah amply provided all that was needed for the welfare of his people. By means of these stories the prophetic historians bring out in clear relief that care and love which ever attends those who put their trust in the Divine Father. VII.The Battle with the Amalekites. Another phase of the desert life of the Hebrews is reflected in the story of the battle with the Amalekites. Possibly this was for the possession of the sacred spring at Kadesh. These desert tribesmen figure in the later history, especially of Saul and David, as the inveterate foes of the Hebrews. They were found, not in the Sinaitic peninsula, but in the South Country on the border of Judah. This fact suggests that the occasion was an initial advance of the Hebrews toward Palestine. The episode is important because it reveals the warlike life of the wilderness period. The conflicts with these small desert tribes gave the Hebrews that experience and training which were essential if they were to win on the larger battle-fields of Palestine. Here, as elsewhere in their narratives, the prophetic historians focus attention on the supreme fact that it was Jehovah’s strong arm which gave them the victory. VIII.The Significance of the Ark. The early Judean narrative mentions the ark in connection with the journey through the wilderness; but gives no description of its origin and form. The latest compiler of Exodus has evidently substituted for the older prophetic, the late priestly account of its construction. It was apparently a simple wooden chest, made from such wood as could be found in the desert. From its prominence and use by the Hebrews in their early conflicts with the Philistines (as recorded in the opening chapters of Samuel), it is clear that in that later day it enjoyed a reputation which could have been gained only through many generations. This evidence strengthens the testimony of the early Judean historian that the Hebrews, as they left Mount Sinai, bore with them some such rude chest or ark. The presence of corresponding arks or ships among the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians and Phoenicians indicates that the institution was very old, and throws further light upon the original meaning of the symbol. Among the Egyptians each god had its sacred ship, on which the image of the god was borne in solemn procession up and down the Nile. In Babylonia corresponding arks or chests were similarly used to bear the images of the gods in the processions, which marched along the sacred streets on certain great feast days. If the primitive decalogue of Exodus 34 comes from Moses, it would seem clear that from the first Jehovah was not represented by an image. The analogies and the references in the early sources indicate that the ark was apparently regarded either as the symbol of the presence of Jehovah or as the throne of the God of Sinai. In the minds of the early Hebrews, it may well have represented the transfer of Jehovah’s place of abode from the sacred mountain to the temple at Jerusalem, in which the ark occupied a central place. Some such belief as this explains the ancient song in Exodus 34:1. Before this symbol of Jehovah’s presence Israel’s foes were vanquished. Under Moses’s direction it was the signal for the Hebrews to advance or to halt in their march. Above all, it symbolized to them in all their wanderings and varied vicissitudes the all-important fact that Jehovah, their God, was in their midst, guiding and directing them. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 42: 042. XXVIII. THE ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE SOUTH ======================================================================== § XXVIII. THE ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE SOUTH Numbers 13, 14, Deuteronomy 1:32, Numbers 14:11-33, Numbers 16 1. Thesending forth of the spies. Then Moses sent certain men to spy out the land of Canaan, and said to them, Go up now into the South Country and on up into the hill-country, and see what the land is and the people who dwell therein, whether they are strong or weak, whether few or many, and what the land is in which they dwell, whether it is good or bad; and what the cities are in which they dwell, whether in camps or in strongholds; and see what the land is, whether it is fertile or barren, whether there is wood in it or not. Be brave and bring some of the fruit of the land. Now it was the time of the first ripe grapes. 2.Their journey. So they went up by the South Country, and came to Hebron; and Ahiman, Sheshai and Talmai, the children of Anak, were there. (Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.) And when they came to the valley of Eshcol, they cut down from there a branch with one cluster of grapes, and carried it upon a staff between two men, and also some of the pomegranates, and some of the figs. That place was called the valley of Eshcol [Grape- cluster], because of the cluster which the Israelites cut down from there. 3.Their report. And they returned to Kadesh, and brought back a report to them, and showed them the fruit of the land. And they told Moses, saying, We came to the land to which you sent us; and surely it flows with milk and honey; and this is the fruit of it. But the people who dwell in the land are strong, and the cities are fortified, and very large; and, moreover, we saw the children of Anak there. (The Amalekites were dwelling in the land of the south; and the Hittites and the Jebusites and the Amorites in the hill-country; and the Canaanites were dwelling by the sea, and beside the Jordan.) Then Caleb stilled the people before Moses, and said, We surely ought to go up and take possession of it; for we are well able to overcome it. But the men who went up with him said, We are not able to go up against the people; for they are stronger than we. And there we saw Nephilim [giants]; we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so were we in their sight. 4.The murmuring of the people. Then the people wept that night, saying, Why did Jehovah bring us to this land, to fall by the sword? Our wives and our little ones will be a prey! Were it not better for us to return to Egypt ? And they said to one another, Let us make a captain and return to Egypt. 5.Moses’s counsel. But Moses said to them, If Jehovah delighteth in us, then he will bring us into this land, and give it to us; a land which flows with milk and honey. Fear not the people of the land, for they are our bread. Their defence is removed from over them, for Jehovah is with us; fear them not. But the people would not trust Jehovah. 6.Jehovah’s condemnation of the Israelites. Therefore Jehovah said to Moses, How long will this people despise me? and how long will they refuse to trust me, in spite of all the signs which I have worked among them? I will smite them with a pestilence, and disinherit them, and will make thee a nation greater and mightier than they. 7.Moses’s intercession for the people. But Moses said to Jehovah, Then the Egyptians will hear it (for thou broughtest this people in thy might from among them), and they will tell it to the inhabitants of this land. They have heard that thou, Jehovah, art in the midst of this people; for thou, Jehovah, art seen eye to eye, and thy cloud standeth over them, and thou goest before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night. Now if thou shalt kill this people as one man, then the nations which have heard the fame of thee will say, ‘ Because Jehovah was not able to bring this people into the land which he promised to them with an oath, therefore he hath slain them in the wilderness.’ But now, I pray thee, let the power of the Lord be great, according as thou hast spoken, saying, ‘Jehovah is slow to anger, and abundant in mercy, forgiving iniquity and transgression; although he does not leave it unpunished, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children upon the third and fourth generation.’ Pardon, I pray thee, the iniquity of this people, according to thy great mercy, and according as thou hast forgiven this people, from Egypt even until now. 8. The judgment upon the people. Jehovah said, I have pardoned according to thy word; but as surely as I live, and as surely as the whole earth shall be filled with the glory of Jehovah, of all the men who have seen my glory and my signs which I performed in Egypt and in the wilderness, and yet have tempted me these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice, not one shall see the land which I promised to their fathers with an oath, neither shall any of those who despised me see it; but my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit in him, and hath followed me unreservedly, him will I bring into the land to which he went, and his descendants shall possess it. But your little ones, that ye said should be a prey, them will I bring in, and they shall know the land which ye have rejected. But as for you, your dead bodies shall fall in this wilderness. And your children shall be wanderers in the wilderness forty years. 9. Defeat of the Israelites. Now when the Canaanite king of Arad, who dwelt in the South Country, heard that Israel had come by the way of Atharim, he fought against Israel, and took some of them captive. 10. Mutiny of Dathan and Abiram. Then Dathan and Abiram the sons of Eliab the son of Pallu, son of Reuben, took men, and rose up before Moses. And Moses sent to summon Dathan and Abiram the sons of Eliab; but they said, We will not come up; is it a small thing that you have brought us up out of a land flowing with milk and honey, to kill us in the wilderness, but you must even make yourself a prince over us? Moreover you have not brought us into a land flowing with milk and honey; will you throw dust in our eyes? we will not come up. 11.Moses’s protest and warning. Then Moses was very angry and said to Jehovah, Do not respect their offering; I have not taken a single ass from them, neither have I hurt one of them. And Moses rose up and went to Dathan and Abiram, and the elders of Israel followed him. And he said to them, Depart, I pray you, from the tents of these wicked men, and touch nothing of theirs, lest you be swept away in all their sins. And Dathan and Abiram came out, and stood at the door of their tents, with their wives and sons and little ones. 12. His appeal to Jehovah for a divine decision. Then Moses said, By this you shall know that Jehovah hath sent me to do all these works; that it was not of mine own choice. If these men die the common death of men, or if they share the usual fate of men, then Jehovah hath not sent me. But if Jehovah does something unprecedented, and the ground opens its mouth, and swallows them up, with all that belongs to them, and they go down alive to Sheol, then you shall understand that these men have despised Jehovah. 13. Fate of the rebels. And it came to pass as he finished speaking all these words, that the ground which was under them was cleft. So they and all that belonged to them, went down alive into Sheol. I.The Natural Approach to Canaan. As has already been noted, two ways opened before the Hebrews as they departed from Egypt. They chose the southern, the Way of the Red Sea, because it led to freedom and association with their kinsmen. They avoided the northern route, the Way of the Philistines, which was the more direct road to Canaan, because it was guarded by Egyptian garrisons and by strongly intrenched agricultural peoples, whom the nomad Hebrew clans could not hope to conquer. From the first, Canaan, with its springs and fertile fields, was the loadstone which attracted the Hebrews. With Kadesh as a centre, they found their temporary home on the southern borders of this land of their hopes. The most natural and direct line of approach from Kadesh was directly northward. A journey of seventy-five or one hundred miles would bring them into the heart of southern Canaan. No strong, natural barriers barred their progress. Instead, the rolling, rocky South Country gradually merges into the rounded limestone hills of Judah. II.The Report of the Spies. The story of the spies is the traditional record of the attempt of the Hebrews to enter Canaan from the south. Three distinct and variant versions of the tradition are found in Numbers, but they all agree regarding the essential facts. From Kadesh, Moses sent out certain men with Caleb at their head, to investigate conditions in the South Country and Canaan. Hebron they found in the possession of certain powerful clans. From the valleys of Judah they brought back convincing evidence of the vine culture which flourished there. In contrast to the barren life of the wilderness, even rocky Judah was a veritable paradise; but the cities were strong and fortified, and to the majority of the spies the conquest of Canaan seemed an impossibility. Caleb advocated an immediate advance; but the people were daunted by the report of the majority, and abandoned the hope of immediate conquest. A later prophetic editor, standing in the full light of later events, and inspired by a nobler faith, has introduced (6-8) a powerful arraignment of the people because of their cowardice and lack of faith at this critical moment in their history. The courage of Caleb was rewarded by the promise that his descendants should be established in southern Judah. III.Reasons for the Failure. Egyptian inscriptions supplement the testimony of the oldest biblical records by revealing the real reasons why the Hebrews did not go up at once from the south to the conquest of Canaan. Chief among these was the fact that Egypt still maintained its rule in southern Palestine and thus bound together the different local clans and enabled them to offer a successful resistance to invasion from the desert. On the other hand, the Hebrews were not prepared to conquer the highly civilized peoples of Canaan. Excavation has revealed the strength and height of many of the walls which encircled their towns. Desert tribes have no means of attacking and capturing walled villages. The needs of their flocks and herds and the lack of military training make it impossible for them to maintain a protracted siege. The experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt had given them no training in warfare, but had tended to weaken rather than develop their courage. A generation of hardship in the desert under the inspiring direction of their prophet leader was necessary before they could become an efficient fighting force. It was also important that they should first intrench themselves in some semi-agricultural district and develop their resources and base of supply, before they could maintain a systematic and continuous attack. IV.The Tribes that Entered Palestine from the South. The older narratives record an attempt on the part of the Israelites to capture Arad, one of the outlying Canaanite towns, and of their defeat at the hands of their foes. The testimony of these earliest narratives is that a majority of the Hebrew tribes remained for a generation or more in the wilderness, and ultimately entered Palestine from the east, rather than from the south. The prominence of Caleb, however, in the story of the spies and in the later account of the conquest of southern Canaan undoubtedly reflects the fact that the tribe of Caleb entered from the south, before the majority of the Hebrew tribes had settled in central Canaan. These Calebites were intrenched south of Hebron. Near them were found certain other Arab tribes, such as the Jerahmeelites, the Kenites and the Kenizzites. Possibly these were the vanguard of the Hebrew advance, or they may have already entered the South Country before the Hebrew tribes fled from Egypt. The subsequent records indicate that they affiliated with the Judahites and constituted a large and important part of that southern Israelite tribe. V.Rebellions Against Moses’s Authority. The rivalry of different tribes and the hardship of their life in the desert naturally begat strife and rebellion. Hostility between rival tribes is the rule rather than the exception in Arabia. The authority of the tribal sheik or leader is ill-defined, and depends chiefly upon the needs of the moment and the personal ability of the leader. In the face of discouragements it was almost inevitable that discontent should find open expression and that many of the tribal sheiks should oppose the authority of their prophetic leader. This state of affairs is revealed in the many traditions of rebellions against Moses. Quick, decisive measures were doubtless adopted to put down these uprisings. It was by patience, tact and courage that the great leader finally overcame opposition and gradually welded the different tribes into a strong political unit. VI.Significance of the Wilderness Sojourn. In the light of its historical background and the testimony of the earliest traditions, it is possible to estimate the significance to the Hebrews of their wilderness experiences. The necessities and hardships of their life gradually and inevitably gave them habits of courage, persistence and self-denial. Their strenuous life developed physical strength and endurance, courage and skill in warfare. It impressed upon them the necessity and advantages of combined action, and facilitated the work of Moses in moulding the incipient nation. Their constant feeling of hunger and fear of attack deepened their sense of dependence upon divine power. Their simple religious life, which apparently centred in Kadesh, enabled Moses to impress upon them his own sense of Jehovah’s constant presence and care for his people. On the other hand, as their judge and prophet, he was able definitely to illustrate those simple ethical principles, which appear from the first to have been the cornerstones of Israel’s faith and civilization. Thus, in divine Providence, quietly out in the solitude and privation of the wilderness, under the leadership of one of the world’s great prophets, a nation, ambitious, strong of limb and loyal to its tribal God and leader, was being prepared for the destiny which awaited it. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 43: 043. XXIX. THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS AND BALAAM’S PROPHECY ======================================================================== § XXIX. THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS AND BALAAM’S PROPHECY Numbers 20, 21, 22, Numbers 23:28, Numbers 24:1-19 1.Moses’s request. Then Moses sent messengers from Kadesh to the king of Edom, Thus says your kinsman Israel, ‘You know all the hardship that has befallen us: how our fathers went down into Egypt, and we lived in Egypt a long time; and the Egyptians ill-treated us and our fathers; but when we cried to Jehovah, he heard our voice and sent a Messenger and brought us out of Egypt; now we are in Kadesh, a city on the frontier of your territory. Pray, let us pass through your land. We will not pass through field or vineyard, and we will not drink of the water of the wells; we will go along the king’s highway; we will not turn aside to the right hand or to the left, until we have passed your border. 2. Edom’s refusal. But Edom said to him, You shall not pass through my territory, lest I come out with the sword against you. Then the Israelites said to him, we will go up by the main highway; and if I drink of your water, I and my cattle, then will I pay for it. Only—since it is nothing—I would like peacefully to pass through. But he said, You shall not pass through. Therefore Edom came out against him with a mighty host and a strong force. Thus Edom refused to give Israel passage through his territory; so Israel turned away from him. 3.The fiery serpents. Then they journeyed from Kadesh by the way leading to the Red Sea, to go around the land of Edom; but the people became discouraged, because of the journey. And the people spoke against Jehovah and Moses, Why have you brought us out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? for there is no bread and no water, and we loathe this worthless food. Then Jehovah sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people, so that many Israelites died. And the people came to Moses and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken against Jehovah and against you; intercede with Jehovah that he take away the serpents from us. So Moses interceded for the people. And Jehovah said to Moses, Make a fiery serpent, and set it on a standard; and it shall come to pass, that any one who is bitten, when he seeth it, shall live. And Moses made a bronze serpent, and set it upon the standard; and it came to pass that, if a serpent had bitten any man, when he looked at the bronze serpent, he lived. 4.Experiences in the journey about Moab. Then they encamped in the wilderness, which is opposite Moab on the east. From there they journeyed and encamped in the valley of the brook Zered. From there they journeyed and encamped on the other side of the Arnon, which is in the wilderness that stretches out from the territory of the Amorites; for the Arnon is the Moabite boundary, between Moab and the Amorites. Therefore it is said in the Book of Wars of Jehovah, We passed through Waheb in Suphah, And the valleys of Arnon, And the slope of the valleys, Which extends to the site of Ar, And borders on the frontier of Moab. And from thence the Israelites journeyed to Beer [Well]. Then Israel sang this song: Spring up, O well; Sing ye to it; To the well which the chieftains dug, Which the nobles of the people delved, With the leader’s wand, with their staves. And from Beer they journeyed to Mattanah; and from Mattanah to Nahaliel; and from Nahaliel to Bamoth; and from Bamoth to the valley which is in the region of Moab, to the top of Pisgah, which looks out upon the desert. 5. Moab’s fear of Israel. Now Moab was seized with fear because of the Israelites. Therefore Moab said to the elders of Midian, Now will this multitude lick up all that is round about us, as the ox licks up the grass of the field. And Balak the son of Zippor was king of Moab at that time. And he sent messengers to Balaam the son of Beor, to the land of the Ammonites, saying, A people has come out from Egypt; behold, they have completely covered the face of the land, and are abiding over against me. Come, therefore, I pray, curse this people for me; (for they are stronger than I); perhaps I may be able to defeat and drive them out of the land. Then the elders of Moab and the elders of Midian departed with the fee for divination in their hands, and they came to Balaam, and repeated to him the words of Balak, Behold, the people that has come from Egypt is covering the face of the land; come now, curse them for me; perhaps I may be able to fight against them and drive them out. For I will reward you with very great honor, and whatever you say to me I will do. Come therefore, I pray, curse this people for me. And Balaam answered and said to the servants of Balak, If Balak should give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the word of Jehovah my God, to do less or more. 6. Balaam s experiences on the way. Then he saddled his ass and went with them. But God’s anger was aroused because he went, and the Messenger of Jehovah placed himself in the way as an adversary against him. Now he was riding upon his ass, and his two servants were with him. And when the ass saw the Messenger of Jehovah standing in the way, with his drawn sword in his hand, the ass turned aside out of the way, and went into the field. Then Balaam struck the ass to turn her into the way. But the Messenger stood in a narrow path between the vineyards, a wall being on this side, and a wall on that side. And when the ass saw the Messenger of Jehovah, she pressed herself against the wall and crushed Balaam’s foot against the wall; so he struck her again. Then the Messenger of Jehovah went further, and stood in a narrow place, where there was no way to turn either to the right hand or the left. And when the ass saw the Messenger of Jehovah, she lay down under Balaam; and Balaam’s anger was aroused, and he struck the ass with his staff. Then Jehovah opened the mouth of the ass, and she said to Balaam, What have I done to you, that you should have struck me these three times? And Balaam said to the ass, Because you have made sport of me; I would that there were a sword in my hand, for now I would kill you. And the ass said to Balaam, Am not I your ass, upon which you have ridden all your life long until to-day? Has it been my habit to deal thus with you? And he said, Nay. Then Jehovah opened the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the Messenger of Jehovah standing in the way, with his drawn sword in his hand; and he bowed his head and fell on his face. And the Messenger of Jehovah said to him, Why hast thou struck thine ass these three times? behold, I have come forth as an adversary, because thy conduct is perverse before me; and the ass saw me, and turned aside before me these three times. Unless she had turned aside from me, surely now I had even slain thee, and saved her alive. Therefore Balaam said to the Messenger of Jehovah, I have sinned; for I did not know that thou stoodest in the way against me; now therefore if it displeases thee, I will go back again. But the Messenger of Jehovah said to Balaam, Go with the men; but only the word I shall speak to thee, that thou shalt speak. And when Balak heard that Balaam was coming, he went out to meet him at Ir of Moab, which is on the boundary formed by the Amon, which is at the extremity of the boundary, and said to him, Am I not able to honor you? Then Balaam went with Balak, and they came to Kiriath-huzzoth. 7. His testimony to Israel’s future greatness. So Balak took Balaam to the top of Peor, which looks out over the eastern desert. Now when Balaam saw that it pleased Jehovah to bless Israel, he did not go to consult omens as he had done time and again, but he turned toward the wilderness. And when Balaam lifted up his eyes, he saw Israel dwelling according to their tribes; and the spirit of God came upon him, and he uttered his oracle saying, The oracle of Balaam the son of Beor, Even the oracle of the man who seeth truly, The oracle of him who heareth the words of God, Who seeth the vision of the Almighty, Falling down and having his eyes open: How beautiful are thy tents, O Jacob, Thy dwellings, O Israel! Like valleys are they spread out, Like gardens by the river-side, Like lign-aloes which Jehovah hath planted, Like cedars beside the waters. Water shall flow from his buckets, And his seed shall be sown in abundant waters, And his king shall be higher than Agag, And his kingdom shall be exalted. God who brought him forth out of Egypt; Is for him like the strength of the wild-ox. He shall devour the nations, his adversaries, And shall break their bones in pieces, And shatter his oppressors. He croucheth, he fieth down like a lion, And like a lioness, who shall stir him up? Blessed is every one who blesseth thee, And cursed is every one who curseth thee. 8. His reiterated prediction. Then Balak’s anger was aroused against Balaam, and he smote his hands together; and Balak said to Balaam, I called you to curse my enemies, and, behold, you have done nothing but bless them. Now therefore flee to your home. I intended to honor you greatly; but, as it is, Jehovah hath kept thee back from honor. But Balaam said to Balak, Did I not say to your messengers whom you sent to me, ‘ If Balak should give me his house full of silver and gold, I could not go beyond the word of Jehovah, to do either good or bad of my own will; what Jehovah speaketh that must I speak ? ’ And now, behold, I am going to my people: come let me tell you beforehand what this people will do to your people in the days to come. And he uttered his oracle, saying, The oracle of Balaam the son of Beor, Even the oracle of the man who seeth truly, The oracle of him who heareth the words of God, And knoweth the knowledge of the Most High, Who seeth the vision of the Almighty, Falling down and having his eyes open: I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near; A star cometh forth out of Jacob, And a sceptre ariseth out of Israel, And shattereth the temples of Moab, And the skull of all the sons of Seth. And Edom shall become a possession, Seir, his enemies, shall also become a possession, While Israel doeth valiantly. And out of Jacob shall one have dominion, And shall destroy the remnant from the city. I.Reasons for the Journey. The opportunity to secure a base from which to invade Palestine, first offered itself to the Hebrews in the east-Jordan territory. The Amorites, possibly to escape Egyptian rule, seized the rolling uplands east of the Jordan. By the Moabites and Ammonites these invaders were naturally regarded as aliens. Hence in case of attack from their neighbors the Amorites could expect no aid. According to the earliest records, it was from these aliens that the Hebrews wrested the fertile lands on which they made the transition from the life of the wilderness to the settled agricultural civilization of Palestine. To reach the east-Jordan territory, the nearest way led across the northern territory of Edom and south of the Dead Sea. The Edomites, suspicious of the Israelites, refused them a passage. The journey around the southern end of Edom was long and toilsome, but the Hebrews chose it rather than battle with the Edomites. II.The Journey Around Edom. The prophetic historians have preserved a few stories and fragments from the folk songs connected with the events of this journey. Again the people were discouraged and rebelled against Jehovah and Moses. The calamity which overtook them is interpreted as a divine judgment. The tradition states that fiery serpents came among them and bit them. Divine forgiveness and deliverance came only in response to the earnest prayers of Moses. In 2 Kings 18:4 it is stated that Hezekiah, under the inspiration of the preaching of Isaiah, “broke in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had made, for up to that time the Israelites had offered sacrifices to it, and they called it Nehushtan (the brazen one).” From this reference it appears that the present story is the traditional interpretation of the origin and meaning of this ancient symbol. The fact that it was destroyed in connection with Hezekiah’s reform work indicates that the later age, under the preaching of the prophets, realized its true character. The early prophetic historians preserved the story because it illustrated vividly and concretely the duty of following God’s leadership, without complaint even amidst the most adverse conditions. It also revealed that divine love which ever responds to the cry of contrition. Thus to the old heathen symbol these early prophets gave an interpretation which anticipates the later Gospel message. The Song of the Well was probably sung by the women, as they went out to draw water from the famous well at Beer. It commemorates either the time when the well was originally dug, or the combined action of the leaders and people at some period of protracted drought. A list is also given of the stations in the caravan route which led from the desert northward. III.The Two Versions of the Balaam Stories. In its present setting, the remarkable Balaam story is one of the episodes of the journey from Kadesh to the Jordan. Two complete and variant versions of this story are found in the book of Numbers. The Northern Israelite version makes Balaam a famous prophet from Pethor beside the Euphrates. He therefore lived on the borders of the land of Aram, from whence came the ancestors of the Hebrews. At the divine command he responded to the invitation of the king of Moab; but instead of cursing, he pronounced a blessing which foretold the future prosperity and military glory of the Israelites. In the older, the early Judean narrative, Balaam was a famous Ammonite seer called to curse the Israelites. Brought to his senses by the voice of his patient ass, which is thought of as gifted with speech, even as the serpent in the early Judean story of man’s fall, Balaam uttered a true and noble prediction concerning Israel’s future victories under the leadership of Saul and David. IV.TheBalaamOracles. Underlying the ancient story is the common belief that a curse, especially if it proceeds from the lips of one who has great influence with the Deity, possesses a malign power. The Balaam story also indicates that the early Hebrew historians held that divine revelation was not limited to seers and prophets of their own race. The setting and poetic form of Balaam’s predictions are characteristic of ancient oracles. Although the exact meaning of the Hebrew is obscure, the opening words seem to indicate that the seer was in a state of trance, repeating that which he saw in his vision. The oracles, interpreted into prose, predict the fertility of the land of Palestine and the great numbers of the Hebrews. They fix the attention on the Hebrew king who was to bind together the different tribes of Israel and conquer their hostile neighbors, the Moabites and the Edomites. The picture is not of spiritual but of material splendor and conquest. The portrait of the victorious ruler is true of but one man in Israel’s history, and that is the great conqueror David. His cruel treatment of Israel’s fallen foes is made the theme of exultation rather than of condemnation. Its spirit is that of victorious Israel in the days when the united kingdom stood at the zenith of its power. The words well fit the lips of a court poet greeting the victorious army of Israel, as it came back under the leadership of Joab, sated with victory and bearing the spoils of conquest. Like Shakespeare’s prediction of the glories of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (Henry VIII), they are placed with great dramatic effect in the mouth of an ancient seer. V.ThePeople of Destiny. As in Noah’s blessing, it is clear that Israel’s later experiences as a nation lie back of these ancient songs. They reflect the hopes of the Hebrews at the height of their military glory. There is no trace of the disasters that followed the death of Solomon. The influences of the higher ethical standards and of the law of love, which characterize the writings of later prophets, priests and sages, are nowhere apparent. Yet in these ancient oracles, Israel’s consciousness of a unique calling and destiny is clearly expressed. Apart from and hostile to the rest of the world, the Hebrew nation stands like a crouching lion, yet assured of Jehovah’s unique blessing and protection. The roots of that hope are found in the remarkable experiences of the past, and especially in the great deliverance from Egypt. The popular belief has deepened into a conviction that, not by chance but as the realization of divine destiny, the handful of fugitive slaves, in the face of overwhelming obstacles, have grown into a great and powerful nation. This sense of destiny and the conviction that they are Jehovah’s peculiar people have already become so strong, that even the earliest prophets, projecting it backward, voice it, not only on the lips of an Abraham, Jacob and Moses, but even on the lips of a heathen seer. Israel’s history as a whole is a sublime illustration of the truth that to believe is to achieve, even though the ultimate realization may be very different from the original hope. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 44: 044. XXX. EAST-JORDAN CONQUESTS AND MOSES’S FAREWELL ======================================================================== § XXX. EAST-JORDAN CONQUESTS AND MOSES’S FAREWELL Numbers 21:21-31; Numbers 32:39-42, Deuteronomy 31:14-23, Deuteronomy 34 1. Victory over Sihon. Then Israel sent messengers to Sihon king of the Amorites, saying, Let me now pass through your land. We will not turn aside into field or vineyard; we will not drink from the water of the wells; we will go by the king’s highway, until we have passed through your territory. But Sihon would not allow Israel to pass through his territory. Therefore Sihon gathered all his people together, and went out against Israel in the wilderness, and came to Jahaz, where he fought against Israel. And Israel smote him with the edge of the sword, and seized his land from the Amon to the Jabbok, even to the Ammonites. 2. The occupation of Sihon’s land. Then Israel took and dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites, in Heshbon, and in all its dependent villages. For Heshbon was the city of Sihon the king of the Amorites, who had fought against the former king of Moab, and taken all his land out of his hand, even to the Arnon. Therefore the bards sing: Come to Heshbon! Let it be rebuilt! Let the city of Sihon be re-established! For fire went out from Heshbon, Flame from the city of Sihon; It devoured Moab, The lords of the high places of Arnon. Woe to thee Moab! Undone art thou, O people of Chemosh, Who has made his sons fugitives And his daughters captives, So their offspring have perished from Heshbon to Dibon And their wives ... to Medaba. Thus Israel came to live in the land of the Amorites. 3. Conquest of Gilead and Bashan. And the children of Machir the son of Manasseh went to Gilead and took it, and dispossessed the Amorites who were therein. And Jair the son of Manasseh went and took their tent-villages and called them Havvoth-jair [Tent-villages of Jair]. And Nobah went and took Kenath, and its dependent towns, and called it Nobah after his own name. 4. Jehovah’s command to Moses. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Behold, thy time approacheth that thou must die; call Joshua, and present yourselves in the tent of meeting, that I may give him a charge. And Moses and Joshua went and presented themselves in the tent of meeting. And Jehovah appeared in the tent in a pillar of cloud; and the pillar of cloud stood over the door of the tent. And he gave Joshua the son of Nun a charge saying, Be courageous and strong; for thou shalt bring the Israelites into the land which I promised them with an oath; and I will be with thee. 5. The closing scenes of Moses’s life. Then Moses went up to the top of Pisgah. And Jehovah showed him all the land. And Jehovah said to him, This is the land which I promised with an oath to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, saying, ‘I will give it to thy descendants’; I have caused thee to see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over thither. So Moses the servant of Jehovah died there in the land of Moab. And Jehovah buried him in the ravine in the land of Moab over against Beth-Peor; but to this day no man knows of his burial-place. And there has not arisen a prophet since in Israel like Moses, whom Jehovah knew face to face. I.Victories over the Amorites. Later conquests may perhaps be reflected in the tradition of the victory over the Amorites, but there is doubtless an underlying basis of historic fact. The ancient song in 2 is probably an extract from an older and fuller poetic source to which the prophetic writers had access. This extract apparently refers to the victories which the Hebrews won over the Moabites. It implies that the Israelites had already captured Heshbon, the Amorite capital, and made it the base of attack against the Moabites in the south. As in the book of Joshua, the historical perspective may be foreshortened, so that the events of a century or more are represented as taking place in one year. It seems probable that at least some of the Hebrew tribes succeeded in capturing certain territory to the east of the lower Jordan and there intrenched themselves, preparatory to the westward movement toward Canaan. II.Importance of the East=Jordan Conquest. As has already been noted, throughout all its history the east-Jordan land has been the territory in which the nomads from the desert have made the gradual transition from their wandering life to the settled occupations of an agricultural people. The plateaus furnish abundant grass for the herds and flocks. At many points there are fruitful fields which yield abundant crops of grain. Here the nomad learns how to till the soil and tastes the joys of settled agricultural life. From these eastern highlands the Hebrew immigrants looked longingly across the deep valley of the Jordan to the rolling hills of Judea and Samaria. The pressure behind, of other tribes moving in from the desert, and the rapid increase in their own numbers, which would result from a more settled and favorable method of life, were powerful forces impelling the Hebrews to cross the Jordan and seek homes among the hills to the west. III.Moses’s Farewell. Tradition records that on these heights east of the Jordan, Moses was given his first and last view of the promised land of Canaan. In the older traditions, the account of his farewell and death is very brief. Joshua the son of Nun, who had attended Moses in the tent of meeting, is given command to lead the Israelites across the Jordan into the land of their hopes. With the assurance that the ultimate goal of their wanderings would soon be attained, the servant of Jehovah laid down the heavy burden, which he had borne so nobly. Tradition fails to recall the spot where Israel’s great leader was buried. Mystery surrounds the death scene of the great prophet. Like Elijah of the later story, the background of his activity was the lonely, mysterious wilderness, with its caves and dry, jagged mountains. On the borders of civilized life, he suddenly disappears and his work is done. IV.Literary Setting of the Book of Deuteronomy. Later generations, recognizing that Israel’s early judge and prophet had laid the foundations for all later Hebrew legislation, naturally regarded him as the author of that remarkable collection of exhortations and laws found in the book of Deuteronomy. Its literary setting is dramatic and appropriate. The laws and exhortations anticipate the various needs that arose in the later experiences of the Israelites in Canaan. As the Hebrews were about to pass from the wilderness to the conquest of Canaan, Moses is represented as giving these detailed laws in the form of a long prophetic address. In a very real sense the implications of this literary setting are historically true. Later prophets like Amos, Hosea and Isaiah still further interpreted the fundamental principles of Israel’s faith. Their disciples formulated these principles in the definite laws found in the book of Deuteronomy. It was, however, the initial work of Moses that made this later national and social development possible. It was his spirit and faith that inspired his race to conquer and to achieve. It was his simple prophetic message that lay at the foundations of the growing body of Israel’s legislation. Though in divine Providence other voices and other pens determined the final form of the laws, they nevertheless represent Moses’s message to his race in the midst of its new life and environment. V.The Real Work of Moses. Every student of the Old Testament is familiar with the profound impression which Moses made upon succeeding generations. It is more difficult to determine the real nature of the work which he did for his own age and race. About his person have gathered so many traditions, that it is also difficult to gain a clear conception of his personality. In the preceding sections an attempt has been made to trace his character and work in the light of the oldest narratives. Contemporary historical conditions and analogies in the experiences of later prophets also aid in this task. Moses was doubtless a man of his times, subject to the limitations of the primitive age in which he lived. Yet, like every true prophet, he rose as a towering mountain peak above his contemporaries, and with inspired vision caught glimpses of truth which made him a man of conviction with a message to his race. Prophet that he was, he saw conditions as they were, and having seen, he did not hesitate to speak and act. Like every inspired leader of men, he was doubtless gifted with a constructive imagination, which enabled him to picture, to a certain extent, the noble destiny in store for his people. Above all, he was conscious of a Divine Power ruling over Nature and the destinies of his race, of a God not only powerful but personally interested in delivering the oppressed and in righting the wrongs of those who put their trust in him. In the mind of Moses the keen sense of his people’s need, on the one hand, and of Jehovah’s presence and character on the other, crystallized into a conviction that the God of Sinai was able and would deliver his people. Moses also recognized that he himself was called to be the herald of this great truth. His conviction and message were similar to those of the true prophets of a later age. His method was adapted to the peculiar conditions of his day. He was called, not merely to proclaim, but to lead. The dramatic experiences of his followers in the exodus and wilderness life confirmed his authority and gave him a supreme opportunity to impress his message upon them. The very simplicity of his message added to its strength. Briefly expressed, it appears to have been: (1) Jehovah is able and eager to deliver his people from their bondage and to lead them to a land of freedom and opportunity. (2) The people must be loyal to Jehovah, rendering to him their full worship, expressed in gifts and ritual. In addition, it is probable that Moses emphasized the necessity of their showing loyalty to Jehovah by the just treatment of their fellowmen. Thus it would appear that Israel’s faith was from the first unique, because of this close blending of ethics and religion. As prophet, judge and leader, Moses touched every side of the life of his nation and left an impress which was simply deepened by later experiences. VI.The Desert Training. The Hebrews acquired in the desert characteristics which may be traced in all the later stages of their history. There is a certain sternness and austerity in their character which they have never lost. Their tendency to stand aloof and to regard all other peoples as hostile is but the survival of a habit first engendered by the life of the desert, where every alien tribe is regarded as a foe. Their intense racial loyalty is another mark of the primitive tribal instinct. Throughout their history they showed themselves restive under any strongly organized central authority. Only under the pressure of direst necessity did the different tribes consent to lay down their individual independence and acknowledge a common authority. From the desert they also brought that spirit of freedom and democracy which is so marked under the tribal organization. Each man is the equal of his fellow, and the tribal leader rules only by common consent and as a servant of the whole. To preserve this sacred heritage of democracy, the Israelites repeatedly passed through bloody and disastrous revolutions. Even though they came under the sway of the polytheistic Canaanite civilization, their desert instinct, which led them to revere but one God, as the God of the tribe and nation, repeatedly asserted itself in response to the appeals of their prophets. Loyalty to Jehovah was therefore their supreme heritage from their desert days and from their great prophet Moses. It was also the foundation stone upon which was reared Israel’s later political, social and ceremonial institutions. Standing on this same foundation, the inspired Hebrew prophets, priests and sages in later days developed that noble, ethical religion which is Israel’s supreme contribution to the faith and progress of humanity. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 45: 045. APPENDIX I: THE LATE PRIESTLY STORY OF CREATION ======================================================================== APPENDIX I THE LATE PRIESTLY STORY OF CREATION THESE ARE THE GENERATIONS OF THE HEAVENS AND OF THE EARTH WHEN THEY WERE CREATED 1. Introduction: original chaos. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. And the earth was waste and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep; and the Spirit of God was brooding over the face of the waters. 2.Work of the first day: separation of light from darkness. Then God said, Let there be light, and there was light. And God saw that the light was good. God caused the light to separate from the darkness. And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And there was evening and there was morning, a first day. 3.Second day: creation of a firmament. Then God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. Thus God made a firmament, and caused the waters which were under the firmament to separate from the waters which were above the firmament, and it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven. And there was evening and there was morning, a second day. 4.Third day: separation of land and water and growth of vegetation. Then God said, Let the waters under the heavens be gathered together into one place, that the dry land may appear. And it was so. And God also called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of the waters he called Sea. And God saw that it was good. Moreover God said, Let the earth put forth vegetation: herbs which yield seed, and fruit-trees which bear fruit on the earth after their kind, wherein is their seed. And it was so. Thus the earth brought forth vegetation, herbs which yield seed after their kind and trees which bear fruit after their kind, wherein is their seed. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening and there was morning, a third day. 5.Fourth day: creation of the heavenly bodies. Then God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of heaven to distinguish between day and night. Let them also be for signs, and for seasons, and for days and years; and let them be lights in the firmament of heaven to shed light upon the earth. And it was so. Thus God made the two great lights: the greater to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night; also the stars. And God set them in the firmament of heaven to shed light upon the earth, and to rule over the day and over the night, and to distinguish between light and darkness. And God saw that it was good. And there was evening and there was morning, a fourth day. 6.Fifth day: creation of the creatures of the air and water. Then God said, Let the waters swarm with swarms of living creatures, and let birds fly over the earth in the open firmament of heaven. Thus God created the great sea- monsters, and all living, moving creatures with which the waters swarm, after their kind, and every winged bird after its kind. And God saw that it was good. And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and become numerous, and fill the water in the sea, and let the birds become numerous on the earth. And there was evening and there was morning, a fifth day. 7.Sixth day: creation of land animals, reptiles and insects. Then God said, Let the earth bring forth living creatures after their kind: cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth after their kind. And it was so. Thus God made the beasts of the earth after their kind, and the animals after their kind, and everything that creeps upon the ground after its kind. And God saw that it was good. 8.Creation of man with divine intelligence and will, and with authority. Moreover God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness, that they may have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over the cattle, and over all the beasts of the earth, and over all the creeping things that creep upon the earth. Thus God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them. God also blessed them, and said to them, Be fruitful, and become numerous, and fill the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fishes of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over every living thing that creeps upon the earth. 9.Man and animals to be herbivorous.10. Universe originally perfect. God also said, Behold, I give to you every herb yielding seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in which is fruit yielding seed; it shall be food for you. And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird of the heavens, and to everything that creeps on the earth, wherein there is life, I give every green herb for food. And it was so. And when God saw everything that he had made, behold, it was very good. And there was evening and there was morning, a sixth day. 11.Seventh day: rest. Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all their host. When on the seventh day God had finished his work which he had done, he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had done. God also blessed the seventh day, and hallowed it; because in it he rested from all his work which he, God, had done in the process of creation. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 46: 046. APPENDIX II: A PRACTICAL BIBLICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY ======================================================================== II A PRACTICAL BIBLICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY Purpose of a Reference Library. The number of books on biblical and related subjects is appallingly great. Many of them are intended simply for technical students; some are out of date, and others are more misleading than helpful. The most difficult problem that confronts the ordinary reader is to determine what books are the most reliable and helpful for the elucidation of the Bible. Not many, but a few clear, interestingly written books are required, which will put the student into possession of the important information which comes from the related fields of biblical geography, contemporary history, archaeology and modern biblical research. Together the books of a practical reference library should give a comprehensive survey of the entire biblical field, and above all they should focus attention upon the Bible itself and aid in interpreting that spiritual truth which constitutes its chief and abiding value. Books for Constant Reference. In the corresponding first volume of the Student’s Old Testament, entitled The Beginnings of Hebrew History, teachers and readers will find the more detailed introductions to the first three books of the Old Testament and the reasons which have led to the separation of the older from the later narratives and additions. Variant versions of the same incidents are printed in parallel columns and the important interpretative and textual notes are placed at the foot of each page. In the Appendix is also given a selected bibliography with detailed references to both English and foreign works, and citations from the more important extra-biblical documents. For the contemporary Babylonian and Egyptian history, the Bible student should also have on his table Goodspeed’s History of the Babylonians and Assyrians and Breasted’s History of the Ancient Egyptians. A good, modem Bible dictionary is likewise indispensable. Hastings’ shorter edition (to be issued soon), or preferably the larger edition of five volumes is undoubtedly the most satisfactory. Additional Books of Reference: Introductions. In addition to the books for constant reference, the teacher and student and general reader should be able to refer readily to a score or more of the most important books in English, which throw light upon different subjects connected with the period represented by this volume. These volumes should be found at least in every working college, Sunday-school, or public library. As a general introduction to the problems which are commanding the attention of thoughtful men and women to-day, either Dods, The Bible, Its Origin and Nature, or Kent, The Origin and Permanent Value of the Old Testament, will be found useful. In many ways the most illuminating, brief, popular introduction to the individual books of the Old Testament is that by Professor McFadyen. Equally clear and attractive, and somewhat more detailed and compact is the Introduction to the Old Testament by Professor Cornill. For Bible classes Hazard and Fowler, The Books of the Bible, is an exceedingly useful hand-book. A more technical treatment of the subject is found in Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. The articles in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, on the individual books also furnish a valuable and yet popular introduction. For the purely literary study, the more recent work by Professor Gardiner on The Bible as English Literature is exceedingly suggestive, and supplements, from the modern point of view, the older epoch-making work of Professor Moulton on the Literary Study of the Bible. Contemporary Literature and History. For the contemporary Babylonian literature Johns, Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts and Letters; King, The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi; and The Seven Tablets of Creation; King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of Recent Discoveries; Ball, Light from the East, and Clay, Light on the Old Testament from Babel, are the chief authorities. Winckler, The Tel-El-Amarna Letters, contains an excellent translation of these important documents. The contemporary Egyptian documents will be found either in Breasted’s History of the Ancient Egyptians or in his more voluminous History of Egypt or in his Ancient Records. In addition to the histories of Breasted and Goodspeed, already mentioned, the reader will find Paton’s compact and reliable little Early History of Syria and Palestine exceedingly suggestive. Maspero’s large and beautifully illustrated volumes on the Dawn of Civilization and The Struggle of the Nations are still delightful mines of information. Winckler’s recently translated History of Babylonia and Assyria also supplements, although it does not supplant Goodspeed’s earlier work. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians, presents in concise form the life and customs of these ancient peoples, and Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, gives a clear picture of their beliefs and religious institutions. Hebrew History. For a brief, popular treatment of early Hebrew history, Wade, Old Testament History, and Cornill, History of the People of Israel, are suggestive and useful. Smith, Old Testament History, is more critical and thorough in its method. The Early Hebrew Traditions. The literature in this field is especially rich. Davis, Genesis and Semitic Traditions, and Ryle, The Early Narratives of Genesis, are popular yet exceedingly suggestive interpretations of the opening stories in the Old Testament. Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, and Peters, Early Hebrew Stories, throw much new light upon the origin and interpretation of these early narratives. In his Early Traditions of Genesis, Professor Gordon has made a fresh and illuminating study, especially from the philosophical and theological side, of these early chapters. Worcester, Genesis in the Light of Modern Knowledge, contains a full collection of parallel traditions, gathered both from the ancient Orient and Occident. By far the best English commentary on the book of Genesis is that by Professor Driver, although the older work by Professor Dillmann and the brief hand-book by Professor Dods are still of great value. The volume in the International Critical Commentary by Professor Gray on Numbers contains a thorough treatment of the difficult problems presented by that book. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 47: 047. APPENDIX III: GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH ======================================================================== III GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH For readers and students questions are of value either in focussing the attention, while reading, on those subjects which are of vital importance, and in formulating definitely the results of the reading; or else in guiding and inspiring the student to enter new but related fields of research. The following questions have been prepared and classified with these two distinct ends in view. They follow the chapter or general section divisions of the Historical Bible. The biblical text or the accompanying notes furnish the data for answering the General Questions. This first group of questions also aims to suggest in outline a practical order in which the important subjects presented by each chapter may be considered in the class-room or in general discussion. The themes for practical discussion and suggestions regarding the personal application of the teachings contained in each section will be reserved for the teacher’s manual, which will be issued later. The Subjects for Special Research point to the larger horizon with which the teacher should be familiar, and give the detailed references which are most helpful in gaining this wider vision. They also suggest certain related lines of study which are of interest and value to the general reader and student. In class-room work many of these topics may be profitably assigned for personal research and report. The references are to pages, unless otherwise indicated. Ordinarily several parallel references are given, that the student may be able to utilize the book at hand. More detailed classified bibliographies will be found in Sanders and Fowler’s Outlines of Biblical History and Literature and in Appendix I of Student’s Old Testament, Vol. I. INTRODUCTION I.TheOldTestamentWorld.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. In what ways did the character of the land in which they lived influence primitive peoples? Cite illustrations. 2. Describe the boundaries and general character of the Old Testament world? 3. The Lower Tigris-Euphra- tes valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt, and the type of civilization which they each produced. 4. The general characteristics of Syria and Palestine. 5. The migrations of the different Semitic peoples from their original home, and their final settlement. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. A detailed comparison of the physical characteristics of the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile valleys. Goodspeed, Hist. Babs. and Assyrs., 3-13; Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt, 5-28; Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 3-13; Hist, of Egypt, 3-12; Hastings, D.B., I, 214, 653-5; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, 1-46, 702-84; Articles in standard encyclopaedias. 2. The great zones of Palestine and their physical peculiarities. Kent, Hist. Heb. Peop., United Kgd., 18-26; Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, 6-13, 46-59; Hastings, D.B., III, 640-8; Encyc. Bib., III, 3534-44; Stewart, Land of Israel 3. Relation of the Semitic peoples to the other branches of the human race, and the physical and mental characteristics of the Semites. Hastings, D.B., Extra Vol., 72-91; Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, Ch. I; Keane, Ethnology, 391-5; Brinton, Cradle of the Semites. II.The Babylonian Background of Early Hebrew History.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the ancient Babylonian system of writing, and explain why it developed at so early a period in the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley. 2. The more striking characteristics of the ancient Babylonian civilization. 3. The Babylonian conception of the universe. 4. The different classes in early Babylonia. 5. The three or four distinct stages of political development which may be traced in Babylonia. 6. The empire and reign of Sargon I. 7. The character, conquests, policy, building enterprises and code of Hammurabi. 8. The important dates in Babylonian and Assyrian history. 9. Babylonia’s contributions to human civilization. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The records of the earliest Semitic civilization and their discovery. Goodspeed, Hist, of Babs. and Assyrs., 14-36; Hastings, D.B., 1,220-4; Encyc. Bib., I, 425-9; Jastrow, Relig. of Bab. and Assyr., 6-19. 2. The Sumerians. King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia, 143-50; Hastings, D.B., I, 214-5; Winckler, Hist, of Bab. and Assyr., 12-17. 3. Early Babylonian Chronology. King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia, 184-90, 246-8; King, Studies in Eastern Hist., II, 76-137. 4. The Early Babylonian Cities. Goodspeed, Hist, of Babs. and Assyrs., 49-54. 5. Code of Hammurabi. Kent, St. O. T., IV, Israel’s Laws and Legal Precedents, 3-7, 291-7; Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters; King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia, 274-316; Cook, The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi. 6. The Kassites. Goodspeed, Hist, of Babs. and Assyrs. 121-7; Winckler, Hist, of Bab. and Assyr., 71-92. III.The Egyptian Background.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the beginnings of Egyptian history. 2. Building enterprises of the fourth Egyptian dynasty. 3. Rule of the twelfth dynasty. 4. Origin and rule of the Hyksos. 5. The development of the Egyptian empire and the rule of Ramses II. 6. The great political changes in Old Testament world about 1200 B.C. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The character of the earliest Egyptian civilization. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 29-51; Hist, of Egypt, 25-50. 2. The building of the great pyramids. Encyc. Brit., article “Pyramids”; Breasted, Hist, of Anc. Egyptians, 103-16; Hist, of Egypt, 111-23. 3. The Egyptian mines in the Sinaitic peninsula. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 160; Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt, 468-9; Petrie, Researches in Sinai. 4. Egyptian armies and methods of conquest under the eighteenth dynasty; Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt, 520-34; Breasted, Hist, of Anc. Egyptians, 223-43; Hist, of Egypt, 233-5, 243. 5. Probable origin of the Hittites. Article “Hittites,” in Encyc. Brit.; Hastings, D.B., II, 390-2; Encyc. Bib., II, 2094-2100. IV.The Early Palestinian Background.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the different sources of information regarding the pre- Hebrew history of Palestine. 2. The dates and ways in which the culture of Babylonia touched Syria and Palestine in the pre-Hebrew period. 3. The Amorite and Canaanite invasions of Palestine. 4. Life in Palestine about 2000 B.C. 5. The nature and effects of Egyptian rule in Palestine. 6. The light thrown upon conditions in Palestine by the el-Amarna letters. 7. The relative date of Israel’s appearance, and the characteristics of the civilization which the Hebrews found in Palestine. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Excavations at Lachish. Hastings, D.B., III, 15, 16; Petrie, Tell-el-Hesy; Bliss, A Mound of Many Cities. 2. At Gezer. Quarterly Statements of the Palestinian Exploration Fund during the years 1905-8; Macalister, Bible Side-lights from the Mound of Gezer. 3. The light shed by the Babylonian and Egyptian inscriptions upon early Palestine. Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Pal., 49-62; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 14-19. 4. The Amorite- Canaanite Period. Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Pal., 24-46, 63-72; McCurdy, Hist. Prophecy and the Monuments, I, 152-223. 5. The Egyptian Rule in Palestine. Hastings, D.B., I, 660-2; Encyc. Bib., II, 1238-42; Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Pal., 74-102; Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 251-2; Hist, of Egypt, 233-50. 6. History and contents of the el-Amarna letters. Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 332-7, 382-9; Winckler, The Tell-El-Amarna Letters; Petrie, Syria and Egypt from the Tell-el-Amarna Letters; Clay, Light on the O. T. from Babel, 251-82. 7. Compare the contemporary Mycenaean civilization with that of the Eastern empires. Goodspeed, Hist, of the Anc. World, 77-80; Bury, Hist, of Greece, 11-53; Morey, Outlines of Greek History, 86-94. V.Israel’s Religious Heritage.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the different ways in which religion influenced the life and civilization of the ancient Babylonians. 2. The religion of the Sumerians. 3. The gods and cults of the early city states. 4. Political forces that developed the Babylonian pantheon. 5. The religion of the Canaanites. 6. Contributions of these earlier Semitic religions to Israel’s faith. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. A definition of religion, cf. dictionaries and encyclopaedias; Clarke, Outlines of Christian Theol.; Brown, Christian Theol. in Outline; Menzies, Hist, of Relig. 2. A comparison between the growth of the Babylonian and Egyptian religions. Hastings, D.B., I, 215-6, 665-7; Encyc. Bib., I, 431-7, II, 1214-9; Sayce, Babs. and Assyrs., 231-64; Jastrow, Relig. of the Babs. and Assyrs.; Encyc. Brit., VII, 714-8; Budge, The Gods of Egypt; Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt. 3. The history of the temple at Nippur. Peters, Nippur, I, II; Hilprecht, Explorats. in Bible Lands, 289-568. 4. Describe an ancient Canaanite sanctuary and its cultus. Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 80-96; Encyc. Bib., II, 2064-9; Curtiss, Primitive Sem. Relig. To-day, 133-43. VI.The Oldest History of Israel.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the way in which ancient Semitic histories grew. 2. The four distinct lines of evidence which aid in distinguishing the quotations from the older and later sources. Illustrate. 3. Scope and literary characteristics of the oldest history of the Hebrews 4. Its primary aim and value. 5. The different sources from which its narratives were drawn. 6. Its date and place of composition. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. History of the discovery of the different sources. Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Hexateuch, I, 1-17, 33-48. 2. Israel’s heritage of oral traditions. Kent, St. O. T., 3-12; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 36-61, 75. 3. The transmission and crystallization of Israel’s traditions into literature. St. O. T., I, 13, 16-20; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 62-74. 4. Their literary characteristics. St. O. T., I, 13-15; Gardiner, The Bible as Eng. Lit., 34-76; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 76-87. 5. The Early Judean Prophetic Narratives. St. O. T., I, 31-7; Carpenter and Harford- Battersby, Hexateuch, 97-110; Driver, Genesis, xii-xxii. VII.The Later Parallel Histories.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the characteristics of the northern prophetic history. 2. Its aims and contents. 3. Method in which the two prophetic histories were combined. 4. Characteristics and aims of the late priestly history. 5. Result of the final blending of the older and later histories. 6. Practical value of distinguishing and separating the older from the later histories. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The detailed characteristics and origins of the Northern Israelite prophetic history.[1]St. O. T., 37-41; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Hexateuch, I, 110-20. 2. Of the late priestly history, St. O. T., I, 43-8; Carpenter and Harford- Battersby, Hexateuch, I, 121-57. 3. The blending of the Gospel narratives in Tatian’s Diatessaron. Journal of Bib. Lit., 1890, pp. 201-15; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Hexateuch, 8-11; Hill, The Earliest Life of Christ. 4. Prepare a chronological table or diagram showing the approximate dates of the original documents and the work of the compilers who have given the first four books of the Old Testament their present form. St. O. T., I, Frontispiece. [1] In the more technical articles on the sources, the early Judean prophetic narratives are designated by J, and the later additions to it by Js or J2; the Northern Israelite or early Ephraimite prophetic narratives by E, and its supplements by Es or E2; the compiler, who combined J and E by RJE; the late priestly narratives by P, and its supplements by or P2. THE BEGINNINGS OF HEBREW HISTORY §I.The Story of Man’s Creation.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. What evidence is found in the story that it is very old and that its author was a prophet ? 2. What appears to have been the oldest Hebrew tradition regarding the creation of the earth and heavens? 3. Make a table giving in parallel columns the testimony of the Early Judean (§1), the late priestly (Appendix I), the early Babylonian (I, vi) and the later Babylonian (I, vii) accounts of creation, regarding (1) name of the creator; (2) method of creation; (3) order, and (4) aim. 4. What did the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil represent? 5. What are the teachings of the story regarding (1) God, (2) man, and (3) the basis of the marriage relation. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The Babylonian Creation Stories. St. O. T., I, 360-70; Hastings, D. B., I, 501-7; Encyc. Bib., I, 938-41; Worcester, Genesis, 110-47; Clay, Light on the O. T. from Babel, 59-76. 2. Parallel stories among other nations. Hastings. D. B., extra vol., 177-81; Encyc. Bib., I, 942-4; Worcester, Genesis, 95-110; Lenormant, The Beginnings of Hist. 3. The modern scientific theory of the origin of man. Peschel, Races of Man, 1-34; Morris’ Man and His Ancestor; Clay, Man, Past and Present. § II.Man’s Sin and Its Consequences.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the literary characteristics of this story. 2. Its real theme and object. 3. The role of the serpent. 4. Define (1) temptation, (2) sin. 5. The nature and effects of sin as illustrated by the story. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: l.The ancient parallels to the story. St. O. T., I, 370-3; Driver, Genesis, 44, 51-7, 60-1; Worcester, Genesis, 184-256. 2. The Babylonian and Egyptian idea of sin. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 566-7; Jastrow, Relig. of the Babs. and Assyrs., 312-27; Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 173-5. 3. The later Jewish conception of the origin of sin. Porter, in “Biblical and Semitic Studies” (Yale Bi-Centennial Publications), 98-156; Hastings, D. B., IV, 531-2; Tennent, Sources of the Doctrines of the Fall and Original Sin. 4. Milton’s interpretation of the story in Paradise Lost. § III.The Story of Cain and Abel.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the state of society reflected in this story. 2. The evidence that Cain and Abel originally represented tribes or nations. 3. The development of Cain’s character. 4. Cain’s attitude toward society, and the cause of his fear. 5. The ancient and modern methods of punishing murder. 6. Jehovah’s choice, as illustrated by the story. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The evidence that the story is of early Hebrew rather than of Babylonian origin. St. O. T., I, 61; Driver, Genesis, 71-2; Worcester, Genesis, 269-77. 2. The-Semitic law of blood-revenge. St. O. T., IV, 91, 114-6; Gordon, Early Trads. of Genesis, 201-6; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 72, 420. 3. Tribal marks, Encyc. Bib., I, 973-4; Gordon, Early Trads. of Genesis, 206-11. § IV.The Traditional Origin of Early Semitic Institutions.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the origin and object of the genealogical list. 2. Compare the Hebrew and Phoenician traditions regarding the origin of the arts. 3. Give the probable origin of the story of Enoch. 4. The meaning of the different traditions connected with Lamech. 5. The interpretation of the story of Noah, the first tiller of the soil. 6. Teachings of the story. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The Babylonian list of the ten antediluvian kings. St. O. T., I, 58; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 591-4. 2. Compare the ancient theories of the origin of the arts with those of modern science of society. Peschel, Races of Man; Taylor, Primitive Man; Deniker, Races of Man; Keane, Ethnology. 3. Israel’s popular folk-songs. St. O. T., I, 16; Hastings, D.B., IV, 11-12. § V.The Story of the Great Flood.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Give the probable origin and prophetic interpretation of the story regarding the sons of God and the daughters of men. 2. Compare the two biblical versions of the flood story. 3. The early Babylonian and the early Hebrew versions. 4. What was the probable origin of the flood story. 5. By the aid of the Babylonian parallels trace its history. 6. What are the fundamental differences between the biblical and other flood stories. 7. What are the teachings of each of the two biblical accounts of the flood ? SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The history of the Babylonian flood story. St. O. T., I, 373-8; Hastings, D.B., II, 17-18; Worcester, Genesis, 374-411; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 566-72. 2. Flood stories among other peoples. Worcester, Genesis, 361-73; Hastings, D.B., II, 18-22, extra vol., 181-2. 3. The scientific accuracy of the biblical narratives. Ryle, Early Narratives of Gen., 112-3; Davis, Gen. and Semitic Trads., 130-1; Driver, Genesis, 82-3, 99; Sollas, Age of the Earth, 316ff.; Suss, Race of the Earth, I, 20-40, 63-5, 69, 71-2. § VI.The Traditional Origin of the Nations.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. What mound probably gave rise to the story of the tower of Babel ? 2. What does the Hebrew story seek to explain ? 3. Indicate the principles of classification followed in the table of the nations. 4. The identification and home of the different nations. 5. The ethnographic, geographic and religious value of the table. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Parallels to the story of the Tower of Babel. Worcester, Genesis, 497-521; Clay, Light fromBabel, 89-124. 2. The modern theory regarding the origin of languages and races. Taylor, Primitive Man; Peschel, Races of Men, 102-14, 12931; Deniker, Races of Man; Keane, Ethnology. 3. Corresponding tables among other nations. Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 87-9. 4. Different identifications of Ophir. Hastings, D.B., III, 626-8; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3513-5; Driver, Genesis, xix; Keane, The Gold of Ophir; Peters, Eldorado of the Ancients. 5. Classify the traditions in §§ I-VI according to their probable Babylonian, Aramean or Hebrew origin. 6. Their value (1) as literature; (2) as historical sources; (3) as illustrations of religious and ethical principles. St. O. T., I, 3-12; Worcester, Genesis, 55-69; Gunkel, Legends of Genesis. § VII.Abraham’s Call and Settlement in Canaan.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the probable origin and history of the Abraham stories. 2. The later traditions regarding Abraham. 3. The probable origin of the two names, Abraham and Abram. 4. The original home of the Hebrews 5. Meaning of the divine promises to Abraham. 6. Compare the spirit and ambitions of Abraham and Lot. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The four great divisions of the book of Genesis. St. O. T., I, 21-3; Worcester, Genesis, 55-69; cf. O. T. Introductions. 2. Abraham’s genealogy. Bible dictionary articles, “Nahor,” “Milcah,” “Sarah.” 3. Abraham in late Jewish tradition. Hastings, D. B., I, 16, 17; James, The Testament of Abraham. 4. Sacred trees and the oaks of Mamre. Hastings, D. B., III, 224-5; Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 185-95; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3352-4; Thomson, Land and the Book, II, 104, 171-2, 222, 474; Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Relig. To-day, 91, 93. § VIII. The Promise of a Son to Sarah.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the geographical background of the story of Hagar. 2. The purpose of the story. 3. Does Hagar represent an individual or a tribe ? 4. The character and quality of Abraham’s hospitality. 5. The Greek parallel to the story of the divine guests. 6. Ideas of God reflected in these stories. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. History of the Ishmaelites. Hastings, D. B., II, 502-5; Encyc. Bib., II, 2211-2. 2. The Northern Israelite account of the expulsion of Hagar. St. O. T., I, 93-4. 3. The historical character of Genesis 14. St. O. T., I, 84-6; Driver, Genesis, 156-73; Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Palestine, 31-46. § IX. The Destruction of Sodom.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the scene of the story. 2. Character of the ancient Canaanites. 3. Aim of the story. 4. Abraham’s intercession. 5. Historical value of the story. 6. Its moral and religious teachings. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH:1. Geological history of the Jordan and Dead Sea valley. Smith, Hist. Geography, 467-71. 2. The Dead Sea. Hastings, D. B., I, 575-7; Encyc. Bib., I, 1042-6; Smith, Hist Geography, 499-516. 3. Parallels to the biblical story. Cheyne, in New World, June, 1892. 4. The early history of the Moabites. Hastings, D. B., III, 408-10; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3175-7. 5. The early history of the Ammonites, Hastings, D. B., I, 82-3; Encyc. Bib., 1,142-4. § X. Birth and Sacrifice of Isaac.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. What was the meaning of the Semitic rite of human sacrifice? 2. What ancient peoples practised it? 3. When did the Hebrew people begin to condemn it ? 4. What are the aims of the present story ? 5. Describe Abraham’s character as portrayed in the early prophetic stories. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH:1. The original meaning of sacrifice. St. O. T., IV, 238; Hastings, D. B., IV, 329-31; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4216-26; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 213-43, 252-440; Gordon, Early Trads. of Genesis, 212-6. 2. The priestly account of the circumcision of Isaac. St. O. T., I, 82-4, 89; Driver, Genesis, 184-91; Hastings, D. B., I, 442-4. 3. Abraham’s character as portrayed by the late priestly historian. Hastings, D. B., I, 14; Encyc. Bib., 1,25. § XI.Securing a Wife for Isaac.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the literary characteristics of the story and its seven distinct scenes. 2. The character of Abraham’s servant. 3. The Semitic marriage customs reflected in the story. 4. Contrast the characters of Abraham and Isaac. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The land of Aram. Hastings, D. B., I, 138-9; Encyc. Bib., I, 276-8. 2. Oriental methods of courtship. Hastings, D. B., Ill, 270-2; Encyc. Bib., III, 2942-6; Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. 3. Characteristics of the South Country (Negeb). Hastings, D. B., Ill, 505-6; Encyc. Bib., III, 3374-9. 4. Stories regarding Isaac. St. O. T., I, 76-81; Hastings, D. B., II, 483-5; Encyc. Bib., II, 2174-9. § XII.Jacob and HisBrotherEsau.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. What two nations traced their descent from Jacob and Esau ? 2. In what sense was Esau the older, and what superior rights did the descendants of Jacob enjoy ? 3. Describe the ancient Semitic idea of the birthright and of a father’s dying blessing. 4. What special promise had been given to the race? 5. What different means did Jacob employ to secure the rights of the eldest? 6. The effect upon Esau and Jacob. 7. Compare the characters of the two brothers, as sketched in this narrative. 8. In what respects is Jacob a true representative of the Hebrew race? SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Compare the two accounts of Jacob’s theft of the birthright. St. O. T., I, 103-7. 2. Trace the early history of the Edomites. Hastings, D. B., I, 644-5; Encyc. Bib., II, 1181-4. 3. Law of inheritance among the early Semites. Encyc., Bib., Ill, 2728-9; Hastings, D. B., II, 470-3; Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters, 161-7. § XIII.Jacob’s Experiences as a Fugitive.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the situation of Bethel. 2. The meaning and traditional origin of the name. 3. The meaning and fulfilment of the promise to Jacob. 4. Jacob’s wooing of Rachel. 5. The meaning of the traditions regarding the ancestry of the different Hebrew tribes. 6. Indications that Jacob is (1) an individual, or (2) simply the traditional ancestor of the twelve tribes. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Origin and nature of the ancient Hebrew sanctuaries. Peters, Early Heb. Story, 81-116; Hastings, D. B., IV, 395-7, extra vol., 615-8; Libbey and Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, I, 171-207. 2. The meanings of the names of the twelve tribes. Cf. articles in Bible dictionaries. 3. Compare the different portraits of Jacob in the early prophetic and late priestly narratives. St. O. T., I, 103-13; Hastings, D. B., II, 526-35; Encyc. Bib., II, 2306-11. § XIV.Jacob’s Return to Canaan.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Give the reasons for Jacob’s flight from Laban. 2. What was the nature and meaning of the struggle beside the Jabbok? 3. Is there a marked contrast between Jacob’s character before and after this experience? 4. Describe Jacob’s faults and virtues. 5. In what respects was he inferior to Esau. 6. Why was Jacob best fitted to be the traditional ancestor of the Hebrew race? SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The Arameans. Hastings, D.B., I, 138-9; Encyc. Bib., I, 276-280; Peters, Early Heb. Story, 45-7, 115-6, 133-4; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 126. 2. The household gods or teraphim. Hastings, D. B., IV, 718; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4974-5; Moore, Judges, 379-81. 3. Sites of Mizpah, Mahanaim, Penuel and Succoth. Driver, Genesis, 300-2; articles in Bible dictionaries. 4. Contrast the characters of Abraham and Jacob. § XV.Joseph Sold by His Brothers.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the literary characteristics of the Joseph stories. 2. Joseph’s early home life and character. 3. The character and attitude of his brothers. 4. Situation of Dothan. 5. The effect of the life in Egypt upon Joseph’s character. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Eastern dress. Hastings, D. B., I, 623-8; Encyc. Bib., I, 1135-41; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 55-8, 265, 685. 2. The early caravan and trade routes in the ancient Semitic world. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 368-75. 3. Society and religion in Egypt under the eighteenth dynasty. Breasted, Hist, of the Ancient Egyptians, 193-206; Hist, of Egypt, 233-52; Erman, Life of the Ancient Egyptians, 102-29. § XVI.Joseph Made Governor of Egypt.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the dreams of Joseph’s fellow-prisoners and the interpretations. 2. The oriental estimate of dreams. 3. Pharaoh’s dreams. 4. Joseph’s plans for the period of famine. 5. His policy in adapting himself to the peculiar customs of Egypt. 6. The Egyptian system of land tenure. 7. Joseph as an administrator. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The ancient and modern attitude toward dreams. Hastings, D. B., I, 622-3; Encyc. Bib., I, 1118; Driver, Genesis, XXI, 342; cf. modern psychologies. 2. Recorded famines in Egypt. Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 160-1; Hastings, D. B., 11,773-4; Encyc. Bib., II, 2591; Driver, Genesis, 346-7. 3. The possessions and privileges of the priests in Egypt. Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 124-6, 266, 305; Erman, Life of the Ancient Egyptians, 104-5, 292-3, 298-304; Herodotus, II, 168. § XVII.Joseph and His Brothers.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Joseph’s early interviews with his brothers. 2. Aim and justification of his hiding the money in their sacks. 3. The portrait of the aged Jacob. 4. The character of Judah and his appeal for Benjamin. 5. The final scene between Joseph and his brothers. 6. Qualities in Joseph’s character reflected in the story. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Divination. Driver, Genesis, 358; Hastings, D. B., I, 611-13; Encyc. Bib., 1,1117-21; Strabo, XVI, 39. 2. Effect of famine in the East. Cf. reports of recent famines in India; Kipling, “William the Conqueror,” in The Day’s Work. 3. Egyptian methods of eating. Erman, Life of the Anc. Egyptians, 193, 250-5. 4. Houses of wealthy Egyptians. Erman, Life of the Anc. Egyptians, 153, 177-88; Breasted, Hist of Egypt, 88-90. 5. Oriental methods of showing emotion. Encyc. Bib., Ill, 2694-6; 3220-2; Hastings, D. B., Ill, 453-4. § XVIII.Joseph’s Loyalty to His Kinsmen.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Why was Joseph’s treatment of his kinsmen especially noble? 2. Describe the land of Goshen and the life of the Hebrews while there. 3. Interrelations between Egypt and Asia at this period. 4. The meaning of Jacob’s dying blessing. 5. The distinctly Egyptian elements in the Joseph stories. 6. Parallels to the story of Joseph in ancient contemporary literature. 7. The date of Joseph. 8. The literary, historical, archaeological and religious value of the Joseph stories. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Semitic ideas and influences in Egypt during the reigns of Amenhotep III and IV. Breasted, Hist, of Ancient Egyptians, 248-79; Hist, of Egypt, 328-37, 352-79. 2. The Egyptian method of embalming and burial. Maspero, Daivn of Civiliz., 112, 361; Struggle of the Nations, 509-26; Encyc. Bib., II, 1284-5; Herodotus, II, 86-89; Budge, The Mummy, 160 ff. 3. Compare the character, fortunes and services of Joseph and Ulysses. Driver, Genesis, 320-1, 400-1; Hastings, D. B., II, 770. THE BONDAGE AND DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT § XIX.The Oppression of the Hebrews in Egypt.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the general characteristics of the three biblical accounts of the bondage and Exodus 2. Effect of the policy of the rulers of the nineteenth dynasty upon the serf class in Egypt. 3. The store cities of Pithom and Ramses. 4. The evidence that Ramses II was the Pharaoh of the oppression. 5. The historical facts underlying the biblical stories of the sojourn in Egypt. 6. Influence of the Egyptian sojourn upon the life and faith of the Hebrews. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Excavations at Pithom. Hastings, D. B., Ill, 886-7; Naville, Store-City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus; Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, 54-5, 61, 68. 2. The reign and policy of Ramses II. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 303-26; Hist, of Egypt, 423-63; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 385430; Hastings, D. B., I, 662; Encyc. Bib., II, 1241-2. 3. A comparison of modern industrial conditions with those in Egypt under Ramses II. Brown, Social Message of the Modern Pulpit. § XX.Moses’s Childhood and Training.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Moses’s boyhood training. 2. The justification and significance of Moses’s slaying the Egyptian taskmaster. 3. Moses’s adoption into the Midianite clan. 4. Did Moses first learn of Jehovah from the Midianites? 5. Influence of his life in the wilderness upon the character and faith of Moses. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The story of the childhood of Sargon I. Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 18-21; Peters, Early Heb. Story, 192-4; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 597-8. 2. The Egyptian system of education. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 92-4, 395; Hist, of Egypt, 98-100; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 288; Erman, Life of the Anc. Egyptians, 328-68. 3. The Midianites. Hastings, D. B.f III, 365-6; Encyc. Bib., III, 3079-81. 4. Origin of the Jehovah religion. Budde, Relig. of Israel, 1-38; Gordon, Early Traditions of Gen., 106-10; Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 626-7. § XXI.Moses’s Call to Deliver the Hebrews.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the three different accounts of the way in which the divine revelation came to Moses. 2. The vital points in which they all agree. 3. The causes of Moses’s hesitation, and the different ways in which his objections are met. 4. In the light of the situation and in the language of to-day, describe Moses’s training and call to be a prophet leader. 5. Pharaoh’s defiant refusal to let the Hebrews go. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The magicians of Egypt. Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt, 352-6, 373-4; Hastings, D. B., III, 207. 2. Meaning of the divine names. Driver, Genesis, 402-9; Encyc. Bib., III, 3323-6; Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 625-6. 3. Compare Moses’s call with that of Isaiah (Isaiah 6) and Jeremiah (Jeremiah 1). 4. The serf class in Egypt. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 236, 254; Hist, of Egypt, 308-9, 339, 496-7; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 309, 326-7. § XXII.The Egyptian Plagues.GENERAL QUESTIONS:1. Describe the form of the plague stories in each of the groups of Hebrew narratives. 2. The early Judean account of each of the seven plagues. 3. The peculiar sanitary conditions in the land of Egypt. 4. The natural and national calamities reflected in the plague stories. 5. The effect of these calamities upon (1) the Egyptians and (2) the Hebrews 6. The origin and new significance of the passover. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Plagues in antiquity and the popular explanations of them. Hastings, D. B., III, 887-92; Encyc. Bib., III, 3784-9. 2. Conditions in Egypt at the end of the nineteenth dynasty. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 333-5; Hist, of Egypt, 464-79. 3. The Pharaoh’s place in the religious hierarchy of Egypt. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 63-4; Hist, of Egypt, 62, 122-3, 456; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 266, 304. 4. History of the Semitic spring festival. St. O. T., IV, 258; Hastings, D. B., III, 688-90; Encyc. Bib., III, 3589-3600; Barton, Semitic Origins, 110-1; Gray, Numbers, 404-7. § XXIII. TheExodus.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the escape from Egypt, as recorded in the earliest biblical narrative. 2. Modern parallels. 3. Probable number of the Hebrew fugitives. 4. The direction and manner of the march through the wilderness. 5. Meaning of the song of deliverance. 6. Effect of the great deliverance upon Hebrew character, literature and faith. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Compare the priestly with the early prophetic accounts of the exodus. St. O. T., I, 172-6. 2. Caravan travel through the desert. Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus; Stanley, Sinai and Palestine; Doughty, Wanderings in Arabia. 3. The references to the exodus in later Hebrew literature. Cf. article, “Exodus,” in Bible dictionaries. § XXIV.The Revelation and Covenant at Sinai.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe and explain the growing importance of Sinai in Hebrew thought. 2. The probable situation of the sacred mountain. 3. The different accounts of the way in which Jehovah revealed himself to his people, and their meaning. 4. The establishment of the covenant between Jehovah and Israel. 5. The original decalogue defining Israel’s obligations to Jehovah. G. History of this decalogue. 7. Probable origin and early significance of the sabbath. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The recent excavations in the Sinaitic peninsula. Petrie, Researches in Sinai. 2. The late traditions of the march through the wilderness. St. O. T., I, 176-8. 3. The covenant in early Semitic life. Hastings, D. B., I, 509-15; extra vol., 630-2; Encyc. Bib., I, 928-36; Trumbull, The Blood Covenant. 4. The four biblical versions of the revelations and covenant at Sinai. St. O. T., I, 181-8. 5. History of the sabbath. St. O. T., IV, 257-8; Hastings, D. B., IV, 317-19; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4177-9; Gordon, Early Trads. of Genesis, 216-23. § XXV.Man’s Individual Duties to God and Man.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Compare the two decalogues given, according to tradition, to Moses. 2. Explain why the prophetic decalogue is assigned the first place in Exodus 3. Describe its probable date and authorship. 4. Its original simple form, and the expanded versions in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5. 5. Man’s primary duties (1) to God, (2) to parents and (3) to others. 6. The place of this decalogue in the Jewish and Christian religions. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Different possible divisions of the decalogue. Hastings, D. B., I, 580-2; Encyc. Bib., I, 1049-52. 2. Jesus’s version of the different commands of the prophetic decalogue. Cf.Matthew 5:17-48; Matthew 6:19-21; Matthew 12:1-12; Matthew 12:31-32; Matthew 15:3; Matthew 15:5; Matthew 22:36-39, Matthew 12-31. 3. Similar formulations of primary duties in other literatures. § XXVI.Moses’s Work as Judge and Prophet.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the visit of Moses’s father-in-law. 2. Moses’s activity as Judges 3. The way in which laws come into existence among primitive people. 4. In what sense is Moses the father of Hebrew law. 5. Describe the origin and use of the tent of meeting. 6. Moses’s work as a prophet. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The origin and growth of Hebrew law. St. O. T., IV, 8-15; Hastings, D. B., III, 64-7; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 2714-8. 2. The appointment and duties of Babylonian and He brew judges. St. O. T., IV, 86-8; Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters, 80-4; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians, 195-9. 3. The late priestly tradition of the tent of meeting or dwelling. St. O. T., IV, 149-57; Hastings, D. B., IV, 654-68; Brown, The Tabernacle. 4. Definition of prophet. Cf. § XXI, 3; Hastings, D. B., IV, 108-9; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3853-9. § XXVII.The Life of the Hebrews in the Wilderness.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the scene of the wilderness wanderings. 2. Life in this region. 3. The spring of Kadesh. 4. Traditions regarding the food supply. 5. Contests with native tribes. 6. Form and significance of the ark. 7. Duration of the wilderness sojourn. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Contents of the book of Numbers. St.O. T., I, 24; Hastings, D. B., III, 567-73; Encyc. Bib., III, 3439-49. Cf. also Biblical introductions. 2. Life in the Arabian desert. Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus and Wilderness Wandering; Stanley, Sinai and Palestine; Doughty, Wanderings in Arabia, I, 70159. 3. The late priestly tradition of the ark. St.O. T., IV, 149-51; Hastings, D. B., I, 149-51; Encyc. Bib., I, 300-9. § XXVIII.The Attempt to Enter Canaan from the South.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Why did the Hebrews not go at once from Egypt to Canaan? 2. What is the history and the significance of the journey of the spies? 3. The evidence that certain tribes entered Canaan directly from the south. 4. Causes and nature of the rebellions against Moses’s authority. 5. Effect of the wilderness life and of Moses’s activity upon the character and faith of the Hebrews. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The three different accounts of the journey of the spies. St. O. T., I, 215-18. 2. Palestine under the rule of the twentieth Egyptian dynasty. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 360-4, 373-4, 375, 378; Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Palestine, 144-50; Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 465-6, 470, 512-19; Hastings, D. B., I, 662-3. 3. In the light of the oldest records was Moses’s great work accomplished by natural or miraculous means? § XXIX.The Journey from the Wilderness, and Balaam’s Prophecy.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the events in the journey about Edom. 2. The different traditions regarding Balaam. 3. Meaning of his oracles. 4. Their probable date. 5. Trace in early Hebrew life the development of the belief that Israel was a people with an unique destiny. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The territory of Edom and Moab. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, 555-72; Hastings, D. B., I, 644-5, III, 403; Encyc. Bib., II, 1181-4, III, 3166-71; Libbey and Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, I. 2. Ancient oraeles. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 133, 177-81; Hastings, D. B., III, 629; Encyc. Bib., III, 3516; Gray, Numbers, 345-8, 350-7, 300-71. 3. Did other early peoples believe that they were under the especial protection and care of their gods? Cf. St. O. T., II, 495. § XXX.East-Jordan Conquests and Moses’s Farewell.GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. What was the significance of the victory over the Amorites? 2. Meaning of the ancient song of victory? 3. Nature of the east-Jordan territory. 4. The death of Moses. 5. Moses’s relation to the book of Deuteronomy 6. Moses’s work as prophet, leader and Judges 7. The essence of his message. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Literary analysis and contents of Deuteronomy. Hastings, D. B., I, 596-603; Encyc. Bib., I, 107993; St. O. T., IV, 33-4. 2. The variant traditions of Moses’s farewell. St. O. T., I, 250-2. 3. The religion of Moses. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 631-4; Marti, Religion of the Old Testament, 36-71. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 48: 048. VOLUME 2: THE FOUNDERS AND RULERS OF UNITED ISRAEL: FROM THE DEATH OF MOSES TO THE DIVISION ... ======================================================================== The Historical Bible THE FOUNDERS AND RULERS OF OF UNITED ISRAEL FROM THE DEATH OF MOSES TO THE DIVISION OF THE HEBREW KINGDOM BY CHARLES FOSTER KENT,PH.D. WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY WITH MAPS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS COPYRIGHT 1908 ======================================================================== CHAPTER 49: 049. PREFACE ======================================================================== PREFACE Israel’s history is divided into four distinct periods. The first, which ends with the crossing of the Jordan, represents the childhood of the race. It was then that the memory of the nation was weak; but its imagination was strong, as the character of the earliest traditions testifies. The second, which extended to the division of the kingdom at the death of Solomon, was Israel’s adolescent period. The third, to the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B.C., brought to the nation grave social, political and religious problems, which rapidly developed the ethical and spiritual consciousness of the race. During the fourth period, from the beginning of the exile to the first Christian century, Judaism, in the trying school of affliction, attained its full maturity and crystallized into a closely knit racial and religious unit. The second period of Hebrew history, with which this volume deals, was Israel’s heroic age, when physical strength, courage and patriotism were the prominent virtues, and the deeper spiritual and ethical qualities were only partially developed. It was during this period that the Hebrews most resembled their neighbors in character and faith. Their dominant ambitions were to acquire territory and to extend their authority; and these ambitions were fully realized. Within two short centuries, the tribes from the wilderness became a strong nation, and then grew into a powerful empire. Written records now for the first time began to take the place of popular tradition. As a result, the miraculous element, so prominent in the early tradition, almost completely disappears. The greater part of the material in Samuel and Kings is evidently taken from two early, independent histories. The one told of the call of Saul by Samuel, and of the reign of Israel’s first king; the other, which begins with the latter part of the sixteenth chapter of I Samuel, tells of the rise of David and of the glories and sins of the Judean shepherd who made Israel one of the powerful nations of southwestern Asia. These quotations from the Saul and David histories are remarkably picturesque and full of detail. Although probably not written until after the division of the Hebrew kingdom, the stories which they contain were doubtless told in the days of Saul and David, and therefore shed almost contemporary light upon the chief characters and events of the period. Their language, point of view and ideas are those of the golden era, when Israel was rapidly attaining its full material growth and splendor. They are full of dramatic action and simple, strong emotion. The reader is made to behold with his own eyes the more important scenes in this stirring epoch of Israel’s history. Through the vivid dialogues he is admitted to the councils of kings, prophets and warriors. His attention is constantly fixed on the fortunes and deeds of certain heroes, and through their personal experiences the significant facts and forces of the history are clearly revealed. In these oldest records there is no attempt to idealize the history or to conceal the faults of its heroes. Life and human nature are presented with a simple realism which makes these narratives invaluable guides to all who would know the soul of man and the eternal laws which govern human life. The selection of material and the prominence given to the personal element also reveal the noble religious and ethical purpose which actuated the later prophetic authors of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They aim not merely to write a history of their nation, but also through its most significant characters to interpret that history, so that the vital spiritual truths which it illustrates shall stand out in clear relief. Fortunately, the Greek translation has preserved many clauses and even verses, which have been lost in the Hebrew text. Restoring these, the result is a remarkably complete and well-rounded narrative. The language in these stories, which come from the lips of the ancient storytellers, is often exceedingly idiomatic and even colloquial; and an attempt has been made in the present translation to reproduce these picturesque qualities. The evidence which has determined the analysis of the sources, and detailed textual notes, will be found in the corresponding volumes of the author’s Student’s Old Testament, to which references are made in the table of contents. C. F. K. YALE UNIVERSITY, May, 1908. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 50: 050. THE SETTLEMENT AND CONQUEST OF CANAAN ======================================================================== THE SETTLEMENT AND CONQUEST OF CANAAN ======================================================================== CHAPTER 51: 051. XXXI. THE CROSSING OF THE JORDAN ======================================================================== § XXXI. THE CROSSING OF THE JORDAN Joshua 2-4 1. Rahab’s concealment of the Hebrew spies. Now it was told the king of Jericho, saying, There came hither to-night men from the Israelites to explore the land. And the king of Jericho sent to Rahab saying, Bring forth the men who have come to you, for they have come to explore all the land. And she said, It is true, certain men came to me, but I did not know whence they came, nor do I know whither they have gone. She had, however, brought them up to the roof and hid them with the stalks of flax which she had laid in order upon the roof. 2. Their oath to Rahab. But before they had lain down, she came up to them on the roof, and said to the men, I know that Jehovah hath given you the land. Now therefore swear to me by Jehovah, since I have dealt kindly with you, that you will also deal kindly with my father’s house, and give me a true token. And the men said to her, It shall be, when Jehovah giveth us the land, that we will deal kindly and truly with you. Behold, when we come into the land, you shall bind this cord of scarlet thread in the window; and you shall gather to yourself into the house, your father and your mother and your brothers, and all your father’s household. And it shall be, if any one goes out of the doors of your house into the street, his blood shall be upon his head, and we shall be guiltless; but if any one stays with you in the house, his blood shall be on our heads, if an injury befalls him. And she said, Let it be as you say. So she sent them away, and they departed, and she bound the scarlet cord in the window. 3. Instructions regarding the crossing of the Jordan. Then Joshua rose up early in the morning, and he and all the Israelites came to the Jordan and spent the night there before they passed over. And Joshua said to the people, Sanctify yourselves, for to-morrow Jehovah will do wonders among you. Joshua also said to the Israelites, Come hither and hear the words of Jehovah your God. By this you shall know that a living God is among you. Behold, the ark is about to pass over before you into the Jordan. And it shall come to pass when the soles of the feet of the priests that bear the ark of Jehovah shall rest in the waters of Jordan, that the waters of Jordan shall be cut off; and the waters that come down from above shall rise in a heap. 4. The damming of the waters. And so when those who were carrying the ark came to the Jordan—the Jordan overflows its banks all the time of harvest—its waters rose up in a heap, a great way off at Adam, the city that is beside Zarethan, and those that went down toward the sea of the Arabah, the Salt Sea, were wholly cut off. And the people stood opposite Jericho. 5. Command to set up twelve memorial stones. Then Jehovah said to Joshua, Command them saying, ‘Take hence from the midst of the Jordan twelve stones, and carry them over with you and lay them down in the camping-place, where you shall pass the night, that this may be a sign among you, that, when your children ask in time to come, saying, “What do you mean by these stones?” then you shall say to them, “Because the waters of the Jordan were cut off before the ark of Jehovah; when it passed over the Jordan, the waters of the Jordan were cut off.”’ So they took up twelve stones out of the midst of the Jordan, and they carried them over with them to the place where they camped, and laid them down there. 6. Crossing of the people. Then the people passed over quickly. And when all the people had passed over, the ark of Jehovah passed over, and the priests, in the presence of the people. And when the priests who were carrying the ark of Jehovah came up from the midst of the Jordan, and the soles of the priests’ feet were lifted up on the dry ground, the waters of the Jordan returned to their place and went over all its banks as before. I. The Records of the Settlement and Conquest. The crossing of the Jordan (about 1150 B.C.) marks a new era in biblical history. Up to this time Israel’s traditions record simply the experiences of nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes. Henceforth they deal with definite events in the life of a people with a fixed place of abode and with a growing body of customs and institutions. At this point, therefore, the history of the Hebrew people properly begins. The first century, popularly known as the Period of the Judges, is marked by the settlement of the Hebrew tribes in Canaan and by gradual movements toward tribal and national consolidation. The events of this period are recorded in the books of Joshua and Judges. The book of Joshua falls naturally into three distinct divisions: The first division, chapters 1–12, consists, for the most part, of extracts from the early prophetic histories, and records the first stages in the conquest or Canaan. The second division, 13–22, contains the very late priestly tradition regarding the allotment of the territory of Canaan among the different tribes. It reflects the later traditional view that the conquest was accomplished in about seven years, and that the distribution of the land was decided by lot rather than by the fortunes of the sword. The third division, 23 and 24, includes the two versions of Joshua’s farewell address. The book of Judges also falls naturally into three divisions: Judges 1:1 to Judges 2:5 contain a brief epitome of the early Judean account of the settlement in Canaan. They emphasize the fact that, long after the Hebrews had gained a foothold in the west-Jordan land, the Canaanites and older inhabitants continued to hold most of the important cities and points of vantage. This oldest narrative is not the sequel, but is parallel to the traditions found in the book of Joshua. The second division of Judges 2:6 to Judges 16:31, tells of the achievements of the different Hebrew leaders, who delivered their tribes from foreign invaders and laid the foundations for the future empire. The stories are taken from the early prophetic histories and are prefaced by stereotyped introductions, which give the later prophetic interpretation of the religious significance of the history. The third division, Judges 17-21, is an appendix. It contains an account of the conquests of the Danites, and of the crime of the Gibeathites and of their punishment at the hands of the neighboring Hebrew tribes. These narratives of Judges are not continuous, but rather present vivid and true pictures of the more important characters and events throughout this stirring pioneer period. II. Political Conditions in Canaan. In the light of the patriarchal stories, the Egyptian inscriptions and the el-Amarna letters, it is possible to determine very definitely the conditions prevailing in Canaan at the beginning of the period of Hebrew settlement. Beside each important spring had grown up a Canaanite city or village. The larger towns, like Jericho, Hebron and Jebus, and those in central and northern Palestine, were encircled by stone or mud walls, which rendered them practically immune from Bedoum attack. Each of these cities had its independent king and controlled the immediately adjacent territory. When free from foreign rule these petty city-states were almost constantly at war with each other. The strong hand of Egypt for a long period held them in partial check; but Egyptian rule had drained the resources of Palestine. It contributed little in return; for the policy of Egypt had been simply to extract heavy tribute and then to leave the subject peoples to their own devices. The result was that after Egypt finally lost control of Palestine, as it had by the middle of the twelfth century B.C., the old suicidal rivalry between the petty city-states reasserted itself. The Canaanite civilization was still largely a reflection of the Babylonian culture, which for centuries had permeated and dominated southwestern Asia. The Canaanites also appear to have absorbed the worst elements in the effete civilizations of the East and the West. Their degeneracy had long since destroyed their military efficiency and left them ripe for conquest by the ruder but more virile peoples from the wilderness. As in the days of Thotmose III, the rocky uplands and the outlying districts of Canaan were still open to the peoples from the desert, who were thus able without opposition to gain a foothold in Palestine. As these Arab tribes increased in numbers, they were able gradually by intermarriage with the native population, by alliances, and by the sword, to conquer additional territory and in time to become masters even of the Canaanite cities. III. Strategic Importance of Jericho. The older traditions indicate that a few cities of eastern Canaan proved the exception to the general rule. Chief among these was the town of Jericho, which commanded the fertile plain of the lower Jordan and the great highways which led south-westward into the territory later occupied by the tribe of Judah and north-westward into central Canaan. Jericho was so apart from the other Canaanite cities, that it could anticipate no help from the petty kingdoms of central Palestine. The possession of this city and its rich surrounding territory, therefore, gave to the Hebrews a base from which they could advance gradually to the occupation and ultimate conquest of Canaan. IV. Significance of the Visit of the Spies. The early Judean prophetic version of the story of the experiences of the spies in Jericho reveals the designs of the Hebrews. The story is also significant, be cause it indicates that in the family of Rahab the nomadic invaders had allies within the walls of Jericho itself. Possibly Rahab represented one of those Kenite clans which about this time entered southern Canaan, and which according to the record in Judges (§ XXXIII 6) went up with the Judahites from this city of palms to the conquest of the South Country. The promise that all the members of Rahab’s clan, together with their possessions, should be preserved was perhaps the price paid not only for delivering the spies, but also for betraying the city at the time of the Hebrew attack. V. Triple Tradition of the Crossing of the Jordan. Three distinct accounts are found in Joshua of the crossing of the Jordan. The river itself after the late spring freshets have subsided, is readily fordable at several points. The Northern Israelite version suggests that the Hebrews crossed the river when Jehovah had thus dried up its waters. As in the story of the exodus, the late priestly writers give a highly miraculous account of this important event: contrary to all natural laws, the waters are piled up on either side and the Hebrews pass in solemn array between the walls of water. The early Judean narrative, however, is undoubtedly the more historical and gives a very different picture. VI. The Method of the Crossing According to the Oldest Narrative. The time of the year is that of harvest, when the Jordan over flows its banks. When the Hebrews approach the river they find that the water has disappeared, leaving the bed of the stream dry. The cause of this remarkable phenomenon is definitely stated. Far up the Jordan, at the village of Adam, whose name probably means Red Earth, the waters had been temporarily held back, while those in the lower part of the stream flowed on to the Dead Sea. Interpreted into scientific language, it would appear that the high waters had undermined the clay banks at a point up the river where they came close together, causing a great landslide. This mass of earth had blocked up the river until the increasing waters were sufficient to brush away the obstruction and resume their usual course. The incident, therefore, was in many ways parallel to that recounted in the history of Sultan Bibars. In 1257 A.D. it was suddenly found necessary to repair the foundation of the bridge Jisr Damieh in order to save the retreating Moslem army. On arriving at the bridge the workmen found the river bed empty. This continued for a few hours, until the work of repairing was nearly completed, when the waters again came rushing down. The historian states that the cause was a landslide higher up the river, but he regards the deliverance as a remarkable evidence of Allah’s favor. VII. Significance of the Event in Hebrew History. To the Hebrews this remarkable provision for their crossing of the Jordan seemed a direct act of divine interposition. In many ways it was strikingly similar to the deliverance from Egypt. As at many another great crisis in their history, they received, not through supernatural but through natural means, the clear evidence of Jehovah’s care and guidance. When the Hebrews crossed the Jordan they carried with them the traditions and customs of the wilderness, but many of these were destined gradually to disappear before the highly developed agricultural civilization, already firmly established in the land of Canaan. With the crossing of the Jordan began that great conflict between the simple faith of the desert and the alluring but degenerate cults of the land of Canaan. It was a conflict which continued for over five hundred years, until, amidst the trying experiences of the Babylonian exile, the religion of Moses and of the later prophets at last emerged completely triumphant. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 52: 052. XXXII. CAPTURE OF JERICHO AND AI ======================================================================== § XXXII. CAPTURE OF JERICHO AND AI Joshua 5:13-15, Joshua 6-9 1. Jehovah’s directions regarding the attack. Now when Joshua was near Jericho, he lifted up his eyes and looked, and, behold, there stood a man over against him with his drawn sword in his hand. And Joshua went to him, and said to him, Art thou for us or for our adversaries? And he said, Nay, but as Prince of the host of Jehovah have I now come. Then Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and worshipped, and said to him, What has my lord to say to his servant? And the Prince of Jehovah’s host said to Joshua, Take off thy sandals from thy feet; for the place on which thou art standing is holy. Then Jehovah said to Joshua, See, I have given into thy power Jericho, and its king, with the mighty men of valor. And ye shall march around the city, all the warriors going about the city once. Thus shall ye do six days. And the seventh day the people shall go up every man straight before him. 2. Joshua’s commands to the people. Then Joshua called the priests and said to them, Take up the ark; and to the people he said, March around the city, and let the armed men pass on before the ark of Jehovah. Joshua also commanded the people saying, You shall not shout the battle-cry, nor let your voice be heard, neither shall a word go out of your mouth, until the day I say to you, ‘Shout the battle-cry’; then you shall shout. 3. March around the city. So he caused the ark of Jehovah to march around the city, going about it once. Then they came into the camp, and lodged in the camp. And Joshua rose early in the morning, and the second day they marched around the city once, and returned to the camp. Thus they did six days. 4. Capture of the city. And it came to pass on the seventh day that they rose early at the dawning of the day; and when they had made the circuit of the city after the same manner, Joshua said to the people, Shout the battle-cry; for Jehovah hath given you the city. And the city shall be completely devoted to Jehovah, together with all that is in it; only Rahab the harlot shall live, both she and those who are with her in the house, because she hid the messengers whom we sent. So the people shouted the battle-cry, and went up into the city, every man straight before him, and they took the city. 5. Fate of its inhabitants. Then they completely destroyed by the sword all that was in the city, both man and woman, both young and old, and ox, and sheep, and ass. But Rahab the harlot and her father’s household and all that she had, Joshua saved; and they have dwelt in the midst of Israel even until this day, because she hid the messengers whom Joshua sent to spy out Jericho. At that time Joshua made them subscribe to this oath: Cursed be that man before Jehovah Who undertakes to rebuild this city; With the loss of his first-born shall he lay its foundation, And with the loss of his youngest son shall he set up its gates. So Jehovah was with Joshua, and his fame was in all the land. 6. Defeat of the three hundred. And Joshua sent men from Jericho to Ai, which is on the east side of Bethel, and commanded them saying, Go up and spy out the land. So the men went and spied out Ai. And when they returned to Joshua, they said to him, Do not let all the people go up, but let two or three thousand men go up and smite Ai; do not make all the people toil up there; for they are few. So there went up thither of the people about three thousand men; but they fled before the men of Ai. And the men of Ai smote of them, about thirty-six men, and pursued them from before the gate even to Shebarim, and smote them at the descent; and the people lost heart to resist and became as weak as water. 7. Joshua’s complaint to Jehovah. Then Joshua rent his clothes, and fell to the earth upon his face before Jehovah until the evening, together with the elders of Israel; and they put dust upon their heads. And Joshua said, Alas, O Lord Jehovah, why hast thou at all brought this people over the Jordan. Would that we had been contented and stayed beyond the Jordan! O Lord, what shall I say, after Israel hath turned his back before his enemies! For the Canaanites and all the inhabitants of the land will hear of it, and will surround us, and cut off our name from the earth; and what wilt thou do for thy great name? 8. Cause of the defeat. Then Jehovah said to Joshua, Arise! why art thou lying prostrate thus? Israel hath sinned; indeed they have even taken of the accursed thing and so have been guilty of theft and deception; and they have even put it among their own things. That is why the Israelites cannot stand before their enemies, because they are accursed. I will not be with you any more, unless ye destroy from among you that which is accursed. Arise, sanctify the people, and say, ‘Sanctify yourselves for to-morrow; for thus saith Jehovah, the God of Israel, “There is in the midst of thee, O Israel, that which is accursed, thou canst not stand before thine enemies until ye take away the accursed thing from among you.” In the morning therefore ye shall be brought near by your tribes; and it shall be that the tribe which Jehovah shall take, shall come near by families; and the family which Jehovah shall take, shall come near by households; and the household which Jehovah shall take, shall come near man by man. And it shall be that he who is taken with the accursed thing shall be burnt with fire, together with all that he hath, because he hath committed a shameful crime in Israel.’ 9. Discovery of the culprit. So Joshua rose up early in the morning, and brought Israel near by their tribes, and the tribe of Judah was taken. Then he brought near the family of Judah; and he took the family of the Zerahites, and he brought near the family of the Zerahites, man by man; and Zabdi was taken. Then he brought near his household, man by man; and Achan was taken. Then Joshua said to Achan, Tell me now what you have done: do not conceal it from me. And Achan answered Joshua and said, Truly, I have sinned against Jehovah the God of Israel, and thus and thus have I done: when I saw among the spoil a beautiful Babylonian mantle, and two hundred shekels of silver, and a bar of gold of fifty shekels’ weight, I coveted them and took them, and now they are hidden in the earth in the middle of my tent, with the money underneath. 10. Aefian’s punishment. So Joshua sent messengers, and they ran to the tent, and there it was hidden in his tent, with the money underneath. And they took them from the midst of the tent, and brought them to Joshua and all the Israelites, and laid them down before Jehovah. Then Joshua took Achan the son of Zerah and all that he had and brought them to the valley of Achor. And Joshua said, Why have you brought trouble upon us? Jehovah shall bring trouble upon you to-day. And they burned them with fire, and they raised over him a great heap of stones. Then Jehovah turned from the fierceness of his anger. Hence the name of the place has been called the valley of Achor [Trouble] to this day. 11. Arrangements for the ambush. Then Jehovah said to Joshua, Do not fear, neither be dismayed; take all the warriors with thee; set an ambush for the city behind it. So Joshua arose with all the warriors to go up to Ai, and Joshua selected thirty thousand mighty men of valor, and sent them forth by night. And he commanded them saying, Behold, you are to lie in ambush against the city, behind the city; do not go very far from the city, but be ready all of you; and I and all the people who are with me will approach the city. And it shall come to pass, when they come out against us as at the first, that we will flee before them; and they will come out after us, until we have drawn them away from the city; for they will say, ‘They flee before us as at the first’; and then you shall rise up from the ambush, and take possession of the city; for Jehovah your God will give it into your power. And when you have seized the city, set it on fire; see, I have commanded you. 12. The ambush. So Joshua sent them forth, and they went to the place of the ambush, and stationed themselves between Bethel and Ai, on the west side of Ai; but Joshua spent that night among the people. 13. Capture and destruction of Ai and its inhabitants. Then Joshua rose early in the morning and mustered the people, and went up together with the elders of Israel, before the people of Ai. And the warriors who were with him went up, and came before the city. And it came to pass when the king of Ai saw it, both he and all his people hastened to a certain place in the direction of the Arabah, but he did not know that there was an ambush against him behind the city. Then Israel fled by way of the wilderness, and all the people that were in the city were called together to pursue them. And they left the city unguarded and pursued Israel. Thereupon the men in ambush arose quickly out of their place, and hastened to set the city on fire. And when the men of Ai looked behind them, they saw the smoke of the city ascending to heaven, and they had no chance to flee this way or that, for the people who had been fleeing to the wilderness turned back upon the pursuers. When the smoke of the city ascended, the others came forth out of the city against them; so they were in the midst of Israel, some on this side, and some on that; and they smote them, so that they let none of them remain or escape. 14. Fate of the king of Ai. And they captured the king of Ai alive, and brought him to Joshua. And the king of Ai he hanged on a tree until eventide; and at sunset Joshua gave command, and they took his body down from the tree, and threw it down at the entrance of the gate of the city, and raised over it a great heap of stones, which is there to this day. 15. Deception of the Gibeonites. Now when the inhabitants of Gibeon heard what Joshua had done to Jericho and Ai, they practised deception; they proceeded to take provisions and old sacks upon their asses, and wine-skins, old and torn and bound up, and old, patched shoes on their feet, and old garments upon their backs; and all the bread with which they provided themselves was dry and crumbled. And they went to Joshua at the camp in Gilgal, and they said to the men of Israel, We have come from a far country; now therefore make a treaty with us. And the men of Israel said to the villagers [Hivites], Perhaps you live among us; then how can we make a treaty with you? And they said to Joshua, We are your servants. And Joshua said to them, Who are you? and whence do you come? And they said to him, From a very far country your servants have come. And our elders and all the inhabitants of our country said to us, ‘Take provision in your hand for the journey, and go to meet them and say to them, “We are your servants.”’ This bread of ours we took hot for our provision out of our houses on the day we set out to come to you; but now see, it has become dry and crumbled; and these wine-skins, which we filled, were new; now see, they are torn; and these garments and shoes of ours have become old because of the very long journey. Therefore, now make a treaty with us. So the men of Israel took of their provisions, and did not ask counsel at the mouth of Jehovah, but made a treaty with them, to let them live. 16. Their fate. But after they had made a treaty with them, the men of Israel heard that they dwelt among them. And the Israelites journeyed and came to their cities on the third day. Then Joshua called for them and said to them, Why have you deceived us? saying, ‘We are very far from you,’ when you dwell among us? Now therefore you are under a curse, and there shall never cease to be of you bondmen, both hewers of wood and drawers of water for the house of my God. And they answered Joshua, Behold we are in your power; do as it seems good and right to you to do to us. And so he did to them, and saved them from the hand of the Israelites, so that they did not slay them. And Joshua made them that day hewers of wood and drawers of water. I. The Situation and Character of Jericho. The ruins of the ancient town of Jericho rise directly to the west of the famous spring, which now bears the name Ain es Sultan. The mound is about twelve hundred feet long and at many points about fifty feet in height. The Roman Jericho of Herod’s time was built further down the valley where the Wady Kelt breaks through the western bluffs. The modern Jericho is a squalid little hamlet lying further out on the plain. The presence of Canaanite pottery on the surface of the imposing mound, which rises above Ain es Sultan, has long been accepted as conclusive evidence that it represents the ancient city conquered by the Hebrews. From the size of this mound it is clear that it represents fully a thousand years of Canaanite history. Excavations begun in April, 1907, by the Germans, under the direction of Professor Sellin, have confirmed this conclusion beyond all doubt. The remains of the old Canaanite civilization were discovered only a foot or two beneath the surface of the mound. Much of the original wall has already been uncovered. It rests upon a stone foundation about two feet in height, and is constructed of bricks of burned clay. It is about ten feet high, and from ten to thirty feet thick. At one point a stone staircase with nineteen steps leads up from the plain to the top of the wall. The most interesting ruin thus far uncovered is on the northern side of the mound. It proves to be a massive tower, three stories high, of unburned brick. It has four apartments on the first floor, seven on the second and six on the third. Many of the partition walls of these rooms still remain intact. Sixteen steps of the stone staircase which ran up through the three stories to the flat roof have been discovered. The blackened walls of the tower show that it had been destroyed by fire. The remnants of pottery, the stone knives, the twenty-two small, unburned clay tablets intended for writing, but unfortunately not inscribed, which have been found inside it, and the general character of its architecture indicate that the structure comes from the Canaanite period. It is also the best preserved example of Canaanite architecture thus far discovered. The total area of ancient Jericho was not much more than that occupied by four modern city blocks. From its slight elevation the city commanded a beautiful view of the fertile plain of the Jordan, which at this point is fourteen miles wide and is watered by a crystal brook which runs from the spring at the foot of the mound. To the west the hills rise abruptly and are pierced by the valley which leads up into central Canaan, past Ai toward Bethel. II. The Two Accounts of the Capture of Jericho. A short march across the level plain of the lower Jordan brought the Hebrews to the Canaanite city of Jericho. Two variant accounts have been handed down of the manner in which this walled city was captured. One, the Northern Israelite version, represents the Hebrews as marching seven times around the walls, with the ark at their head and with seven priests blowing seven trumpets. On the seventh time at the final blast, the people shouted loudly and the walls fell down. In the mind of the later Israelites, the capture of this strong, fortified town seemed indeed a miracle, but the early Judean version gives a much simpler and more natural account of the event. III. The Judean Account of the Capture. According to the oldest version, Jericho was captured not by miracle but by strategy. Once each day for seven days, fully armed, with the ark at their head, the Hebrews marched silently around the city. It requires little imagination to picture the scene. On the first day the inhabitants of Jericho were on the defensive with guarded gates and warriors alert to re pulse any attack. On the following days their alarm yielded to wonder, ridicule and scorn. The seventh day apparently found them entirely off their guard and offered an excellent opportunity for a sudden and successful attack. The members of the family of Rahab within the city had been promised by the Hebrews a reward for their treachery. It is not improbable that at the signal they unbolted the city gates, so that, when at last the lips of the Israelite warriors were unsealed and they raised their war cry and “rushed up into the city every man straight before him,” they found the way open before them. IV.The Fate of the Inhabitants of Jericho. There is little doubt that the account of the destruction of Jericho is historical. All living things found in the city were devoted to Jehovah (that is, given as a bloody offering), and therefore destroyed. The spoil likewise was consecrated to Israel’s god. Even the ruins were guarded by a curse which was to descend upon any one who attempted to rebuild them. In 1 Kings 16:34 it is stated that “in the days of Ahab, Hiel, the Bethelite, built Jericho. He laid the foundations with the loss of Abiram, his first-born, and set up its gates with the loss of his youngest son, Segub, as Jehovah had spoken by Joshua the son of Nun.” The same fanatical zeal in destroying their foes is revealed in the inscription of Mesha, who ruled over Moab in the days of Omri and Ahab. In his inscription he states that he captured the city Ataroth from Israel and slew all the people and made the city a ruin. In a subsequent passage he relates that “Chemosh said to me, ‘Go and take Nebo against Israel.’ Then I went by night and fought against it from the break of dawn until noon and I took it and slew them all—seven thousand men, women and slaves—for I had devoted it to Ashtar-Chemosh.” Although the cruelty of the Hebrews in treating their foes was condemned by their later and more enlightened prophets, these carly narratives reveal the devotion and fanatical zeal with which Israel went out to fight the wars of Jehovah. So completely did the Hebrews and their kinsmen, the Moabites and Edomites, identify their national interest with that of their tribal gods that they regarded wholesale slaughter of their foes as a virtue which would win the divine approval. In times of great crises, these same peoples, who still retained much of the fierce fanatical zeal of the desert, did not hesitate to sacrifice even their own sons to win the favor of their tribal god. Their religious conceptions were crude and in many respects wrong, but their devotion lacked neither in intensity nor in forcible expression. V. The Sin of Achan. Before the author of the book of Job combated the popular dogma, misfortune and calamity were universally interpreted as signs of divine displeasure. When, therefore, the attack upon Ai proved unsuccessful, the only question raised by the Israelites was, “Who has sinned?” Appeal was accordingly made to the sacred lot, which was probably in the charge of a priest or seer. Achan, who was thus singled out as the guilty man, confessed his guilt. His crime was stealing from Jehovah that which had been solemnly consecrated to him. Even the Code of Hammurabi (§ 6) eight or ten centuries before had provided, “If a man has stolen goods from a temple or house he shall be put to death.” According to early Hebrew usage, the penalty was death, not only for the culprit but also for his family. Accordingly Achan and all his household were burned to death by the outraged community. VI. The Capture of Ai. The strategy employed by the Hebrews in capturing the town of Ai was one often used by nomadic invaders against the inhabitants of walled cities. Secreting a band of warriors in a secluded valley, the Hebrews advanced against the city. When the inhabitants sallied forth for the attack, the main body of the He brews turned in flight. The pursuers left their gates open behind them, and the men in ambush rushed into the town and set it on fire. Soon the rising smoke revealed to the pursuers the trap into which they had fallen. Upon the people of Ai was visited the same pitiless fate that had over taken the inhabitants of Jericho. VII. The Treaty with the Villagers. Far down through the period of the judges, even to the days of the united kingdom, a group of Canaanite towns including Jebus, Shaalbim, Gibeon and Gezer, remained in the possession of the Canaanites. The traditional reason why these cities were allowed to retain their independence is found in the story of the treaty made with them when the Hebrews first crossed the Jordan. With patched shoes and tattered garments on their backs, dry and mouldy bread in their wallets, representatives of these upland villages appeared in the camp of the Israelites. Their appearance gave weight to their assurance that they came from a distant country to make terms with the new invaders. Accordingly, without consulting Jehovah, a treaty was made, and the peoples, whom these messengers represented, were promised immunity from Hebrew attack. Their deception, however, was in time made an excuse for enslaving the Gibeonites. Later, Saul for some reason put certain of them to death. This act, however, was repudiated by the Israelites in the days of David; and Saul’s seven sons were publicly hanged in order to win Jehovah’s forgiveness for breaking the solemn treaty (§ L). VIII. The Character of Joshua. The name of Joshua does not appear to have been found in the earliest prophetic history. This surprising omission is perhaps due to the fact that the brief Judean account of the settlement in Judges 1 (§ XXXIII), deals with the experiences of the individual tribes rather than with the achievements of the leaders. Joshua seems to have been the leader of the northern tribes in their advance toward Canaan. His character and work were adapted to the needs of his age. He figures in the Northern Israelite history as an ideal military commander, wise in council, fertile in strategy, quick to strike and courageous in action. Trained in the school of Moses and the wilderness, he is the first of those tribal leaders and deliverers who appear in this stirring period of settlement and conquest. The same spirit of devotion to Jehovah and of dependence upon his guidance are characteristic of Joshua as of Israel’s earlier leaders. Although later tradition has clearly extended the sphere of his activity and idealized his work, he appears to have made a deep impression upon this formative period of Israel’s history. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 53: 053. XXXIII. CONDITIONS AND CONQUESTS IN CANAAN ======================================================================== § XXXIII. CONDITIONS AND CONQUESTS IN CANAAN Judges 1, Joshua 15:63, Judges 2:23; Judges 3:2; Judges 3:5; Judges 3:14-28 1. The advance of Judah and Simeon. Then it came to pass that the Israelites inquired of Jehovah, Which of us shall first go up to fight against the Canaanites? And Jehovah said, Judah shall go; behold I will give the land into his hand. Then Judah said to Simeon his brother, Come up with me into the territory allotted to me, that we may fight against the Canaanites; then I will also go with you into the territory allotted to you. So Simeon went with him. 2. Battle of Bezek. And they found Adoni-bezek in Bezek, and they fought against him and smote the Canaanites and the Perizzites. And Adoni-bezek fled, but they pursued and caught him, and cut off his thumbs and his great toes. And Adonibezek said, Seventy kings, with their thumbs and their great toes cut off, pick up crumbs under my table; as I have done, so God hath requited me! And they brought him to Jerusalem, and there he died. But the Judahites could not dispossess the Jebusites, the inhabitants of Jerusalem; but the Jebusites dwell to this day with the Judahites at Jerusalem. 3. Wars in the south. And afterward the Judahites went to fight against the Canaanites who dwelt in the hills and in the South Country and in the lowlands. 4. Capture and fate of Hebron. And Judah went against the Canaanites who dwelt in Hebron (the earlier name of Hebron was Kiriath-arba); and they slew Sheshai, and Animan, and Talmai. And they gave Hebron to Caleb, as Moses had commanded; and he drove out from there the three sons of Anak. 5. Of Debir. And from there Judah went against the inhabitants of Debir (the older name of Debir was Kiriath-sepher). And Caleb said, To the man who attacks Kiriath-sepher and takes it, I will give Achsah my daughter in marriage. And Caleb’s younger brother, Othniel the son of Kenaz, took it; and Caleb gave Achsah his daughter to him in marriage. And when she came to him he moved her to ask of her father a field; and she alighted from her ass; and when Caleb said to her, What is it? she answered, Give me a present; since you have assigned me to the South Country, give me now springs of water. So Caleb gave her the upper and lower springs. 6. Conquests in the South Country. And the children of the Kenite, Moses’s father-in-law, went up out of the city of palm trees [Jericho] with the Judahites into the wilderness of Judah, which is south of Arad; and they went and dwelt with their people. Then Judah went with Simeon his brother, and they smote the Canaanites who inhabited Zephath and completely destroyed it. Therefore the name of the city was called Hormah [Devoted to destruction]. And Jehovah was with Judah, so that he gained possession of the hill-country; but he could not drive out the inhabitants of the plain, because they had chariots of iron. 7. Capture of Bethel by the house of Joseph. And the house of Joseph also went up against Bethel; and Jehovah was with them. And the house of Joseph went to spy out Bethel (the earlier name of the city was Luz). And the spies saw a man coming out of the city and they said to him, Show us, we pray you, the way to enter the city, and we will treat you kindly. So he showed them the way to enter the city; and they put the inhabitants of the city to the sword; but they let the man go with all his family. And the man went to the land of the Hittites, and built a city, and called its name Luz, which is its name to this day. 8. The Canaanites who retained their territory. But Manasseh did not drive out the inhabitants of Beth-shean and its towns, nor of Taanach and its towns, nor the inhabitants of Dor and its towns, nor the inhabitants of Ibleam and its towns, nor the inhabitants of Megiddo and its towns; but the Canaanites maintained their hold in that region. However when Israel became strong they put the Canaanites to taskwork, but did not completely drive them out. And Ephraim did not drive out the Canaanites who dwelt in Gezer; but the Canaanites remained in Gezer among them. Zebulun did not drive out the inhabitants of Kitron, nor the inhabitants of Nahalol; but the Canaanites remained among them and became subject to taskwork. Asher did not drive out the inhabitants of Acco, nor the inhabitants of Sidon, nor of Ahlab, nor of Achzib, nor of Helbah, nor of Aphik nor of Rehob; but the Asherites dwelt among the Canaanite inhabitants of the land; for they could not drive them out. Naphtali did not drive out the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh, nor the inhabitants of Beth-anath; but he dwelt among the Canaanite inhabitants of the land; nevertheless the inhabitants of Beth-shemesh and of Beth-anath became subject to taskwork. And the Amorites forced the Danites into the hill-country; for they would not allow them to come down into the plain; but the Amorites maintained their hold in Mount Heres, in Aijalon, and in Shaalbim; yet when the house of Joseph grew stronger they became subject to taskwork. 9. Effect upon the Hebrew. So Jehovah left those nations, not driving them out at once; merely that the successive generations of the Israelites might become familiar with war. And the Israelites dwelt among the Canaanites, and they took their daughters as wives, and gave their own daughters to their sons, and served their gods. 10. Assassination of the king of Moab by Ehud. Then the Israelites became subject to Eglon the king of Moab. And they cried to Jehovah, and Jehovah raised them up a deliverer, Ehud the son of Gera, the Benjamite, a left-handed man. Now the Israelites sent tribute by him to Eglon the king of Moab. And Ehud made him a two-edged dagger about a foot in length, and hung it under his clothing upon his right thigh. And he offered the tribute to Eglon king of Moab. Now Eglon was a very fat man. And when Ehud had finished offering the tribute, he sent away the people who had carried the tribute. But he himself turned back from the sculptured stones near Gilgal, and said, I have a private message for you, O king, And the king said, Silence! And all who stood by him went out from his presence. Then Ehud went in to him, as he was sitting alone in the cool upper apartment. And Ehud said, I have a message from God for you. And as he arose from his seat, Ehud reached out his left hand, and took the dagger from his right thigh, and plunged it into his body, so that the hilt also went in after the blade, and the fat closed over the blade, for he did not draw the dagger out of his body; and the filth came out. 11. His escape. Then Ehud went out into the porch, and shut the doors of the upper apartment upon him and locked them. Now when he had gone out, the king’s servants came; and they looked, and, behold, the doors of the upper apartment were locked; and they said, Surely he must be covering his feet in the private room in the cool apartment. So they waited till they were perplexed by his strange failure to open the doors of the upper room; therefore they took the key and opened them, and there was their lord lying prostrate on the earth, dead. But Ehud had slipped away, while they were waiting, and had passed beyond the sculptured stones, and was making good his escape to Seirah. 12. His rally of the Ephraimites and repulse of the Moables. And when he arrived, he blew a trumpet in the hill-country of Ephraim; and the Israelites went down with him from the hill-country and he at their head. For he said to them, Follow me, because Jehovah hath delivered your enemies, the Moabites, into your hand. So they followed him and seized the fords of the Jordan against the Moabites, and did not allow a man to pass over. TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF CANAAN AFTER THE CONQUEST. I. Real Character of the Conquest. In the different strata of the book of Joshua, the conquest of Canaan is presented from several distinct points of view. The late priestly writers regarded it as complete within less than a decade. The Northern Israelite narrative also as signs later victories to the beginning of this period. The great decisive battle, recorded in the fourth and fifth chapters of Judges (§ XXXVI), which gave the Hebrews the mastery over the Canaanites, evidently occurred many years after the crossing of the Jordan. In the light of the oldest records found in the first chapters of Judges and in the corresponding early sections of Joshua, it is clear that the conquest followed rather than preceded the settlement of Canaan. The conquest itself was gradual. By colonizing the unoccupied portions of Palestine, by intermarriage and by alliance with the native tribes, and in some cases by open attack, the Hebrews slowly became masters of the land. The process continued through fully a century. It was the pioneer stage in Israel’s history—a period of toil and almost constant conflict. Each tribe or group of tribes under local leaders won its own victories and defended its own borders. During this period the Hebrews were intent not only upon acquiring territory but also upon building houses and learning from their Canaanite neighbors the arts and institutions of agricultural life. II. Conditions in the South. According to the earliest record, the tribes of Judah and Simeon, accompanied by clans of the Kenites, went up alone from Jericho, the City of Palms, to conquer their homes in southern Canaan. The order of their conquests was from north to south, and all the implications of the narrative support the conclusion that they entered Canaan from the east rather than from the south, as has sometimes been urged. But one decisive battle for the possession of southern Canaan is recorded. The Canaanites were led by a certain Adoni-Bezek (or Zedek) who, in the later Judean narrative, is described as the king of Jebus. It is in connection with this battle that the later Judean historian has quoted the famous stanza from the ancient song commemorating the victory: Thou sun stand still in Gibeon, And thou, moon, in the valley of Aijalon. Then the sun stood still, And the moon stayed Until the nation had taken vengeance on its foes. The later historian has interpreted these highly poetical words literally. In their original setting they emphasize the extent of the victory. So great was this victory that to those who contemplated it the day seemed to have been supernaturally lengthened. Upon the vanquished king was visited the same cruel fate as had overtaken the other conquered foes who fell into the hands of the Israelites. Jebus, the citadel of ancient Urusalamu (i. e. Jerusalem), remained, however, in the possession of the Canaanites until the days of David. Still further south, the Calebites had apparently already secured a foothold upon the borders of Canaan (cf. § XXVIII), and the Judahites joined with them in vanquishing the older inhabitants. The city of Hebron lay within the territory of Caleb, while the neighboring city of Debir was held by the kindred tribe of Othniel. In time the conquest of the southern tribes extended out into the South Country. This territory was the home of the Simeonites, who largely retained their nomadic habits and never played a very important part in Israel’s history. Instead, the powerful tribe of Judah gradually assimilated such kindred Arab tribes as the Calebites, the Othnielites and the Jerahmeelites, until it gained complete possession of the uplands of southern Canaan. In this region the influence of the desert life and customs was strongest, and the traditions and beliefs of Moses and of the wilderness were retained with the greatest tenacity. The older Canaanite population appears to have been largely extirpated, so that the blood of the Judahites was not so much diluted by intermarriage with neighboring peoples as that of their kinsmen in the north. A zone of Canaanite cities, beginning with Gezer on the borders of the Philistine plain, and including Shaalbim, Jebus and Gibeon, shut off the Israelites of the North from those of the South so completely that, in the great rally of the Israelite tribes against the Canaanites in the days of Deborah, no mention is made of Judah or of Simeon. III. Conditions in the North. The oldest records tell of but one Northern city captured by the Hebrews in the initial period of settlement. That was the famous town of Bethel, a few miles from Ai, which probably became from the first, as its name, House of God, suggests, one of the favorite sanctuaries of the Northern Israelites. Other smaller villages on the borders of the upland pastures doubtless soon fell into the possession of the Hebrew immigrants. The earliest Judean narrative, however, states very definitely that all the important towns of northern Canaan at first remained in the possession of the Canaanites. These included the important zone of cities which extended across the plain of Esdraelon, beginning with Bethshean on the east, and including Taanach, Ibleam and Megiddo, and extending to Dor on the coast of the Mediterranean. This group of Canaanite cities in turn separated the northern tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh on the south from the tribes, which were struggling for homes in the rich lands further north. The later account (found in a secondary group of Judean narratives, Joshua 11:1-15), which represents the Israelites under the leadership of Joshua as achieving a great victory over the Canaanite kings of the north, is either a popular version of the sweeping victory recorded in the fourth and fifth chapters of Judges, or else the record is of a subsequent victory over the Canaanites in the far north. IV. The Conflict with the Moabites. Occupied, as they were, with the task of conquering the soil and of building homes, and separated from each other by strong Canaanite cities, the Israelites were ill-prepared to resist foreign invasions. Local interests and the old nomadic aversion for any central authority prevented a general union of the Hebrew tribes. The result was that they fell an easy prey to the attacks of their hostile and well organized neighbors. It is difficult to determine the order of events recorded in the book of Judges, but it is probable that the different incidents in this warlike period have been arranged in approximately their chronological order. If so, one of the earliest attacks came from the Edomites in the south, and was repulsed by the tribe of Othniel, whose territory lay immediately to the south of Canaan. Across the Jordan the Moabites, under the leadership of their king, Eglon, soon succeeded in levying a tribute upon the tribes immediately west of Jericho. The Israelites in time found a bloody deliverer in Ehud, the Benjamite who, gaining admission to the palace as an ambassador, assassinated the Moabite king. Under the leadership of Ehud, the Ephraimites seized the fords of the Jordan, and thus delivered themselves from the aggressions of the Moabites. During the remainder of the so-called period of the Judges, the southern tribes appear to have been free from outside attack, except from the west. How early the Philistines began their forays up through the rocky gorges, which led from the maritime plain to central Canaan, cannot be determined. Their united and aggressive advance marks the close of the period and inaugurates the era of the united monarchy. Meantime the stories of the book of Judges focus attention on events in the north, where the great problems in Israel’s early history were gradually being worked out. There was fought the great battle which gave the Hebrews possession of Canaan, and there were laid the foundations for the future Hebrew empire. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 54: 054. XXXIV. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DANITE TRIBE AND SANCTUARY ======================================================================== § XXXIV. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DANITE TRIBE AND SANCTUARY Judges 17, 18 1. Origin of Micah’s sanctuary. Now there was a man of the hill-country of Ephraim, whose name was Micah. And he said to his mother, The eleven hundred shekels of silver which were taken from you, about which you took an oath, saying it aloud in my hearing, behold, the silver is with me; it was I who took it. Now therefore I restore it to you. And his mother said, Blessed of Jehovah is my son. Then he restored the eleven hundred shekels of silver to his mother and his mother said, I solemnly consecrate the silver to Jehovah from my hand through my son, to make a carved and a molten image. So, when he restored the money to his mother, his mother took two hundred shekels of silver, and gave them to the founder, who made with it a carved and a molten image; and it was in the house of Micah. And the man Micah had a shrine, and he made an ephod and household gods, and installed one of his sons who became his priest. In those days there was no king in Israel; every one did as he thought was right. 2. Appointment of a young Levite as his priest. Now there was a young man of Bethlehem in Judah of the family of Judah, who was a Levite; and he was dwelling there. And the man departed from the city, from Bethlehem in Judah, to make his home in whatever place he could find. And as he journeyed, he came to the hill-country of Ephraim to the house of Micah. And Micah said to him, Whence do you come? And he said to him, I am a Levite from Bethlehem in Judah, and I am travelling to find a home, wherever I may. And Micah said to him, Stay with me, and be a father and a priest to me, and I will give you ten shekels of silver by the year, and a suit of clothes, and your living. So the Levite entered into an agreement to dwell with the man; and the young man was to him as one of his sons. Thus Micah consecrated the Levite, and the young man became his priest, and was in the house of Micah. Then said Micah, Now I know that Jehovah will prosper me, since I have a Levite as my priest. 3. The Danite spies at Micah’s sanctuary. Now in those days the tribe of the Danites sought them an inheritance in which to dwell. And the Danites sent five men of their clan from their whole number, valiant men from Zorah and from Eshtaol, to explore the land, and to examine it; and they said to them, Go, examine the land. And they came to the hill-country of Ephraim, to the house of Micah and passed the night there. And when they were near the house of Micah they recognized the voice of the young man, the Levite; so they turned aside there, and said to him, Who brought you here? and what are you doing in this place? and what have you here? And he said to them, Thus and so Micah has done for me, and he has hired me and I have become his priest. And they said to him, Inquire of God, will you, that we may know whether or not our undertaking shall be successful. And the priest said to them, Go in peace: your undertaking is under the care of Jehovah. 4. Favorable report of the spies. Then the five men went on and came to Laish and found the people, who were there, dwelling in security, as do the Sidonians, quiet and not suspicious of danger; for there was no one in the land possessing authority to restrain them from anything, and they were far from the Sidonians and had nothing to do with any one else. Then they came to their kinsmen at Zorah and Eshtaol, and their kinsmen said to them, What is your report? And they said, Arise, and let us go up against them; we have seen the land, and, behold, it is very good, and you are sitting idle. Do not delay to go and to enter in to take possession of the land. When you go, you will come to a people who suspect no danger, and the land is large; for God hath given it into your hand, a place where there is no want of anything that is on the earth. 5. Departure of the Danites. So there set forth from thence of the clan of the Danites, from Zorah and Eshtaol, six hundred men girded with weapons of war. And they went up and encamped near Kiriath-jearim in Judah; hence they call that place Mahaneh-dan [Camp of Dan] to this day; it is west of Kiriath-jearim. And they passed on from there to the hill-country of Ephraim, and came to the house of Micah. 6. Their seizure of Micah’s images and priest. Then the five men, who went to explore the country of Laish, spoke up and said to their kinsmen, Do you know that there is in these houses an ephod, and household gods, and a carved and a molten image? Now therefore decide what you will do. And they turned aside there and came to the house of the young man, the Levite, even the house of Micah, and greeted him. Meanwhile the six hundred men, who were of the Danites, girded with their weapons of war, stood by the entrance of the gate. But the five men who had gone to explore the land went up, entered in there, and took the carved image, and the ephod, and the household gods, and the molten image, while the priest stood by the entrance of the gate with the six hundred men who were girded with weapons of war. And when these went into Micah’s house, and took the carved image, the ephod, and the household gods, and the molten image, the priest said to them, What are you doing? And they said to him, Be still! lay your hand upon your mouth, and go with us, and be a father and a priest to us. Is it better for you to be priest to one man’s household, or to be priest to a tribe and a clan in Israel? And the priest was glad, and he took the ephod, and the household gods, and the carved image and went along with the people. Then they turned and departed, when they had put the little ones and the cattle and the goods before them. 7. Their reply to Micah’s protest. After they had gone some distance from the house of Micah, the men who were in the houses near Micah’s house gathered together and overtook the Danites. And when they shouted to the Danites, they turned about and said to Micah, What is the matter with you that you are out with such a crowd? And he said, You have taken away my gods which I made, and the priest, and are gone away, and what have I left? What do you mean by asking, ‘What is the matter with you?’ And the Danites said to him, Do not let your voice be heard among us, lest some fierce fellows fall upon you and you lose your life, with the lives of your household. Then the Danites went on their way; and, since Micah saw that they were too strong for him, he turned and went back to his house. 8. Capture of Laish. Thus they took that which Micah had made, and the priest whom he had, and came to Laish, to a people living in unsuspecting quiet, and put them to the sword, and burnt the city with fire. And there was no one to give any succor, because it was far from Sidon, and they had no dealings with any one else; and it was in the valley which belongs to Beth-rehob. And they built the city and dwelt in it, and called the name of the city Dan. But the earlier name of the city was Laish. 9. Establishment of the Danite sanctuary. And the Danites set up for themselves the carved image; and Jonathan, the son of Gershom the son of Moses, and his descendants were priests to the tribe of the Danites. So they set up Micah’s graven image which he made, as long as the house of God was in Shiloh. I. Character of the Story. The clearest information regarding the experiences of the tribes in seeking homes in Canaan comes from this ancient story found in the appendix to the book of Judges. Its object is to give the history of the founding of the famous sanctuary at Dan. Its thought and point of view are those of the earliest period of Israel’s history, and the section may be regarded as an almost contemporary picture of the events which it records. II. The Sanctuary of Micah the Ephraimite. The origin of the sanctuary of Micah the Ephraimite was simple but not altogether glorious. The occasion appears to have been the restoration of certain money stolen by Micah from his mother. This money she consecrated to the deity. It was given to a founder, who made a carved and molten image. Ephod in these early narratives is clearly the designation of some form of idol (cf. also § XXXVII 11). Jehovah was the God worshipped at this shrine, but the old heathen symbolism was retained without protest or without any suggestion that it was regarded as illegal. Also the religious head of each tribe or clan was the tribal sheik or the father of the household. It was his privilege, however, to delegate his authority to whomsoever he might select. In this case one of Micah’s sons was at first appointed priest. Later a young Levite from Bethlehem in Judah made a journey through the hill-country of Ephraim and visited the house of Micah. He was forthwith engaged for a stipulated sum to remain in the household of Micah and take charge of the family shrine. The story implies that already the Levites were regarded as especially eligible for this office (cf. further § XXX IV). The subsequent narrative indicates that his primary duty was to give a divine decision or oracle, whenever a question was presented. It is also probable that he acted as guardian of the sanctuary and attended to the details of the sacrifices at the annual feasts, although this function may still have been performed by Micah as head of the household. III. Report of the Danite Spies. Originally the Danites appear to have settled to the southwest of Ephraim. Their territory was therefore constricted by the powerful tribe of Ephraim, pressing them from the east and north, and by the zone of Canaanite cities on the south and by the aggressive Philistines on the plain to the west. Always a comparatively small tribe, they were apparently unable to maintain their position and much less to win the new territory which their increasing numbers required. Accordingly they sent spies to discover a more favorable site. In passing by the sanctuary of Micah, these spies consulted the oracle, and proceeded on their journey assured of Jehovah’s approval. Far in the North, at the foot of Mount Hermon, they found the Canaanite city of Laish. This city had been originally settled by Phoenician colonists, but was so far removed that it received no protection from the parent state. It, therefore, in every way satisfied the requirements of the Danites, and this fact was so reported by their spies. IV. The Plunder of Micah’s Sanctuary. As the Danite warriors set out to conquer the Canaanite city of Laish, one of the spies, without thought of gratitude, suggested that they plunder the sanctuary of Micah, where they had so recently consulted the oracle. The law of might was evidently the only standard recognized by these early warriors, even in dealing with their Israelite kinsmen. The images and the priest were carried away to the North in the face of the unavailing protest of Micah. Arriving at Laish, the city was suddenly attacked, its inhabitants put to death and the town itself burned. On the ruined site they built the famous city of Dan. There, under the shadow of Mount Hermon, amidst the rushing waters which come bubbling up from the roots of the mountain, surrounded by fertile fields and almost tropical vegetation, was reared the famous shrine, which Jeroboam I, after the division of the Hebrew empire, selected as one of his two royal sanctuaries. There were set up the images of Micah the Ephraimite. Jonathan the Levite, the grandson of Moses, was placed in charge, and there his descendants long continued to preside over this northern temple. V. Prevailing Ethical Standards and Religious Ideals. The ethical standards in force during this transitional period of settlement may be inferred from these ancient stories. The murder of a heathen foe was evidently regarded as a virtue rather than a crime. Stealing, even from a member of another Hebrew tribe, was not condemned. The law of might still made right. The sanctity of the marriage relation, however, was carefully guarded. The story of the crime of the Gibeathites, found in the concluding chapters of the book of Judges, shows with what zeal the Hebrews punished the crimes of inhospitality and shameless adultery. A covenant, even with an alien people like the Gibeonites, was sacredly kept. A vow, which was a solemn agreement between an individual and Jehovah, was faithfully discharged even though, as in the story of Jephthah’s daughter, it involved the crime of murder. The old primitive rites, the graven images and the crude paraphernalia of worship still survived; but Jehovah commanded the unquestioning loyalty of every true Israelite. Even though Micah the Ephraimite did not hesitate to steal silver from his own mother, he gladly reared a family shrine for Jehovah, and faithfully provided for the performance of the religious rites connected with it. Thus it is clear that the essence of Israel’s religion during this period was loyalty to Jehovah—a loyalty which chiefly found expression, in accordance with the ancient decalogue, in forms and in ceremonies. The religion of life, and the duties of justice, mercy and love were to be first clearly proclaimed by the prophets of a later age. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 55: 055. XXXV. EXPERIENCES OF THE DIFFERENT TRIBES ======================================================================== §XXXV. EXPERIENCES OF THE DIFFERENT TRIBES Genesis 49:2-27 1. Exordium. Assemble and hear, O sons of Jacob, And listen to Israel your father. 2. Reuben, ruled by ungovernable passions. Reuben thou art my first-born, My strength and the first fruit of my manhood, Pre-eminent in dignity and strength Boiling over like water, thou shalt not be pre-eminent, For thou wentest up to the bed of thy father, Then thou defiledst my couch in going upon it. 3. Simeon and Levi, violent and treacherous. Simeon and Levi are akin, Weapons of violence are their swords, Into their council, O my soul, do not enter, In their assembly, O my heart, do not join. For men in their anger they slew, And oxen in their wantonness they hocked. Accursed is their anger, that it is so fierce, And their wrath because it is so cruel; I will divide them in Jacob And scatter them in Israel. 4. Judah, the ruling tribe, victorious and prosperous. Judah, thy brothers praise thee! Thy hand is on the neck of thy enemies, Before thee thy father’s sons bow down. Judah is a lion’s whelp, From the prey, my son, thou hast gone up. He has crouched, he has lain down as a lion, As an old lion, who will disturb him? The sceptre shall not pass from Judah, Nor the royal staff from between his feet, Until that one comes to whom it belongs, And him the people obey. Binding his foal to the vine, And his ass’s colt to the choice vine, He hath washed his garments in wine, And his clothing in the blood of grapes; His eyes are red with wine, And his teeth are white with milk. 5.Benjamin, famous in war. Benjamin is a ravening wolf, In the morning he devoureth prey, And at evening divideth spoil. 6. Zebulon’s favored situation. Zebulon, by the sea-shore he dwells: He is by a shore that is lined with ships, And his border extends to Sidon. 7. Issachar’s ignominious submission. Issachar, he is a strong-limbed ass, Crouching down between the sheepfolds; And when he saw the resting-place was good, That the land also was pleasant, He bowed his shoulder to bear, And became a slave under a taskmaster. 8. Dan, independent, small, but quick to avenge. Dan is a serpent by the way, A horned-adder beside the path, That biteth the horse’s heel, So that his rider falleth backward. I have waited for thy deliverance, O Jehovah! 9. Gad, exposed but warlike. Gad, robber-bands press upon him, But he also shall press upon their heel. 10. Asher, rich. Asher, his bread is fatness, And he yields royal dainties. 11. Naphtali, flourishing. Naphtali, he is a flourishing terebinth That sends forth beautiful branches. 12. Joseph, valiant and preeminently prosperous. Joseph, he is a fruitful branch, A fruitful branch by a spring, His tendrils run over the wall. They bitterly attack, they shoot at him, The archers hatefully assail him, But his bow remains ever bent, His forearms also are supple, Through the power of the mighty one of Jacob, In the name of the Shepherd of Israel, Even by the God of thy fathers, who ever helpeth thee, And El-Shaddai [God Almighty], who blesseth thee, With blessings of heaven above, And of the great deep that coucheth beneath, With blessings of the breast and womb, With blessings of father and mother, With blessings of the everlasting mountains, With the gifts of the ancient hills! They shall be on the head of Joseph, On the head of the one consecrated among his brothers. I. The So-called Blessing of Jacob. The oldest surviving records of the experiences of the individual tribes during the period of settlement are found in the forty-ninth chapter of Genesis. These consist of ancient tribal songs, loosely joined together. They are appropriately put into the mouth of Jacob-Israel, the traditional father of the twelve tribes of Israel. The aged patriarch is represented as gathering his sons about his death-bed to warn them against their peculiar faults, to reprimand or commend them for their past acts and to predict the future which lay before them. The literary form of these songs is crude, but the figures are strong and rugged. Their spirit is that of the primitive age from which they come. The Judah oracle contains detail references to the rise and victories of the house of David, and therefore in its final form comes from the days of the united Hebrew kingdom. Probably, like the oracles of Balaam, these ancient songs were collected and sung by some court poet in the reign of David or Solomon. II. The Tribe of Reuben. As in the traditions of the North, Reuben is here regarded as the oldest child. This probably reflects the fact that Reuben was the first of the Hebrew tribes to gain a foothold in Palestine, east of the lower Jordan. Reference is made in the poem to the obscure event recorded in Genesis 35:22. The allusion, which may be to an ignominious alliance with some native tribe, is intended to explain why the tribe of Reuben never played an important role among the other tribes of Israel. Apparently from the first its numbers were limited, and its position, with the Moabites on the south, the Ammonites on the east and the aggressive tribe of Gad on the north, gave it little opportunity for expansion. Peace could only be purchased by alliance, which appears in time to have meant practical absorption among the local peoples, so that Reuben early disappears from Hebrew history. III. History of the Tribes of Levi and Simeon. The ancient song of Genesis 49 contributes additional information regarding the mysterious tribe of Levi. This song alludes to the early story of Dinah and Shechem found in Genesis 34. Obviously, that ancient tradition deals with experiences of tribes rather than with those of individuals. Shechem continued to be a strong Canaanite city almost to the close of the period of settlement. The fact that the tribes of Simeon and Levi are classified as the sons of Jacob’s first wife, Leah, perhaps suggests that they penetrated into central Canaan before the other tribes. The narrative in Genesis 34 clearly indicates that at a very early period these tribes made a close alliance with the Canaanites at Shechem. In time, however, perhaps because of the religious zeal of the Levites, they repudiated this covenant and slew many of the people of Shechem. This act is regarded with horror both in the ancient song of Genesis 49 and in the prose narrative of Genesis 34. An overwhelming judgment was visited upon them by the outraged Canaanites. This early incident furnishes the most satisfactory explanation of the fact that these tribes were scattered and in later history have no definite place of abode. IV. The Peculiar Position of the Levites. In time the sons of Levi appear as the guardians of the different sanctuaries throughout the land of Israel. Even down in the days of Josiah the terms priest and son of Levi are synonymous. In the later Northern Israelite account of the making of the golden calf is found another comparatively early reference to the Levites. When Moses returned from the mount of revelation, and in the name of Jehovah condemned the idolatry of the people, the Levites alone of all the Israelites, ignoring the bonds of kinship, rose and slew their guilty fellow Israelites. These different traditions present great difficulties, and yet suggest the early history of the Levites. The statement in the story of the Danites, that Jonathan, the Levite, was a descendant of Moses, confirms the testimony of the later traditions that Moses belonged to the tribe of Levi. Already in the days of Micah the Ephraimite, the Levites evidently enjoyed a certain prestige and were looked upon as the divinely chosen guardians of even the local family sanctuaries. The most natural explanation of this fact is that they were of the same clan as Israel’s great prophetic leader. Their close connection with Moses best explains the fierce zeal which they showed in combatting apostasy and the alliances with the heathen Canaanites. If the testimony of Genesis 34 has been rightly interpreted, this fierce religious zeal further explains, not only why they were scattered, but also why they were regarded from the first as especially fitted to take charge of Jehovah’s oracles and sanctuaries. In later times all priests in charge of local shrines were designated as sons of Levi. In many cases they were probably lineal descendants of the ancient tribe. In other cases the term son of Levi may have simply become a designation of a class, and therefore similar to such titles as sons of the prophets or sons of the goldsmiths. When in the days of Josiah the high places outside of Jerusalem were declared illegal and all religion was centralized at the temple of Solomon, the descendants of those who had ministered at the Jerusalem sanctuary were known as priests, and the ancient designation sons of Levi was limited to those connected with the older local shrines. V. The Tribes of the South. In the ancient poem, Judah is recognized as the leading tribe of the South. The rise of the house of David and its victorious conquests are clearly portrayed. This oracle and those attributed to Balaam (§ XXIX) represent the beginning of that series of predictions which were intended to exalt the glories and achievements of Judah’s reigning house. The type of agricultural prosperity peculiar to vine-clad Judah is also pictured in a variety of striking figures: wine and milk are so plentiful that they are used as freely as water. The warlike clan of Benjamin is likened to a ravening wolf growling over its prey. The poet probably had in mind the valiant deeds of the Israelites under the leadership of the Benjamite Saul. VI. The Northern Tribes. Originally the tribe of Zebulun appears to have dwelt west of the plain of Esdraelon, along the shore of the modern Bay of Haifa. Issachar, on the northeastern side of the plain of Esdraelon, along the valley of the Jordan, occupied one of the garden spots of Palestine. The ancient song states that, although the tribe was strong in numbers and resources, in order to retain its place during the earlier part of the period of the Judges it was obliged to submit to Canaanite bondage. Little Dan, far to the north, away from the other tribes, open to attack, especially from the east, simply by its courage and warlike skill maintained its position against all intruders. The tribe of Gad, likewise on the borderland of Israel, was constantly exposed to the attack of wandering Arabs, as well as to encroachments of its Moabite foes immediately to the south. The tribe of Asher, long intrenched in the land and probably containing a very large Canaanite element, enjoyed quiet and prosperity in its home to the northwest on the uplands east of Phoenicia. Naphtali, in its fertile territory west of the Jordan, is likened to one of the flourishing, sturdy terebinths, or oaks, which in ancient times imparted greenness and beauty to the Palestinian landscape. VII. The Tribe of Joseph. The poem culminates in a description of the tribe of Joseph. No mention is made by name of the sub-tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh which Joseph represents. The fertility of their territory, bounded on the north by the plain of Esdraelon, on the east by the Jordan, and extending westward to the maritime plain, is described in luxuriant figures. The strong tribe of Joseph is likened to a fruitful vine, whose roots are supplied with never-failing water, and whose tendrils run in every direction in rich profusion. Attacks from Philistine foes on the west and Ammonite and other desert foes on the east are suggested; but, like a mighty warrior, this powerful tribe of central Israel, conscious of Jehovah’s strength and guidance, is represented as defeating and repelling them all. Upon the head of Joseph descends in superlative measure the richest gifts that Nature can bestow—indubitable evidences to the ancient mind of Jehovah’s favor. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 56: 056. XXXVI. THE GREAT VICTORY OVER THE CANAANITES ======================================================================== § XXXVI. THE GREAT VICTORY OVER THE CANAANITES Judges 4 1. Deborah’s message to Barak. Now Deborah, a prophetess, the wife of Lappidoth, sent and summoned Barak the son of Abinoam from Kadesh Naphtali, and said to him, Doth not Jehovah, the God of Israel, command, ‘Go and proceed to Mount Tabor, and take with thee ten thousand men of the Naphtalites and of the Zebulunites? And I will entice out to thee at the river Kishon, Sisera, with his chariots and his troops, and will deliver him into thy hand’. And Barak said to her, If you will go with me, I will go; but if you will not go with me, I will not go. And she said, I will certainly go with you; only you will not have the glory in this enterprise on which you are embarking; for Jehovah will sell Sisera into the power of a woman. So Deborah arose, and went with Barak to Kadesh. And Barak called Zebulun and Naphtali together at Kadesh; and ten thousand men followed after him. 2. Heber the Kenite. Now Heber the Kenite had separated himself from the Kenites, from the children of Hobab the father-in-law of Moses, and had pitched his tent as far away as the oak of Bezaananaim, which is by Kadesh. 3. The battle and de feat of the Canaanites. And they told Sisera that Barak the son of Abinoam had gone up to Mount Tabor. Then Sisera gathered together all his chariots, nine hundred chariots of iron, and all the people he had from Harosheth of the Gentiles, to the river Kishon. Thereupon Deborah said to Barak, Arise! for this is the day in which Jehovah hath delivered Sisera into your hand. Hath not Jehovah gone out before you? So Barak went down from Mount Tabor, with ten thousand men following him. Then Jehovah threw Sisera and all his chariots, and all his host into confusion at the onslaught of Barak’s swordsmen, and Sisera dismounted from his chariot, and fled on foot. But Barak pursued the chariots and the host to Harosheth of the Gentiles; and all the host of Sisera was put to the sword; not a single man was left. 4. Death of Sisera at the hands of Jael. But Sisera fled on foot to the tent of Jael the wife of Heber the Kenite; for there was peace between him and the house of Heber the Kenite. And Jael went out to meet Sisera, and said to him, Turn in, my lord, turn in to me; do not be afraid. So he turned aside to her and went into the tent, and she covered him with a rug. And he said to her, Give me, I pray, a little water to drink, for I am thirsty. So, opening the milk-skin, she gave him a drink, and covered him. Then he said to her, Stand in the door of the tent, and if any one comes and inquires of you, ‘Is there any one here?’ say, ‘No.’ But Jael, Heber’s wife, took a tentpin and took a hammer in her hand, and went stealthily to him and drove the pin into his temples, so that it went through into the ground; for he was fast asleep and weary; so he died. And just then Barak appeared in pursuit of Sisera. And Jael went out to meet him and said to him, Come, I will show you the man whom you are seeking. And he went in with her; and there Sisera lay dead, with the tent-pin in his temples. 5. Introduction to the triumphal ode. Then they sang this song on that day: That the leaders took the lead in Israel, That the people volunteered readily, Bless Jehovah! Hear, O kings, Give ear, O rulers. I myself, yea, I will sing to Jehovah, I will sing praise to Jehovah the God of Israel. 6. Jehovah’s advent. Jehovah, when thou wentest forth from Seir, When thou marchedst from the land of Edom, The earth trembled violently; The heavens also dripped, Yea, the clouds dropped water; The mountains quaked before Jehovah, Yon Sinai, before Jehovah the God of Israel. 7. Conditions before the war. In the days of Shamgar, the son of Anath, In the days of Jael, the highways were unused, And travellers walked by round-about paths. The rulers ceased in Israel, they ceased, Until thou, Deborah, didst arise, Until thou didst arise a mother in Israel. A shield was not seen in five cities, Nor a spear among forty thousand. 8. Present causes for thanks giving. My heart is with the commanders of Israel, Who volunteered readily among the people; Bless Jehovah! You who ride on tawny asses, Who sit on rich saddle-cloths, And you who walk by the way, proclaim it. Far from the sound of the division of spoil, In the places where water is drawn, There let them rehearse the righteous acts of Jehovah, Even the righteous acts of his rule in Israel. 9. The rally about Deborah and Barak. Then the people of Jehovah went down to the gates [crying], ‘Arise, arise, Deborah, Arise, arise, strike up the song! Arise, Barak, be strong, Take thy captives, son of Abinoam!’ So a remnant went down against the powerful, The people of Jehovah against the mighty: From Ephraim they rushed into the valley, Thy brother Benjamin among thy peoples; From Machir went down commanders, And from Zebulun those who carry the marshal’s staff. And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah; And Naphtali was even so with Barak, Into the valley they rushed forth at his back. 10. The cowards who remained at home. By the brooks of Reuben great were the resolves! Why didst thou sit amongst the sheepfolds, Listening to the pipings of the flocks? By the brooks of Reuben there were great questionings! Gilead remained beyond Jordan; And Dan, why does he stay by the ships as an alien? Asher sits still by the shore of the sea, And remains by its landing places. 11. The battle by the Kishon. Zebulun was a people who exposed themselves to deady peril, And Naphtali on the heights of the open field. Kings came, they fought; They fought, the kings of Canaan, At Taanach by the waters of Megiddo; They took no booty of silver. From heaven fought the stars, From their courses fought against Sisera. The river Kishon swept them away, The ancient river, the river Kishon. O my soul, march on with strength! Then did the horse-hoofs resound With the galloping, galloping of their steeds. 12. The cowardly people of Meroz. Curse Meroz, said the Messenger of Jehovah, Curse bitterly its inhabitants; For they came not to the help of Jehovah, To the help of Jehovah against the mighty. 13. Jael’s brave act. Blessed above women shall Jael be, That wife of Heber the Kenite, Blessed above all nomad women! Water he asked, milk she gave; Curdled milk she brought him in a bowl fit for lords. She put her hand to the tent-pin, Even her right hand to the workman’s hammer; And she struck Sisera, she crushed his head, She shattered, she pierced his temple. At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay still, At her feet he bowed, he fell; Where he bowed, there he fell a victim slain. 14. The anxiety in Sisera’s palace. Through the window peered and loudly cried The mother of Sisera, through the lattice; ‘Why is his chariot so long in coming? Why tarry the hoof-beats of his chariotry?’ The wisest of her ladies answered her, Yea, she herself answered her question, ‘Are they not indeed finding, dividing the spoil? A woman or two for each of the warriors; For Sisera a spoil of dyed stuffs, A spoil of dyed stuffs embroidered, A piece or two of embroidery for his neck? 15. Eologu. So shall all thine enemies perish, O Jehovah; But they who love him shall be as the sun, rising in its invincible splendor. I. The Prose and Poetic Versions of the Story. The importance of the event has led the early compiler of Judges to preserve not only the prose account but also the ancient poem which commemorates the great victory over the Canaanites. Instead of blending the two accounts he has introduced them, the one after the other. The prose version evidently comes from the Northern Israelite history. With this version has been combined another tradition of a great victory over the Canaanites led by Jabin, king of Hazor (cf. for a fuller version Joshua 11:1-15). In certain details, the two accounts of the victory over Sisera differ, as for example, concerning the tribes from which Deborah and Barak came; but in general the prose story and the poem are in close agreement, and supplement each other at many points. The poetic version is one of the oldest and noblest examples of early Hebrew poetry. In vigor and vividness it is unsurpassed. Some of its language is archaic, and the poem has suffered greatly in transmission; but with the aid of later texts it can for the most part be restored. In a series of vivid pictures it presents the different scenes in the great conflict. The reader is made at once an interested spectator of the succeeding events. He feels the importance of the great crisis; he sees the clans rally about the tribal chieftains; he hears the shock of battle and the pounding of the hoofs of the Canaanite chariot horses; with exultation he follows the flight of the terror-stricken Canaanites. He burns with indignation at the cowardice of the people of Meroz, and exults over the bloody deed of Jael, the wife of Heber the Kenite. With mingled pity and thanksgiving, he listens to the pathetic questions of Sisera’s mother, as she waits for the return of the Canaanite leader. The later tradition embodied in the superscription attributed the poem to Deborah and Barak. The way in which they are addressed in the poem and the prominence given to their achievements imply that it was composed not by Deborah and Barak themselves but by some gifted contemporary. The emphasis given to the achievements of Deborah and Jael, and the interest in the feelings of the mother of Sisera, as she sits surrounded by her maidens, strongly suggest the feminine point of view. It is exceedingly probable that a song like this was sung by the women of Israel, as they went out to greet the conquering heroes. It is similar in general theme, spirit and setting to the song which the women of Israel sang at a later time, when Saul and David returned from a memorable victory over the Philistines (cf. § XLIII). II. The Historical Situation. The song gives a glimpse of conditions in Canaan before the battle. In point of numbers and material strength the Canaanites surpassed the Hebrews. They were also in possession of the strategic points. The broad zone of Canaanite cities, which began with Bethshean on the east, and extended across the plain of Esdraelon to Megiddo and Dor on the west, completely separated the Hebrews of central Canaan from those in the north. All the important cities in the north still remained in the hands of the Canaanites. Only the intervening territory was held by the Israelites, who probably still followed their flocks and lived in tents or rude huts. Each family or clan lived apart by itself, meeting single-handed its peculiar dangers and problems. A few tribal sheiks, like Gideon, doubtless enjoyed a reputation which extended beyond the limits of their tribe. The He brews were weak, not so much because they were lacking in courage or skill in warfare, but because there was no strong leader or bond to unite them. In the presence of a coalition of Canaanite cities, which had apparently been formed by Sisera because of the fear inspired by the rapidly increasing numbers and strength of the Hebrews, the latter seemed helpless. This was another of those great crises which characterize Israel’s history. If these scattered Hebrew tribes had been subdued and assimilated by the Canaanites, the work of Moses would have been in vain. Even when the Hebrews conquered the Canaanites, they were able to resist only in part the seductive influences of the Canaanite civilization and religion. As serfs of the Canaanites, without unity or leadership, it is difficult to conceive how they could have maintained their loyalty to Jehovah. III. Deborah, the Prophetess. The situation called for a leader with prophetic insight to rally the Hebrews and inspire them to united action. That leader the Hebrews found in Deborah, who is rightly called, in the later tradition, a prophetess. This tradition suggests that she already enjoyed a wide reputation. Like Samuel, the seer of Ramah, she appears to have been often consulted, as Jehovah’s representative, on questions of personal and private import. Her title, prophetess, rests, however, on higher grounds. Like the prophets of earlier and later times, she appreciated the significance of the great crisis and saw clearly what the needs of the situation required. More than that, she knew how to act. Like Samuel at a later time, she did not herself take the sword, but found a man who already enjoyed the confidence of his people, and was fitted to lead them to victory. Together Barak, the northern chieftain, and Deborah, the prophetess, rallied the tribes of central Israel. IV. The Rally of the Tribes. In certain ways the conditions that confronted Deborah were similar to those which the earlier prophet, Moses, found in the land of Egypt. The danger of being reduced to serfdom and the common need of deliverance were powerful bonds with which to bind the Hebrews together. Deborah, however, like Moses, appealed to a higher motive. The war cry which she sent forth by messengers throughout the land of Canaan, appears to have been, “Come up to the help of Jehovah against the mighty.” This appeal suggested the great need. At the same time it appealed to the courage and warlike spirit of the bravest in Israel. It recalled the achievements of the past. Above all, it challenged them to prove by deed their loyalty to the God of their race. Before Canaan could become Jehovah’s land, it must be conquered by his chosen people. Thus they were called to fight, not merely for their freedom and their homes, but for the glory of their God. With this challenge came the assurance that Jehovah would not fail them in this great crisis in their history, for the voice that called them was the voice of his prophetess, Deborah. In response to this call, all the important tribes of central Canaan rallied about their tribal leaders. From the north came Barak, followed by the clansmen of Naphtali and Zebulun. With Deborah came the chieftains of Issachar. From the south came the tribesmen of Ephraim and Benjamin, and from across the Jordan, warriors from the powerful clan of Machir. Certain outlying tribes, like those of Reuben and Gilead, felt the call of duty, but preferred to remain beside their flocks. In the northwest the tribes of Dan and Asher, closely affiliated with their Phoenician neighbors, were intent only on their own selfish interests. It is also significant that the tribes of Judah, Simeon and Levi are not even mentioned. Apparently they were so far separated from the tribes of the north by the wall of Canaanite cities and by diversity of interests that they were not reckoned as a part of Israel. V. The Battle. The Hebrews appear to have rallied near Mount Tabor. Thence they marched southward along the broad valley which leads to the plain of Esdraelon. The Canaanites evidently chose this wide, level plain as the battle-field, for there their chariots could readily manœuvre. Although they had all the advantages of superior military equipment and resources, they lacked what the Hebrews alone possessed: courage, faith and religious enthusiasm. The description at the beginning of the poem of Jehovah’s advent, riding on the storm clouds and heralded by the reverberating thunder, and the statement that the stars fought from heaven against Sisera indicate that, while the battle was in progress, a heavy storm swept across the plain. Ordinarily the Kishon is an insignificant, slow-flowing creek, but as the poem distinctly states, it suddenly became a raging torrent. A heavy fall of rain would quickly transform the alluvial soil of the plain into a muddy marsh making the manoeuvres of the chariot practically impossible. With marvellous skill, the poet has brought out in the Hebrew the sound of the plunging of the horses’ hoofs in the miry soil. To the minds of the Hebrews such a storm was clearest evidence that Jehovah was present and fighting for his people. In the hearts of the cowardly Canaanices it evidently struck dismay and terror. In mad flight they rushed into the muddy Kishon and were swept down toward the sea. The few who did escape would have been cut off, had the inhabitants of the Meroz been responsive to their opportunity and “come up to the help of Jehovah against the mighty.” VI. The Fate of Sisera. Sisera, the commander of the Canaanites, fled northward alone, and finally sought rood and refuge in the tent of a certain Heber. This Heber belonged to a clan of the wandering Kenites from whence came Moses’ wife. These Kenite clans frequently figured in the history of the Hebrews during the wilderness and settlement periods. They appear to have moved northward with the Israelites, and were evidently in sympathy with them. With a courage which is rare, even among women brought up amidst the hardships of nomadic life, Jael, the wife of Heber, actively espoused the cause of the Hebrews. According to the ancient poem she brought, in response to Sisera’s re quest for water, a bowl of curdled milk, and apparently when he was about to drink, she dealt him a fatal blow with the hammer which she held in her right hand. Thus was visited upon Sisera the most ignominious fate known to the ancient East—death at the hand of a woman. The magnitude of the disaster is brought out in bold relief by the monologue on the lips of Sisera’s mother. Instead of the victor laden with spoils, there came to her in time the knowledge of the overwhelming defeat that had overtaken her son, and the shame and ignominy of the conquered. VII. The Significance of the Victory. Evidently the victory on the plain of Esdraelon gave to the Hebrews for the first time undisputed possession of central Canaan. It was the great decisive battle of Hebrew history. Henceforth the Canaanites ceased to be a barrier to the growth of the Hebrew nation. From this time on in the north the process of assimilating the older Canaanite population went on rapidly. From the Canaanites the Hebrews learned the arts of agriculture and civilization, and soon left far behind the rude habits of the wilderness. They also adopted the Canaanite sanctuaries and many of the rites and religious institutions which had grown up about these sacred places. The victory over the Canaanites also demonstrated to the Hebrews the necessity and advantages of united action. In a later period of adversity they could not fail to recall that, when they had laid aside their tribal jealousies and fought shoulder to shoulder, they had proved invincible. The experience, therefore, pointed clearly to that united Hebrew kingdom, which later rose out of the midst of cruel foreign oppression. Above all, the Hebrews learned again the great lesson that in the time of their supreme need the God, who had led them forth from the land of Egypt, was still present to deliver. Thus it was that in the school of actual experience Israel’s faith was developed. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 57: 057. XXXVII. REIGNS OF GIDEON AND HIS SON ABIMELECH ======================================================================== § XXXVII. REIGNS OF GIDEON AND HIS SON ABIMELECH Judges 6-9 1. The Midianite oppression. In time it came to pass that, when Israel had sown, the Midianites would come up, and leave no sustenance in Israel, neither sheep nor ox nor ass. For they would come up with their cattle and their tents. And Israel was greatly impoverished because of Midian. 2. Gideon’s call to repel the Midianites. Then the Messenger of Jehovah came and sat down under the oak which was in Ophrah, that belonged to Joash the Abiezrite; and his son Gideon was beating out wheat in the wine-press, to hide it from the Midianites. And the Messenger of Jehovah appeared to him, and said to him, Jehovah is with you, valiant warrior! And Gideon said to him, O, my Lord, if Jehovah is with us, why then has all this befallen us? But now Jehovah hath cast us off and delivered us into the hand of Midian. Then Jehovah turned to him and said, Go in this might of thine and save Israel from the power of Midian; have I not sent thee? But he said to him, O, Lord, how shall I save Israel? Behold, my family is the poorest in Manasseh, and I am the most insignificant in my father’s house. And Jehovah said to him, Surely I will be with thee, and thou shalt smite the Midianites as one man. 3. The divine sign. Then he said to him, If now I have found favor in thy sight, then show me a sign that it is thou who art talking with me. Do not go from here, I pray, until I come to thee, and bring forth my present and lay it before thee. And he said, I will wait until thou comest back. So Gideon went in and prepared a kid, and unleavened cakes of about a bushel of flour; he put the flesh in a basket, and the broth in a pot, and brought out to him under the oak, and presented it. And the Messenger of God said to him, Take the flesh and the unleavened cakes, and lay them upon this rock, and pour out the broth. And he did so. Then the Messenger of Jehovah reached out the end of the staff which was in his hand, and touched the flesh and the unleavened cakes, and fire went up out of the rock and consumed the flesh and the unleavened cakes. Then the Messenger of Jehovah vanished from his sight. So Gideon saw that it had been the Messenger of Jehovah; and Gideon said, Alas, O Lord Jehovah! for I have seen the Messenger of Jehovah face to face! But Jehovah said to him, Peace be to thee; do not be afraid; thou shalt not die. Then Gideon built an altar there to Jehovah, and called it Jehovah-shalom [Jehovah is well-disposed]. Even to the present day it is still in Ophrah of the Abiezrites. 4. The rally. And the Spirit of Jehovah came upon Gideon and he blew a trumpet, and Abiezer assembled under his leadership. 5. The refusal of Succoth and Penuel to furnish food. And Gideon came to the Jordan, and passed over, he and the three hundred men who were with him, faint, yet pursuing. And he said to the men of Succoth, Give, I pray you, loaves of bread to the people who follow me; for they are faint and I am pursuing after Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian. But the princes of Succoth said, Are Zebah and Zalmunna already in your hand that we should give bread to your army? Then Gideon said, Therefore, when Jehovah hath delivered Zebah and Zalmunna into my hand, I will thresh your flesh with thorns of the wilderness and with briers. And he went up from there to Penuel, and made the same request of them; and the men of Penuel gave the same answer as the men of Succoth. Then he said also to the men of Penuel, When I come back victorious, I will break down this tower. 6. Gideon’s strategy. Now Zebah and Zalmunna were in Karkor, and their hosts with them, about fifteen thousand men. And Gideon went up by the caravan road east of Nobah and Jogbehah, and attacked the host, as it lay without fear of attack. And he divided the three hundred men into three companies and gave them empty jars with torches within the jars. And he said, Look at me and do as I do, and say, ‘For Jehovah and Gideon.’ So Gideon and the hundred men with him came to the camp in the beginning of the middle watch, when it had just been set, and broke in pieces the jars in their hands. And the three companies broke their jars, and took the torches in their left hands and their swords in their right and cried, For Jehovah and Gideon. And the entire host awakened and they sounded the alarm and fled. 7. His capture of the chiefs. Zebah and Zalmunna also fled; but he pursued them and captured the two kings of Midian, Zebah and Zalmunna, and threw all the host into a panic. 8. His punishment of Succoth and Penuel. Then Gideon the son of Joash returned from the battle from the ascent of Heres. And he captured a young man of the men of Succoth, and inquired of him, and the young man gave him a list of the princes of Succoth, and its elders, seventy-seven men. And when he came to the men of Succoth, he said, Behold Zebah and Zalmunna concerning whom you taunted me, saying, ‘Are Zebah and Zalmunna already in your power that we should give bread to your men who are weary?’ Then he took the elders of the city, and thorns of the wilderness and briers, and he threshed the men of Succoth upon them. He also broke down the tower of Penuel, and slew the men of the city. 9. Blood-vengeance upon the Midianite chiefs. Then said he to Zebah and Zalmunna, What kind of men were they whom you slew at Tabor? And they answered, As you are, so were they; each one resembled the children of a king. And he said, They were my brothers, the sons of my mother. As Jehovah liveth, if you had saved them alive, I would not slay you now. Then he said to Jether his first-born, Up and slay them. But the youth did not draw his sword, because he was afraid, since he was yet a youth. Then Zebah and Zalmunna said, Rise yourself and fall upon us; for a man has a man’s strength. So Gideon arose and slew Zebah and Zalmunna, and took the crescents that were on their camels’ necks. 10. Offer of the kingship to Gideon. Then the men of Israel said to Gideon, Rule over us, both you and your son, and your son’s son also; for you have saved us from the hand of Midian. But Gideon said to them, I will not rule over you, neither shall my son rule over you; Jehovah shall rule over you. 11. Origin of the idol in Gideon’s capital, Ophrah. And Gideon said to [the Abiezrites], I will make a request of you, that you give me every man the ear-rings from his spoil. (For they had golden earrings because they were Ishmaelites). And they answered, We will willingly give them. So they spread a garment, and each man cast into it the ear-rings from his spoil. And the weight of the golden ear-rings for which he had asked was seventeen hundred shekels of gold; besides the crescents, and the pendants, and the purple raiment that was on the kings of Midian, and besides the chains which were about their camels’ necks. And Gideon made it into an ephod, and put it in his city Ophrah. 12. Reign and family of Gideon. And Gideon had seventy sons, for he had many wives. And his concubine, who was in Shechem, also bore him a son, and he called his name Abimelech. And Gideon, the son of Joash, died in a good old age, and was buried in the sepulchre of Joash, his father, in Ophrah of the Abiezrites. 13. Abimelech’s assumption of the kingship. And Abimelech the son of Jerubbaal went to Shechem to his mother’s kinsmen, and spoke to them, and to all the clan of the house of his mother’s father, saying, Put this question to all the citizens of Shechem, ‘Which is better for you, that seventy persons should rule over you—all sons of Jerubbaal—or that one should rale over you?’ Remember too that I am your bone and fiesh. So his mother’s kinsmen spoke all these words concerning him in the hearing of all the men of Shechem; and they were inclined to follow Abimelech; for they said, He is our kinsman. And they gave him seventy shekels of silver from the house of Baal-berith, with which Abimelech hired worthless and reckless fellows, who followed him. And he went to his father’s house at Ophrah, and slew his brothers, the sons of Jerubbaal, seventy men on one stone; but Jotham the youngest son of Jerubbaal was left; for he hid himself. . . . 14. Rebellion of the Shechemites. And Gaal the son of Ebed came with his kinsmen and went over to Shechem; and the men of Shechem put confidence in him. They then held festival, and went into the house of their god, and ate and drank, and cursed Abimelech. And Gaal the son of Ebed said, Who is Abimelech, and who are the Shechemites that we should serve him? Is not he the son of Jerubbaal? and is not Zebul his officer? Be subject to the people of Hamor, the father of Shechem; for why should we be subject to him? Would that this people were under my authority! then would I remove Abimelech. And he said to Abimelech, Increase your army and come out. 15. Zebul’s warning and advice to Abimelech. And when Zebul the governor of the city heard the words of Gaal the son of Ebed, his anger was aroused. And he sent messengers to Abimelech at Arumah, saying, Behold, Gaal the son of Ebed and his kinsmen have come to Shechem, and now they are stirring the city to revolt against you. Now therefore, arise by night, you and the people who are with you, and lie in wait in the fields; and in the morning as soon as the sun is up, rise early and rush upon the city; and, behold, when he and the people who are with him come out against you, you can do to him as opportunity offers. 16. Abimelech’s attack and defeat of the rebels. So they laid wait against Shechem in four companies. And when Gaal the son of Ebed went out and stood in the entrance of the gate of the city, Abimelech rose up with the people who were with him, from the place of ambush. Then, when Gaal saw the people, he said to Zebul, Behold, people are coming down from the tops of the mountains. But Zebul said to him, It is the shadow of the mountains that you see as if they were men. But Gaal said again, See there are people coming down from beside the hill, and one company is coming by the way of the Diviner’s Tree. Then Zebul said to him, Where is now the boast which you made, ‘Who is Abimelech that we should serve him?’ is not this the people whom you despised? Go out now, I pray, and fight with them. Then Gaal went out before the men of Shechem, and fought with Abimelech. And Abimelech pursued him, and he fled before him, and there fell many wounded, even to the entrance of the gate. But Abimelech continued to live at Arumah, while Zebul drove out Gaal and his kinsmen, that they should not dwell in Shechem. 17. Abimelech’s ignominious death. Then Abimelech went to Thebez, and encamped against Thebez and captured it. But there was a strong tower within the city, and thither all the men and women fled, and all the people of the city, and shut themselves in and went up to the roof of the tower. And Abimelech came to the tower, and fought against it, and was drawing near to the door of the tower to burn it with fire, when a certain woman threw an upper mill-stone on Abimelech’s head, and crushed his skull. Then he called quickly to the young man, his armorbearer, and said to him, Draw your sword and kill me, that men may not say of me, A woman killed him. So his young man ran him through and he died. And when the men of Israel saw that Abimelech was dead, they departed every man to his home. 18. Moral of the story. Thus God brought home to Abimelech the crime which he committed against his father, in slaying his seventy brothers. I. The Two Accounts. The evidence that there are two parallel accounts of the founding of Gideon’s kingdom has long been recognized by biblical scholars. In the one version Gideon is a religious reformer rather than a warrior. He is represented as first destroying the altar of Baal and then as rallying several of the tribes against the Midianites. The three hundred men who ultimately follow him are the eager warriors, who in their zeal stop only to lap up the water with their hands, as they rush out in pursuit of the enemy. In what is evidently the older version, the immediate cause of the pursuit was the slaying of Gideon’s brothers by the Midianites. The motive which impelled him, therefore, was the most sacred obligation in early Semitic life, the law of blood-revenge. Already he was a famous warrior, and the three hundred who followed him were the members of his own clan of Abiezer. Two distinct and yet complete accounts of the reign of Abimelech are also found in the ninth chapter of Judges. In general these two versions are in agreement, but in details there are wide variations. The one clearly comes from Northern Israel and the other from Southern Israel. Of these two, the Judean as usual, is evidently the older and more historical, although together they give a very definite and reliable account of these important events of the reign. II. The Historical Situation. Evidently the Hebrews are already masters of central Canaan. Deborah and Barak, however, have passed away, and there is no organized government binding the different tribes together. The result is that the Hebrews are an easy prey to the at tacks of different marauding tribes that come in from the desert. Like the inhabitants of the outlying districts of Palestine to-day, the different villages and clans submit to robbery, and doubtless pay tribute rather than resort to the sword in protecting their rights. Above all, they lack a determined leader to take the initiative in repelling the robber attacks. The Midianites figure in early Hebrew history as wandering tribes, living to the southeast and east of Palestine. Possibly the attacking tribe had followed in the wake of the Hebrew advance from the east-Jordan. They approached from the point where the plain of Jezreel runs down to the Jordan, and closely connects central Canaan with the headlands of Moab and the desert beyond. Their systematic attack had continued for some years; but there would have been no effective resistance had not a certain Midianite band killed the brothers of Gideon. III. Gideon’s Call. The solemn obligation of blood-revenge was clearly the chief motive which influenced Gideon to rally his clansmen and attack the Midianites. The early Judean narrative adds, what is doubtless true, that he was also inspired by patriotic and religious zeal. The earliest account of his call is exceedingly graphic. As in the stories of Abraham, a divine Messenger, subsequently identified with Jehovah himself, commands him as a valiant warrior to go forth and save Israel from the power of Midian. Like Abraham of old, he also prepares a meal for the divine guest. The Messenger, however, does not taste the food but touches it with the end of his staff so that it is con sumed by fire. The incident is exceedingly instructive, for it vividly illustrates the primitive idea of sacrifice. The food which Gideon pro vides is that which he would set before any guest, whether human or divine. Even so in later times, the Hebrews brought the best products of the field and flock, and at the annual festivals set them before Jehovah as a sacred meal. Part they ate themselves, and the part intended especially for Jehovah they burned with fire. Thus, according to their thought, they renewed their covenant, as they ate the sacrificial meal, sharing it with their divine guest. The older belief that at times the god or gods came down in bodily form and ate the food which was set before them, was crude and childlike; but the deeper conviction that Jehovah was ever present in the joyful, as well as the solemn experiences of life, anticipates the profoundest doctrine of modern philosophy. Later Judaism lost sight of this belief in the immediate presence of God. Jesus, standing on the high vantage ground attained by the earlier prophets, restored it to the race. Back of the early story of Gideon’s call lies the fact that, like all the great leaders of Israel’s history, he was raised up not by chance but in accordance with the divine purpose to do a great work for his people. Again the need found the man, and under the influence of the divine spirit he undertook the important task intrusted to him. IV. The Pursuit of the Midianites. Gideon’s native city, Ophrah, appears to have been situated eight or ten miles northeast of Shechem, at the head of the modern Wadi Farah, the chief western confluent of the Jordan. Along this valley, which leads directly to the Jordan, Gideon led his three hundred clansmen. Across the Jordan the two Israelite towns of Succoth and Penuel, beside the Jabbok, refused to give bread to Gideon and his followers. The reason for their refusal was evidently because they feared the Midianites, to whom they doubt less paid an annual tribute that they might enjoy immunity from attack. Vowing vengeance, Gideon pressed on in hot pursuit and overtook the Midianites, encamped at night beside the caravan route, out on the borders of the desert. V. Gideon’s Vengeance Upon His Foes. Two accounts of the method of attack have evidently been closely blended. In the older account Gideon employed a very effective strategy. The attack was made at midnight when the Midianites, after their long journey, were wrapped in deep sleep. Doubtless the fear of blood-revenge had hastened their flight and increased their weariness. Dividing his follow ers into three companies, he provided all his men with empty jars in which were placed lighted torches. In their right hands they carried swords ready for the attack. At the given signal the war cry, “For Jehovah and Gideon,” was raised, and the jars were suddenly broken revealing to the awakening Midianites what seemed to them to be a vast host. Terror seized these cowardly desert robbers, and they were soon in flight, pursued by the Hebrew warriors. The two Midianite chieftains were brought back captive by Gideon. He first executed his threat of vengeance upon the inhospitable towns of Succoth and Penuel, and then discharged the obligation imposed by the law of blood-revenge, slaying with his own hand these robber foes who had killed his brothers. VI. Gideon’s Sanctuary and Rule. Gideon’s valiant act revealed a strong and able deliverer. His rigorous treatment of his foes demon strated his ability to rule in an age when might largely made right. Ac cordingly he was asked by his own tribesmen, not only to rule over them, but also to transmit his authority to his descendants. This simple request and Gideon’s compliance mark the all important transition from the ephemeral rule of local tribesmen and deliverers to the king ship and a permanent central authority. To establish his rule, Gideon caused an ephod to be made from the spoils of gold and silver captured from the Midianites. This image was set up in his capital Ophrah. Like the later temple of Solomon at Jerusalem, the royal shrine thus established undoubtedly strengthened the authority of the new dynasty. Gideon also made many marriages with the daughters of the neighboring sheiks. Among these was a certain Canaanite woman from the town of Shechem. Thus it would seem that by the prestige of his sword and by intermarriage he extended his authority and built up a little kingdom in the heart of central Israel. VII. Abimelech’s Conspiracy. Gideon’s kingdom, like that of David, suffered from the baneful effects of polygamy. At the death of his father, Abimelech, the worst of Gideon’s seventy sons, slew his brothers, and, with the aid of the Shechemites, succeeded to the kingship. From this early narrative it is clear that Hebrews and Canaanites lived together side by side in this ancient city. Apparently the worshippers of Jehovah and of the local Canaanite Baal had so far affiliated that they also worshipped in the same sanctuary, which bore the significant name, Baal of the Covenant. Abimelech himself was a product of that process of assimilation which continued for the next century or two, until the old Canaanite population was completely absorbed. His attitude toward his subjects appears to have been that of the Canaanite tyrants, who reigned over the petty states of Palestine, and treated their subjects as slaves, rather than of the Israelites, who regarded their king as little more than a tribal sheik and demanded that he should faithfully serve and represent them. Abimelech’s policy soon begat rebellion even in the friendly city of Shechem. This rebellion he put down with a cruelty which reveals the weakness of his character. At best his authority appears to have been only partially established; and his reign was characterized by a series of rebellions. VIII. The End of the First Hebrew Kingdom. At last, in besieging the town of Thebez, a few miles northwest of Ophrah, Abimelech was struck by a stone thrown by a woman and mortally wounded. Thus like Sisera, the earlier oppressor of the Hebrews, Abimelech suffered the most ignominious fate known to the ancient world. Upon his own guilty head was visited the consequences of his early crimes. At his death no attempt appears to have been made to perpetuate the rule of his house. Through the inefficiency and brutal cruelty of this half-Israelite ruler, the first attempt of the Hebrews to establish a kingdom proved a sad failure. Without doubt this unfortunate example confirmed them still further in their distrust and dislike of all established authority. It illustrates, however, the problems and tendencies of the times. When at last conditions were ripe and a worthy leader was found, a permanent Hebrew kingdom was destined to rise. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 58: 058. XXXVIII. JEPHTHAH’S VICTORY OVER THE AMMONITES ======================================================================== § XXXVIII. JEPHTHAH’S VICTORY OVER THE AMMONITES Judges 11, Judges 12:1-6 1. Jephthah’s early history. Now Jephthah the Gileadite was a very valiant warrior; and he was the son of a harlot; and when his father’s sons by another wife grew up, they drove Jephthah out, and said to him, You shall have no inheritance in our father’s house, for you are the son of another woman. So Jephthah fled from his brothers and dwelt in the land of Tob; and there gathered worthless fellows about him, and they used to go out on forays with him. 2. Request of his Gileadite clansmen. And after a time the Ammonites made war against Israel. And when the Ammonites made war against Israel, the elders of Gilead went to bring Jephthah out of the land of Tob, and they said to Jephthah, Come be our chief, that we may fight against the Ammonites. But Jephthah said to the elders of Gilead, are you not the men who hated me and drove me out of my father’s house? Why then do you come to me now when you are in distress? And the elders of Gilead said to Jephthah, This is why we now turn to you, that you may go with us and fight against the Ammonites; and you shall be our chief, even over all the inhabitants of Gilead. 3. His terms. Then Jephthah said to the elders of Gilead, If you bring me back to fight against the Ammonites, and Jehovah gives them over to me, shall I be your chief? And the elders of Gilead said to Jephthah, Jehovah shall be a witness between us; we swear to do just as you say. Then Jephthah went with the elders of Gilead, and the people made him head and chief over them. 4. His vow. Then the spirit of Jehovah came upon Jephthah, and he passed over to Gilead and Manasseh. And the Ammonites were gathered together and encamped in Gilead. And Jephthah made a vow to Jehovah, and said, If thou wilt deliver the Ammonites wholly into my hand, then whoever comes from the doors of my house to meet me, when I return victorious from the Ammonites, shall be Jehovah’s, and I will offer that one as a burnt-offering. 5. His victory. So Jephthah went over to the Ammonites to fight against them; and Jehovah delivered them into his hand. 6. His return. And when Jephthah came home to Mizpah his daughter was just coming out to meet him with tambourines and dances; and she was his only child; beside her he had neither son nor daughter. And when he saw her he rent his garments and said, O my daughter! you have stricken me to earth: Yea, you are the cause of my woe! for, as for me, I have made a solemn promise to Jehovah, and cannot go back. And she said to him, My father, you have made a solemn promise to Jehovah; do to me what you have solemnly promised, inasmuch as Jehovah hath taken vengeance for you on your enemies, the Ammonites. 7. Fulfilment of his vow. And she said to her father, Let this privilege be granted me: spare me two months, that I may depart, and go out upon the mountains, and lament together with my companions, because of my maidenhood. And he said, Go. So he sent her away for two months and she departed together with her companions, and lamented on the mountains because of her maidenhood. And at the end of two months she returned to her father, who did to her as he had vowed to do, she never having known a man. Thus it became a custom in Israel: yearly the daughters of Israel go four days in the year, to bewail the death of the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite. 8. Attack and defeat of the Ephraimites. And the men of Ephraim assembled, and crossed to Zaphon; and they said to Jephthah, Why did you pass over to fight against the Ammonites, and did not call us to go with you? We will burn your house over your head. But Jephthah said to them, I and my people were parties to a great contest with the Ammonites, and when I called you, you did not deliver me from their power. So when I saw that you were not going to help me, I took my life in my hand, and passed over against the Ammonites, and Jehovah delivered them into my hand. Why then have you come up against me to-day, to make war on me? Then Jephthah gathered together all the men of Gilead, and fought with Ephraim; and the men of Gilead smote Ephraim. 9. The test and fate of the fugitives. And the Gileadites seized the fords of the Jordan to intercept the Ephraimites. And when any of the fugitives of Ephraim would say, Let me cross, the men of Gilead would say to him, Are you an Ephraimite? If he said, No, they would command him, Then say, ‘shibboleth.’ And if he said ‘sibboleth,’ and did not pronounce it exactly right, then they would lay hold on him, and slay him at the fords of the Jordan. I. The Rôle of the East=Jordan Tribes. The deep valley of the Jordan cut off the Eastern tribes so completely that, until the days of Saul and David, these different branches of the Hebrew race had little in common. After the initial stages of the conquest, the tribes of Gad, Reuben and the half tribe of Manasseh settled down to work out inde pendently their individual problems. On the west they were protected by natural barriers and by their kinsmen in Canaan; but from the east came the constant pressure of invasion. Throughout most of their history the Hebrews found a strong and aggressive foe in the Ammonites. The rich territory of Gilead east of the middle Jordan was also an at tractive goal to the peoples living further east on the borders of the desert. Ordinarily the advance was gradual; but sometimes the invaders united in a general attack. II. Jephthah, the Gileadite. The story of Jephthah sheds for a brief period clear light upon the condition of these Gileadite tribes. Driven from his home as a youth by his kinsmen, he had gathered about him a sturdy band of outlaws Disorganized conditions and the almost constant state of warfare between the different tribes enabled him to subsist by means of frequent forays. His prestige became in time so great that the elders of Gilead, threatened by a determined Ammonite attack, in desperation recalled Jephthah. If successful, they promised to recognize him henceforth as their chief. III. Jephthah’s Vow and its Consequences. Rough warrior that he was, Jephthah was nevertheless a worshipper of Jehovah. On the eve of battle he made a solemn compact with Jehovah that, if he re turned victorious, he would offer as a burnt-offering the first one who came to meet him. Later, under somewhat the same conditions, Saul made a similar vow (§ XLII). The vow is characteristic of the early Semitic religions, and the supreme gift that a man could offer to the Deity was the life of a human being. The story of Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac reflects the same popular belief and the protest of later and more enlightened prophets (cf. § X 1). The significant fact is that the ancient narrator makes no protest against Jephthah’s vow or its execution. He simply brings out, with dramatic vividness, the pathos of the scene, as the conqueror returns, flushed with victory, to be met by his daughter, his only child. In the thought of the early age, the calamity was the greater, because her untimely death deprived Jephthah of all hope of descendants. The solemn lamentation, observed each year by the east-Jordan maidens in memory of the event, undoubtedly kept alive the tradition of Jephthah’s victories until it passed into the keeping of the early prophetic historians. IV. Hostility between the East and West-Jordan Tribes. The story of Jephthah is significant, for it tells of the founding of a petty Hebrew kingdom east of the Jordan. The sequel to the account of Jephthah’s victory reveals, however, the jealousy and frequent wars that were waged during this period of settlements between even the Hebrew tribes themselves. The powerful central tribe of Ephraim was evidently envious of the victory and authority of Jephthah. This envy developed into a constant state of hostility. The fords of the Jordan were the scene of many petty conflicts. Any Ephraimite captured east of the Jordan was in danger of losing his life. The inability of a stranger to pronounce correctly the test word shibboleth, and thus prove that he was not an Ephraimite has given to literature one of its most familiar figures. V. The Character of the Local Deliverers. Jephthah well illus trates the real nature of the local deliverers, whose brave deeds are the chief events of this period of settlement and conquest. Their standards are those of the rude age in which they lived. Self interest and tribal loyalty are the chief motives which actuate them. They are local chieftains, possessed of unusual courage or daring, whom the needs of the hour call to positions of conspicuous leadership. Their authority is but local and transient. In addition to the five or six whose exploits have been recorded by tradition, there were probably many others of lesser fame. The names of certain of these local heroes and deliverers have been preserved by the compiler of the book of Judges. To this list belong Ibzan of Bethlehem, Elon the Zebulunite and Abdon the Pirathonite. Although their deeds were often cruel and their interests selfish and local, each of these deliverers was loyal to the God of his race and clearly regarded himself as the agent of the Deity in carrying on the wars of deliverance. While their faith was narrow, it was intense, as is shown by Jephthah’s sacrifice even of his only child. Later experiences and later prophets were needed to broaden the religion of Israel, until, with its splendid spirit of devotion, it should become a commanding force in the life of humanity. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 59: 059. XXXIX. SAMSON’S BIRTH AND MARRIAGE ======================================================================== §XXXIX. SAMSON’S BIRTH AND MARRIAGE Judges 13, Judges 15:1-19, Judges 16:7-31 1. The announcement of Samson’s birth. Now there was a certain man of Zorah, of the clan of the Danites, whose name was Manoah; and his wife was barren, and had not borne children. And the Messenger of Jehovah appeared to the woman, and said to her, Behold, thou hast been barren and not borne children, Now therefore, take heed, I pray, and drink no wine or intoxicating drink, and do not eat anything unclean; for thou art already with child, and wilt bear a son. And no razor shall be used upon his head; for the child shall be a Nazirite unto God from his birth to the day of his death. 2. Birth and childhood. And the woman bore a son, and called his name Samson; and the child grew, and Jehovah blessed him. And the spirit of Jehovah began to move him in Mahaneh-Dan, between Zorah and Eshtaol. 3. His desire to wed a woman of Timnah. Now Samson went down to Timnah, and saw in Timnah a woman of the daughters of the Philistines. When he came up, he told his father and mother, and said, I have seen a woman in Timnah a daughter of the Philistines; now therefore get her for me for a wife. Then his father and his mother said to him, Is there no woman among the daughters of your kinsmen, or among all my people, that you must go and take a wife among the uncircumcised Philistines? But Samson said to his father, Get her for me; for she pleases me. His father and mother, however, did not know that it was of Jehovah; for he was seeking an opportunity against the Philistines. 4. His second visit to Timnah. Then Samson went down to Timnah. And just as he came to the vineyards of Timnah, a young lion roared against him. And the spirit of Jehovah rushed upon him, and he tore the beast asunder as one tears a kid; and he had nothing in his hands. Then he went down and talked with the woman, and she pleased Samson. And when he returned after a while to get her, he turned aside to see the carcass of the lion; and, behold, there was a swarm of bees in the body of the lion, and honey. And he scraped it out into his hands, and went on, eating as he went; and he came to his father and mother, and gave to them, and they ate, but he did not tell them that he had taken the honey out of the body of the lion. 5. His riddle at his wedding feast. And Samson went down to the woman, and gave a feast there (for so bridegrooms used to do). And it came to pass, when they saw him, that they took thirty companions and they were with him. And Samson said to them, Let me now propose to you a riddle; if you can give me the correct answer within the seven days of the feast, then I will give you thirty fine linen wrappers and thirty festal garments; but if you cannot give me the answer, then you shall give me thirty fine linen wrappers and thirty festal garments. And they said to him, Put forth your riddle, that we may hear it. And he said to them, Out of the eater came something to eat, And out of the strong came something sweet. But for six days they could not solve the riddle. 6. Intrigues to find the answer. Then on the seventh day they said to Samson’s wife, Beguile your husband, that he may explain the riddle to us, lest we burn you and your father’s house with fire. Did you invite us to impoverish us? And Samson’s wife wept continually before him, and said, You do not love me, you only hate me; you have given a riddle to my fellow-countrymen and have not told it to me. And he said to her, Behold, I have not told it to my father or my mother, and shall I tell you? And she wept before him the seven days, while their feast lasted. And it came to pass on the seventh day that he told her, because she importuned him; and she told the riddle to her fellow-countrymen. Then the men of the city said to him on the seventh day before the sun went down, What is sweeter than honey? and what is stronger than a lion? And he said to them, If with my heifer you did not plow, You had not solved my riddle now. 7. His payment of the forfeit. Then the spirit of Jehovah rushed upon him, and he went down to Ashkelon, and killed thirty of their men, and took their spoil and gave the festal garments to those who had expounded the riddle. But he was very angry, and went up to his father’s house. And Samson’s bride was given to his companion, who had been his friend. 8. His destruction of the Philistine’s grain-fields. Now it came to pass after a while, in the time of wheat harvest, that Samson went to visit his wife with a kid; and he said, Let me go into the inner apartment to my wife. But her father would not allow him to go in. And her father said, I thought that you must surely hate her, so I gave her to your friend. Is not her younger sister more beautiful than she? Take her then, instead. But Samson said to him, This time I shall not be to blame, if I do the Philistines an injury. So Samson went and caught three hundred foxes, and took torches, and turned tail to tail, and put a torch between every pair of tails. And when he had set the torches on fire, he let them go into the standing grain of the Philistines, and burned up both the shocks and the standing grain, with the olive yards besides. 9. His vengeance for the death of his wife. Then the Philistines said, Who has done this? And they said, Samson, the son-in-law of the Timnite, because he took his wife and gave her to his friend. And the Philistines went up, and burnt her and her father with fire. Then Samson said to them, If this is the way you do, I swear that I will not stop until I have had my revenge. So he smote them hip and thigh with a great slaughter; and he went down and dwelt in the cleft of the Cliff of Etam. 10. His delivery to the Philistines. Then the Philistines went up and encamped in Judah, and spread themselves abroad in Lehi. And the Judahites said, Why have you come up against us? And they said, We have come up to bind Samson, to do to him as he has done to us. Then three thousand men of Judah went down to the cleft of the Cliff of Etam, and said to Samson, Do you not know that the Philistines are our rulers? What then is this that you have done to us? And he said to them, As they did to me, so have I done to them. And they said to him, We have come down to bind you, that we may deliver you into the hand of the Philistines. And Samson said to them, Swear to me, that you will not fall upon me yourselves. And they said to him, No; we will simply bind you securely, and deliver you into their hand; but we will not kill you. And they bound him with two new ropes, and brought him up from the Cliff. 11. His escape and slaughter of the Philistines. When he came to Lehi, the Philistines shouted as they met him. Then the spirit of Jehovah rushed upon him, and the ropes that were on his arms became like flax that has been burned in the fire, and his bonds melted from off his hands. And he found a fresh jawbone of an ass, and reached out his hand and, grasping it, he killed a thousand men with it. Then Samson said, With the jawbone of an ass have I piled them, mass upon mass, A thousand men have I slain with the jawbone of an ass. And when he had finished saying this, he threw away the jawbone from his hand; therefore that place was called Ramath-lehi [Throwing of the jawbone]. 12. Origin of the famous spring at Lehi. And he was very thirsty and called on Jehovah, and said, Thou hast given this great deliverance through thy servant, and now I shall die of thirst, and fall into the hands of the uncircumcised? Then God cleft the Mortar which is in Lehi, and water flowed from it; and when he drank, his spirits rose and he revived; therefore its name was called En-hakkore [Spring of the caller], which is in Lehi to this day. 13. Samson’s escape from Gaza. Now Samson went to Gaza, and saw there a harlot, and went in unto her. When the Gazites were told that Samson was there, they set spies to lie in wait for him all night at the gate of the city, and they were quiet all the night, saying, When morning dawns, then we will kill him. And Samson lay until midnight, and at midnight he arose, and took hold of the doors of the gate of the city, and the two posts, and pulled them up, bar and all, and put them on his shoulders and carried them up to the top of the mountain which is before Hebron. 14. Delilah’s attempts to be tray Samson bowstrings. Then afterward he fell in love with a woman in the valley of Sorek, whose name was Delilah. And the tyrants of the Philistines came to her and said to her, Beguile him and see why his strength is so great, and how we may overcome him, that we may bind him to torment him, and we will each one of us give you eleven hundred shekels of silver. So Delilah said to Samson, Tell me, I pray, why your strength is so great, and how you might be bound to torment you. And Samson said to her, If they should bind me with seven green bowstrings, which were never dried, then I would become weak, and be like any other man. Then the tyrants of the Philistines brought her seven green bowstrings, which had not been dried, and she bound him with them. Now she had men waiting in concealment in the inner apartment. And she said to him, The Philistines are upon you, Samson. But he snapped the bowstrings as a string of tow is snapped when it comes near the fire. So the source of his strength was not known. 15. By the new ropes. Then Delilah said to Samson, Behold, you have deceived me and told me lies; now tell me, I pray, with what you can be bound. And he said to her, If they should bind me securely with new ropes, which had never been used, then I should become weak, and be like any other man. So Delilah took new ropes, and bound him with them, and said to him, The Philistines are upon you, Samson. And the men were waiting in concealment in the inner apartment. But he snapped them from off his arms like thread. 16. By weaving his locks in a loom. And Delilah said to Samson, Hitherto you have deceived me, and told me lies; tell me with what you can be bound. And he said to her, If you should weave the seven braids of my head with the web, and fasten it with the pin, I would become weak and be like any other man. So while he was asleep, she took the seven braids of his hair and wove it with the web, and fastened it with the pin, and said to him, The Philistines are upon you Samson. And he awoke out of his sleep, and pulled up the beam and the web. 17. His disclosure of his secret. Then she said to him, How can you say, I love you, when you do not confide in me? you have deceived me these three times, and have not told me the secret of your great strength. And it came to pass when she importuned him daily, and urged him, that he was vexed to death. And he confided in her, and said to her, A razor has never come upon my head; for I have been a Nazirite to God from my mother’s womb. If I should be shaved, then my strength would go from me, and I would become weak, and be like any other man. 18. His capture and fate. And when Delilah saw that he had told her all his heart, ehe sent and called for the tyrants of the Philistines, saying, Come up this once, for he has told me all his heart. Then the tyrants of the Philistines came up to her, and brought the money in their hands. And she put him to sleep upon her knees. Then she called for a man, and had him shave off the seven braids on his head; and she began to torment him, and his strength went from him. And she said, The Philistines are upon you, Samson. And he awoke out of his sleep, and thought, I will go out, as I have time and time again, and shake myself free; for he did not know that Jehovah had departed from him. Then the Philistines laid hold of him, and put out his eyes; and they brought him down to Gaza, and bound him with fetters of brass; and he was set to grinding in the prison. But the hair of his head began to grow again after he was shaved. 19. The Philistines’ feast of triumph. And the tyrants of the Philistines assembled to offer a great sacrifice to Dagon their god, and to rejoice; for they said, Our god hath delivered Samson our enemy into our power. And when the people saw him, they praised their god; for they said, Under our sway our god has brought low Our foe,— He who wrought our country’s woe, He who slew many of us at a blow. 20. Samson’s death. And it came to pass, when their hearts were merry, that they said, Call for Samson, that he may make us sport. So they called Samson from the prison; and he made sport before them. And they placed him between the pillars. Then Samson said to the young man who held him by the hand, Put me where I may feel the pillars on which the house rests, that I may lean upon them. Now the house was full of men and women, and all the tyrants of the Philistines were there; and there were upon the roof about three thousand men and women, who were looking on while Samson made sport. And Samson called on Jehovah, and said, O Lord Jehovah, remember me, I pray thee, and strengthen me, I pray thee, only this once, O God, that I may avenge myself on the Philistines for one of my two eyes. Then Samson took hold of the two middle pillars upon which the house rested, one with his right hand, and the other with his left, and leaned upon them. And Samson said, Let me myself die with the Philistines. And he bowed himself with all his might. And the house fell upon the tyrants, and upon all the people who were in it. So those whom he killed at his death were more than those whom he killed during his life. 21. His burial. Then his brothers and all his father’s household came down and took him, and brought him up and buried him between Zorah and Eshtaol, in the burying-place of Manoah his father. I. The Popular Character of the Samson Stories. It is evident that the Samson stories were preserved in the book of Judges, not so much for their religious value as because of their popularity. They were doubtless retold from generation to generation, especially at the marriage feasts and festivals in ancient Israel. They contain the few examples found in the Old Testment of popular Hebrew poetry. Strangely enough it has not only the characteristic Hebrew rhythm of idea and measured beat, but also the rhyme so common in modern poetry. These primitive stories give a rare insight into the life and point of view of the common people during this period of settlement. II. The Character of Samson. Samson has sometimes been held up as a worthy character. This tendency, however, is dangerous. He must, of course, be measured by the standards of his age, but even so he is far from noble. The keen admiration which the early Hebrews felt for physical strength and wit, undoubtedly explained the popularity of these stories. His contests with the Philistines, however, were but private feuds, and his great strength was never put forth for deliverance of his people. His achievements do not win for him a place even beside such a rude warrior as Jephthah. While his fellow-tribesmen admired his prowess, even they did not hesitate to deliver him to their foes in order to avoid a Philistine attack. Samson is a signal example of a man who possessed great gifts, but who failed to consecrate them to a noble cause. III. The Nazirite Vow. According to the narrative, Samson’s strength was due to the fact that he was a Nazirite. The word in its derivation appears to mean separate, set apart, and therefore consecrated to the Deity. The obligations assumed by the Nazirite also indicate that he was especially consecrated to Jehovah. Devotees are found in connection with most ancient religions. The Nazirite vow, however, appears to have been peculiar to that nomadic religion which the Hebrews brought from the desert. Wine was the product of the vine culture, which was characteristic of agricultural Canaan. Abstinence from wine, therefore, represented devotion to Jehovah and a refusal to have any part in the products of the corrupt Canaanite civilization. This element in the vow may also have been intended to save the devotee of Jehovah from the intoxicating power of the wine. The same vow of consecration kept him from eating or touching anything that was ceremonially unclean. As the devotee of Jehovah, his person was also sacred; therefore no razor was allowed to touch his hair. According to the narrative, Samson’s strength was given him by Jehovah; hence when his hair, which symbolized his consecration to Jehovah, was cut, his strength suddenly departed. When the hair grew again it returned. IV. Conditions at the End of the Period of Settlement. The stories regarding Samson clearly belong to the latter part of the period of settlement. Already the Philistines, whose victories are recorded in the first part of I Samuel, were beginning to invade central Canaan, and to bring the neighboring Hebrew clans into subjection. There is no evidence of any united action among the Hebrews in resisting the advance of these powerful foes. The relations between the two nations, however, were such that Samson without hesitation contracts a marriage with a Philistine woman. It was that peculiar type of marriage, common in this early age, in which the wife remained with her own clan. The stories also reveal the strength and superior civilization of the Philistines. They furnish, therefore, a natural introduction to the subsequent events which led to the establishment of the Hebrew monarchy. V. Moral and Religious Standards. The narrative of Samson’s deeds completes the picture of the moral and religious conditions of this early age. Although a devotee of Jehovah and a popular hero, Samson is lacking in the fundamental principles of morality. He is governed by his passions and selfish inclinations. His spirit of revenge makes him regardless of the rights and possessions of others. Having resorted to deception, he becomes the victim of deception. Although he attains to a certain majesty in the last scene of his life, he dies a victim of his own spirit of revenge. Samson and his contemporaries evidently believed that it was more important that he should preserve his hair intact and abstain from wine and unclean food, than that he should control his passions and observe the simple laws of justice and mercy and service. In contrast, leaders like Deborah and Barak reveal by their deeds the dawning of that nobler ideal which was destined to find full expression in the messages of the later prophets. The stories of the book of Judges vividly portray the early character of that race which, under the divine training, in time became a prophet nation with a universal spiritual message. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 60: 060. THE FOUNDING OF THE HEBREW KINGDOM ======================================================================== THE FOUNDING OF THE HEBREW KINGDOM ======================================================================== CHAPTER 61: 061. XL. THE PHILISTINE VICTORIES AND THE FORTUNES OF THE ARK ======================================================================== § XL. THE PHILISTINE VICTORIES AND THE FORTUNES OF THE ARK 1 Samuel 4:1 to 1 Samuel 7:2 1. Israel’s defeat. Now in those days the Philistines assembled to make war against Israel, and the battle was hard fought and they slew in the ranks on the field about four thousand men. 2. The second defeat. But when the people returned to the camp, the people sent to Shiloh and took from there the ark of Jehovah of hosts. And when the ark of Jehovah came to the camp, the earth resounded. And when the Philistines knew that the ark of Jehovah had come to the camp, they said, Woe to us! for it has not been thus before; but be men and fight. So the Philistines fought and there was a great slaughter. 3. The ark in the temple of Dagon. Then the Philistines took the ark of Jehovah and brought it to the house of Dagon and set it up by the side of Dagon. And when the Ashdodites arose early the next day and came to the house of Dagon, behold there was Dagon fallen upon his face to the ground before the ark of Jehovah. And they raised up Dagon and set him in his place again. But when they arose early on the following morning, behold there was Dagon fallen upon his face to the ground before the ark of Jehovah. And the head of Dagon and both his hands were cut off upon the threshold, and only the body of Dagon was left. Therefore the priests of Dagon, and all who enter the house of Dagon, do not tread on the threshold of Dagon in Ashdod to this day, but leap over it. 4. The plague attending the ark. And the hand of Jehovah was heavy upon the Ashdodites, and he destroyed them, and smote them with boils, even Ashdod and its borders. And when the men of Ashdod saw that it was so, they said, the ark of the God of Israel shall not remain with us; for his hand is severe upon us, and Dagon our God. So they sent and gathered all the tyrants of the Philistines to them, and said, What shall we do with the ark of the God of Israel? And they answered, Let the ark of the God of Israel be brought around to Gath. So they brought the ark of the God of Israel around. But after they had brought it around, the hand of Jehovah was against the city—there was a very great panic—and he smote the men of the city, both young and old, so that boils broke out upon them. Therefore they sent the ark of God to Ekron. But when the ark of God came to Ekron, the Ekronites cried out, saying, They have brought around the ark of the God of Israel to us, to slay us and our people. They sent therefore and gathered together all the tyrants of the Philistines and said, Send away the ark of the God of Israel, that it may go back to its own place and not kill us and our people. 5. Plans for returning the ark. Then the Philistines summoned the priests and the diviners, saying, What shall we do with the ark of Jehovah? Show us how we shall send it to its place. And they said, If you are sending the ark of the God of Israel, you must not send it away empty; but you must return to him a trespass-offering. Then you will be healed, and it shall be made known to you why his hand is not removed from you. Then said they, What shall be the trespass-offering which we shall return to him? And they said, Five golden boils, and five golden mice, corresponding to the number of the tyrants of the Philistines; for one plague was upon you, as well as upon your tyrants. Therefore you shall make images of your boils, and images of your mice that mar the land; and you shall give glory to the God of Israel; perhaps he will lighten his hand from upon you and your gods and your land. Why then will you make your hearts stubborn, as the Egyptians and Pharaoh made their hearts stubborn? Was it not after he had made sport of them, that they let them go, so that they departed? Now, therefore, take and prepare a new cart, and two milch cows upon which the yoke has not come; and fasten the cows to the cart, but you shall leave their calves behind them at home. And take the ark of Jehovah and place it on the cart and put the golden objects, which you are returning to him as a trespass-offering, in a box at its side. Then send it away that it may depart. And see, if it goes on the way to its own border to Bethshemesh, then it is he who hath done us this great harm, but if not, then we shall know that it was not his hand that smote us; it was an accident that befell us. 6. Its restoration to the Hebrews. And the men did so, and took two milch cows and fastened them to the cart, and shut up their calves at home. And they placed the ark of Jehovah on the cart, and the box with the golden mice and the images of their boils. And the cows took a straight course in the direction of Bethshemesh; they went along the highway, lowing as they went, and did not turn aside to the right hand or to the left. And the tyrants of the Philistines went after them to the border of Bethshemesh. And the inhabitants of Bethshemesh were harvesting their wheat in the valley. And they lifted up their eyes and saw the ark, and came rejoicing to meet it. And when the cart came into the field of Joshua the Bethshemeshite, it stood still there. And a great stone was there. So they split up the wood of the cart, and offered the cows as a burnt-offering to Jehovah. And when the five tyrants of the Philistines saw it, they returned to Ekron on that day. And a witness is the great stone, by which they set down the ark of Jehovah. To this day it is in the field of Joshua of Bethshemesh. 7. The ark among the Hebrews. The sons of Jechoniah, however, did not rejoice with the men of Bethshemesh, when they looked upon the ark of Jehovah. So he smote among them seventy men; and the people mourned because Jehovah had smitten the people with a great slaughter. And the men of Bethshemesh said, Who is able to stand before Jehovah this holy God? And to whom shall he go up from us? Then they sent messengers to the inhabitants of Kiriath-jearim, saying, The Philistines have brought back the ark of Jehovah. Come down, and bring it up to you. So the men of Kiriath-jearim came, and brought up the ark of Jehovah, and carried it into the house of Abinadab on the hill, and consecrated Eleazar his son to guard the ark of Jehovah. From the time the ark began to abide in Kiriath-jearim, many years passed. I. The Books of Samuel. The chief record of the events which occurred during the days of Saul and David, is found in the books of Samuel. These, together with the books of Kings, originally constituted a connected history which began with the birth of Samuel and extended to the Babylonian exile. The first book of Samuel contains two general divisions: (1) chapters 1 to 15, which give the history of Samuel and Saul; (2) 16 to 31, which tell of the rise of David and the decline and death of Saul. Second Samuel contains three general divisions. Chapters 1 to 8 deal chiefly with political events during David’s reign, first over Judah and then over all Israel. Chapters 9 to 20 contain David’s family history. Chapters 21 to 24 are an appendix, similar to that found at the end of the book of Judges. They record events (such as the putting to death of the sons of Saul and the achievements of David’s warriors) which transpired during the earlier part of David’s reign over all Israel. Chapters 22 and 23 contain later psalms associated with David. Thus the arrangement in I Samuel is in general chronological; while in II Samuel the material is grouped according to the subject-matter. II. The Different Records of the Founding of the Kingdom. The oldest account of the founding of the united Hebrew kingdom is taken from an ancient Saul history, which probably comes from the latter part of the tenth century B.C. The extracts from this early source are found in 1 Samuel 9-11, 13, 14, and are adopted as the basis of the present text. They are introduced by extracts from an equally old source, which told of the wars of the Philistines and of the fortunes of the ark. Together these ancient histories form the immediate sequel to the earliest narratives in the book of Judges. These quotations from the older sources have been supplemented in I Samuel by extracts from what appears to have been originally an independent history, dealing with the boyhood and the work of the prophet Samuel. Like the traditional judges in the book of Judges, Samuel is thought of in this history as a judge ruling over all Israel. His personality completely overshadows that of Saul. Instead of effectively laboring for the establishment of the kingship, as in the older Saul history, Samuel is represented as bitterly opposing it. The point of view is that of Hosea and of the later prophets, who in the light of the sad experience of northern Israel, regarded the institution of the kingship as a fundamental evil. In this later Samuel history, which probably comes from some of the prophetic guilds of Northern Israel and cannot be dated before the eighth century B.C., the victory over the Philistines is won, not by the sword, but by a miracle in response to Samuel’s prayer. III. The Philistines. In the light of the Egyptian inscription it seems clear that these sturdy foes of the Israelites came from southern Asia Minor. According to Amos 9:7 and Deuteronomy 2:23 their original home was Caphtor. This is doubtless to be identified with the Egyptian Kefto. From the Egyptian inscriptions it also appears that Kefto in ancient times produced works of art which were equal to those of Greece in the Mycenæan age, so that it is a mistake to regard the Philistines or Wanderers as rude barbarians. In his inscriptions Ramses III of the twentieth Egyptian dynasty tells of a great racial movement from the north during the first half of the twelfth century B.C. He states that, “No country could withstand their arms.” They advanced by land and by sea, and nearly succeeded in conquering northern Egypt. A large body of them, however, were turned back and settled on the fertile maritime plain in southwestern Palestine, where they soon built up a strong and highly developed civilization. The rich grain fields furnished the material for commerce, and their geographical position offered ample opportunity for trade with Phoenicia and Egypt. Five walled cities, each with its independent ruler, yet bound together in a strong confederacy, ruled ancient Philistia. Ekron and Gath in the north-east were closest to the territory of the Hebrews; Ashdod, Askelon and Gaza in the south-west lay close to the sea. While the Hebrews were still struggling for homes in the uplands of central Canaan, the Philistines had already established a powerful kingdom, which extended from the sea to the western headlands of Canaan, and from a point opposite Joppa to the southern wilderness and the borders of Egypt. IV. The Defeat of the Hebrews and the Loss of the Ark. In the limited territory of Palestine it was inevitable that the two great waves of immigration, represented by the Philistines and the Hebrews, should ultimately come into open conflict. The stories of Samson suggest the preliminary skirmishes, which took place during the latter part of the period of settlement. The western headlands of Judah, with their narrow, rocky valleys, were adapted only to border warfare. The broader valleys of central Canaan offered the natural way of approach of Philistia. Hence, when the Philistines rallied their forces to attack and subjugate the Hebrews, the decisive battles were fought in the western borders of Ephraim and Manasseh. The first engagement revealed the weakness of the Hebrews. They apparently rallied in considerable numbers; but doubtless, as in the days of Deborah, the distant tribes were not represented. Moreover, they lacked a leader to unite them. The inevitable result was that they were ignominiously beaten by the well-organized Philistines. In their extremity the Hebrews brought from Shiloh, north-east of Shechem, the ark of Jehovah. In their march through the wilderness they had borne with them this symbol of Jehovah’s presence. In their conflicts with the hostile Arab tribes, the feeling that Jehovah was in their midst and that they were fighting for him, had strengthened their courage, kindled their zeal, and guided them on to repeated victories (cf. § XXVII). It was natural, therefore, that at this great crisis they should bear the ark into battle, just as the Philistines, in a later engagement with the Hebrews, carried with them the images of their gods (§ XLIX 3). The popular faith in the ancient symbol was shattered, for the Hebrews suffered another signal defeat. Following up their victory, the Philistines established their rule over the Hebrews in central Canaan. It was apparently at this time that Shiloh was destroyed and disappeared from Hebrew history. Saddest of all, the ark itself was captured and borne in triumph by the Philistines to one of the temples of their gods. To the minds of the Israelites this overwhelming series of disasters seemed to mean, either that Jehovah was weaker than the gods of their foes, or else that he did not care to deliver his people. The crisis involved not only the independence, but also the faith of the Hebrew race. V. The Ark Among the Philistines. The story of the ark shows traces of popular interpretation and embellishment; but clearly underlying it is the fact, that while the ark was in the hands of the Philistines a great pestilence attacked them. Sanitary conditions, which are never good in the East, are especially bad on the Philistine plain. Like Egypt, it is the home of contagious diseases. Being on the great highway which ran from north to south, it is especially open to plagues of every kind. The complete ignorance of the ancients regarding the real nature of contagious diseases left them an easy prey to its ravages. The story indicates, not only that the contagion was carried from city to city by those who bore the ark, but also suggests the nature of the disease. The golden tumors, or boils, which were sent back by the Philistines to appease the god of the Hebrews were, in accordance with ancient usage, intended to represent the peculiar form of the malady which had attacked them. This would appear to have been none other than the dread bubonic plague. Even the Hebrews themselves, who were later exposed to the contagion, were also fatally affected. Thus again, by perfectly natural means, but with an opportuneness which clearly reveals the hand of God, the faith of the Hebrews was strengthened, and through the hardships of Philistine oppression the way was prepared for the next step forward in the development of the Hebrew nation. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 62: 062. XLI. SAUL’S CALL AND ELECTION TO THE KINGSHIP ======================================================================== § XLI. SAUL’S CALL AND ELECTION TO THE KINGSHIP 1 Samuel 9-11 1. Saul’s family and appearance. Now there was a man of Gibeah, whose name was Kish the son of Abiel, the son of Zeror, the son of Becorath, the son of Aphiah, a Benjamite, a man well to do. And he had a son whose name was Saul, a man in the prime of life and handsome; and there was not one among the Israelites more handsome than he. From his shoulders and upwards he was higher than any of the people. 2. His search for the lost asses. Now the she-asses of Kish, Saul’s father, were lost. And Kish said to Saul his son, Take now one of the servants with you and arise and go, seek the asses. And they passed through the hill-country of Ephraim, and the land of Shalishah, but did not find them. Then they passed through the land of Shaalim, but they were not there. And they passed through the land of the Benjamites, but did not find them. 3. Appeal to Samuel. When they were come into the land of Zuph, Saul said to his servant who was with him, Come, let us return, lest my father cease thinking of the asses and become anxious for us. And he answered him, Behold now, there is in this city a man of God, and the man is held in honor; all that he says is sure to come true. Now let us go thither; perhaps he can show us the way we should go. Then Saul said to his servant, But, suppose we go, what shall we take to the man? for the bread is gone from our sacks, and there is no present to take to the man of God. What have we? And the servant answered Saul again, and said, See I have with me a fourth part of a silver shekel, and you shall give it to the man of God that he may furnish us information regarding our mission. Then Saul said to his servant, Your advice is good; come, let us go. So they went to the city where the man of God was. 4. Meeting with the seer. As they were going up the ascent to the city, they met young maidens going out to draw water and said to them, Is the seer here? And they answered them and said, He is; behold, he is before you. Make haste now, for he is come to-day into the city; for the people have a sacrifice to-day on the high place. As soon as you come to the city, you will at once find him, before he goes up to the high place to eat; for the people will not eat until he come, for he is to bless the sacrifice; and afterward the guests eat. Now therefore go up; for at this time you will meet him. So they went up to the city. When they came within the city gate, Samuel was just coming out toward them, to go up to the high place. Now Jehovah had given to Samuel, a day before Saul came, this revelation, At this time tomorrow I will send thee a man out of the land of Benjamin, and thou shalt anoint him to be a prince over my people Israel. And he shall save my people out of the hand of the Philistines; for I have seen the affliction of my people, and their cry has come to me. And when Samuel saw Saul, Jehovah indicated to him, This is the man of whom I spoke to thee! He it is who shall rule over my people. Then Saul drew near to Samuel in the gate, and said, Tell me, if you will, where the seer’s house is. And Samuel answered Saul and said, I am the seer; go up before me to the high place, for you shall eat with me to-day; and in the morning I will let you go, and will tell you all that is in your heart. And as for your asses that were lost three days ago, do not trouble yourself about them, for they have been found. And to whom belongs all that is desirable in Israel? Does it not to you, and to your father’s house? And Saul answered and said, Am I not a Benjamite, of the smallest of the tribes of Israel, and is not my family the least of all the families of the tribe of Benjamin? Why then do you speak thus to me? 5. At the sacrificial meal. And Samuel took Saul and his servant and brought them into the hall and made them sit at the head of the guests (who were about thirty in number). And Samuel said to the cook, Bring the portion I gave you, which I told you to put aside. And the cook took up the leg and placed it before Saul. And Samuel said, See, the meat is served! eat! for it was kept for you until the appointed time, that you might eat with those whom I have invited. So Saul ate with Samuel that day. 6. Public anointing by Samuel. And after they came down from the high place into the city, they spread a bed for Saul on the roof, and he lay down. Then at daybreak Samuel called to Saul on the roof, saying, Up, that I may send you away. So Saul arose, and he and Samuel went out into the street. As they were going down at the outskirts of the city, Samuel said to Saul, Bid the servant pass on before us, but you stand here that I may make known to you the word of God. Then Samuel took the vial of oil, and poured it on his head, and kissed him and said, Hath not Jehovah anointed you to be a prince over his people Israel? And you shall reign over the people of Jehovah and deliver them from the power of their enemies around about. And this shall be the sign that Jehovah hath anointed you to be a prince over his heritage: when you go from me to-day you shall find two men at Rachel’s tomb, in the boundary of Benjamin at Zelzah; and they will say to you, ‘The asses which you went to seek are found, and now your father has dismissed the matter of the asses and is anxious for you, saying, “What shall I do for my son?”‘ Then you shall go on from there and come to the oak of Tabor; and there three men going up to God to Bethel will meet you, one carrying three kids, and another carrying three loaves of bread, and another carrying a skin of wine. And they will salute you and give you two loaves of bread which you shall take from their hand. After that you shall come to Gibeah, where is the garrison of the Philistines; and furthermore, when you come thither to the city, you shall meet a band of prophets coming down from the high place with a lyre, a tambourine, a flute, and a harp before them; and they will be prophesying. And the spirit of Jehovah will rush upon you, and you shall prophesy with them, and shall be turned into another man. And when these signs come to you, you shall do as the occasion offers; for God is with you. 7. Meeting with the band of prophets. Accordingly when he turned his back to go from Samuel, God gave him another heart, and all those signs came to pass that day. And just as he came thence to Gibeah, a band of prophets met him, and he prophesied among them. And when every one who knew him saw him in the act of prophesying with the prophets, the people said to one another, What is this that has come upon the son of Kish? Is Saul also among the prophets? And one of the bystanders answered and said, And who is their father? Therefore it became a proverb, Is Saul also among the prophets? And when he had made an end of prophesying, he went to the high place. 8. Return home. And Saul’s cousin said to him and to his servant, Where did you go? And he said, To seek the asses; and when we saw that they were not found, we went to Samuel. And Saul’s cousin said, Tell me, I pray, what Samuel said to you. And Saul said to his cousin, He told us definitely that the asses were found. But concerning the matter of the kingdom, of which Samuel had spoken, he told him nothing. 9. The invasion of Nahash the Ammonite. Now it came to pass after about a month, that Nahash the Ammonite came up and besieged Jabesh in Gilead; and all the men of Jabesh said to Nahash, Make terms with us and we will serve you. But Nahash the Ammonite said to them, On this condition will I make terms with you: that I bore out the right eye of each of you, and thereby bring a reproach upon all Israel. And the elders of Jabesh said to him, Give us seven days respite, that we may send messengers through all the territory of Israel. Then, if there be none to save us, we will come to you. 10. Reception of the news by Saul. So the messengers came to Gibeah of Saul, and recounted the facts in the hearing of the people, and all the people wept aloud. And Saul was just coming from the field after the oxen. And Saul said, What is the trouble with the people, that they are weeping? Then they told him the words of the men of Jabesh. And the spirit of Jehovah rushed upon Saul when he heard these words, and his anger was greatly aroused. And he took a yoke of oxen, and cut them in pieces, and sent them throughout all the territory of Israel by the hand of messengers, saying, Whoever does not come forth after Saul and after Samuel, so shall it be done to his oxen. 11. The deliverance by the Israelites under Saul. Then a terror from Jehovah fell upon the people, and they rallied as one man. And he mustered them in Bezek. And they said to the messengers who came, Thus say to the men of Jabesh in Gilead, ‘To-morrow, by the time the sun becomes hot, deliverance shall come to you.’ So the messengers came and told the men of Jabesh, and they were glad. Therefore the men of Jabesh said, To-morrow we will come out to you, and you shall do to us whatever you please. Accordingly on the following day, Saul divided the people into three divisions; and they came into the midst of the camp in the morning watch, and smote the Ammonites until the heat of the day. And then they who remained scattered, so that no two of them were left together. 12. Saul’s election as king. Then all the people went to Gilgal; and there they made Saul king before Jehovah in Gilgal; and there they sacrificed peace-offerings before Jehovah; and there Saul and all the men of Israel rejoiced exceedingly. I. The Need of a King. The Philistine oppression revealed to the Israelites the absolute necessity of united action. In that early age the only known form of political organization that promised permanent independence, was the kingship. Already Gideon’s kingdom had demonstrated the advantages of that form of union. The Hebrews, however, were loyal to their desert instincts, and therefore very loath to acknowledge any central authority. An exceedingly strong pressure was required to make them unite. That pressure was at last furnished by the Philistines. The bitter experiences of the period of settlement had demonstrated clearly that unless they stood shoulder to shoulder and followed a common leader, they could expect in hostile Canaan only oppression and slavery. The Philistines energetically followed up their victories over the Hebrews. Garrisons were established at strategic points in central Canaan. All attempts at local uprisings were quickly suppressed. Tribute was doubtless exacted from the different tribal chieftains, who were permitted, on these conditions, to exercise a limited authority. The account of the later Ammonite invasion indicates that the Philistines felt no responsibility in protecting the Hebrews from foreign foes. Like the earlier Egyptian rulers of Palestine, the Philistines apparently had but one object in their conquest, and that was spoil and tribute. For the Hebrews the Philistine rule meant an arrest of their material and social development. As has already been noted, it also threatened their faith in Jehovah. The victories of the Philistines were doubtless interpreted by the majority of the Israelites as evidence that Jehovah was powerless, or else that he did not care to arouse himself in behalf of his people. Meantime, the Israelites were being subjected to the severest temptations, not only through the Philistines, but also through the closer contact with the old Canaanite population, whose civilization and customs and institutions they were rapidly absorbing. The great danger was that in the presence of the alluring cults of Canaan the religion of Jehovah, proclaimed by the austere prophet of the desert, would be completely forgotten. To preserve that faith intact, it was absolutely essential that the Hebrews unite, and in the name of Jehovah throw off the yoke of the Philistines, and develop a kingdom which would worthily represent before the nations the God of their race. The crisis, therefore, was religious as well as political. On the battle-fields of Canaan the future faith of the race was to be decided. It was a crisis to call forth not only a patriot but a prophet. II. The Patriots of Israel. The conditions resulting from the Philistine oppression probably gave rise to the bands known as the sons of the prophets, which appear for the first time in Israel’s history. From the different references to these sons of the prophets it is evident that they were religious enthusiasts associated together in bands or guilds. These guilds were connected with the local sanctuaries, such as Bethel and Gilgal. In later times the members of these guilds lived together with their wives in communities, sharing a common table. Like the modern dervishes, ecstasy, induced by music and other external means, was a prominent element in their religious life. The exact object of these religious guilds is not revealed by the few Old Testament references to them. Throughout their history, however, the sons of the prophets are closely connected, on the one hand with the great prophetic leaders like Samuel and Elijah and Elisha, and on the other with the important political movements of their day. Like the zealots of later Jewish history, they appear to have represented an impassioned protest against the political oppressors of their race. Their patriotism and zeal for Jehovah did not deter them from resorting to intrigue or from even appealing to the sword. Their prominence at this period of Hebrew history is therefore a symptom of political unrest. Though the form in which their religious and patriotic zeal found expression was crude, there is little doubt of its sincerity. Their presence reveals one of the many powerful underlying forces at work in Israel. Very different and yet equally hostile to the Philistine oppressors, were the Hebrew warriors and tribal chieftains. They lacked not courage but leadership. Tribal jealousies still held them apart. No great leader, like Gideon of old, had appeared to command their confidence and call forth their loyal support. A great prophet was needed, acquainted with the men and forces in Israel, able to analyze the meaning of the situation, and, with divine authority, to suggest a definite course of action. As at every great crisis in Israel’s unique history, a prophet arose at the moment of greatest need and delivered the nation from its oppressors and introduced the race to a new epoch of achievement and development. Later traditions give an exquisite picture of the birth and boyhood and youthful training of Samuel. They also magnify his position, making him judge of all Israel, and attribute to him miraculous powers. The oldest narrative, however, pictures him as simply the local seer of Ramah, known to the servant of Saul, although not to the young Benjamite chieftain. Both groups of tradition agree in recognizing the supreme importance of his work. With divine insight he grasped the needs of the situation, realized that the moment had arrived for the birth of united Israel and found the man to lead the nation. In so doing he won a place beside Moses, Deborah, Saul and David as one of the makers of Israel. III. Saul, the Benjamite. The situation called for a man large of stature, courageous, enthusiastic, able to bring together rival factions and to command absolute obedience in the face of the most desperate odds. These difficult conditions were met in the fullest measure by Saul, the son of Kish, a Benjamite noble, possessed of wealth and influence. Geographically, the tribe of Benjamin also stood midway between the north and south. Its comparative insignificance delivered it from the bitter jealousies which separated the larger tribes. Saul’s later interview with Samuel suggests that already the sense of responsibility was strong within him, and that the other leaders in Israel were beginning to regard him as a possible deliverer. What was needed was that some one with authority sound the call to action. IV. Saul’s Meeting with Samuel. A seeming chance brought together the two men who held the key to the situation in Israel. In quest for information regarding the lost asses, Saul found Samuel presiding at the sacrificial meal in the high place at Ramah. About the prophet were gathered the elders of the city. Already Samuel was aware of Saul’s approach and had made provision for his reception. The young Benjamite was accordingly assigned the seat of honor and, after the feast, was entertained overnight within the city. The reception thus accorded Saul was significant, and the words which Samuel addressed to him contained a deeper meaning, which Saul evidently understood. When Saul was about to depart, Samuel publicly anointed him with oil and told him that he was called to rule over his people. In the old Semitic symbolism, anointing with oil meant consecration to a definite task. In the case of a priest it was to minister at the sanctuary. In the case of Saul it was to represent Jehovah as the chosen leader of the nation. As he went forth, Samuel significantly commanded him to be ready to improve the opportunity when it presented itself. Also, in keeping with the prophet’s statement, Saul met a band of prophets under the influence of religious ecstasy. As he joined them, rough warrior though he was, he was seized with the same religious enthusiasm. The incident gave rise to the famous proverb, “Is Saul also among the prophets.” The scene revealed the depths to which the words of Samuel had stirred the soul of Saul. It symbolized his consecration to his high calling, to be Jehovah’s agent in delivering his people. It also symbolized that union between the religious enthusiast and the warrior class in Israel which was necessary if the nation as a whole was to be aroused to effective action. V. The Choice of Saul as King. The opportunity for action soon appeared. The Ammonites east of the Jordan advanced to the conquest of the Hebrew town of Jabesh in Gilead. The cruel and humiliating terms which they proposed called forth no champion from among the Israelites until the messengers came to the man whom Samuel had fired with patriotic zeal. Slaying the oxen with which he had been ploughing, Saul sent these gory reminders of battle and bloodshed to the chieftains of Israel, demanding with a grim threat that they follow him to deliver their endangered kinsmen. At last the Hebrews recognized that they had found a true leader. In taking up arms against the common foe, they encountered no opposition from the Philistines. A rapid march and an early morning attack left Saul and the Hebrews masters of the battle-field and the Ammonites in flight. Returning either to Gilgal, beside the lower Jordan, or to that famous northern sanctuary at Gilgal near Shiloh, Saul’s warriors proclaimed him king. Thus, as to Gideon of old, the Hebrews turned for leadership and protection to the one who had demonstrated on the battle-field his ability to deliver them. It was to a throne yet to be established and to a kingdom that must be won that Saul was called. His election, however, was deeply significant, for it proved that at last under the pressure of dire necessity, the Israelites were ready to lay down their tribal jealousies and to acknowledge a common leader. Out of this simple beginning rose the united Hebrew kingdom and that empire of David which left so deep an impression upon all Hebrew literature and thought ======================================================================== CHAPTER 63: 063. XLII. THE GREAT VICTORY OVER THE PHILISTINES ======================================================================== § XLII. THE GREAT VICTORY OVER THE PHILISTINES 1 Samuel 13-14 1. Outbreak of the war. Saul chose him three thousand men of Israel: two thousand were with Saul in Michmash and on the mountain of Bethel, and a thousand were with Jonathan his son in Gibeah of Benjamin. But the rest of the people he had sent each to his home. Then Jonathan smote the garrison of the Philistines that was in Gibeah. And the Philistines heard the report that the Hebrews had revolted. But Saul had meantime caused the trumpet to be blown throughout all the land. And all Israel heard the report that Saul had smitten the garrison of the Philistines, and also that Israel had brought itself into ill repute with the Philistines. 2. Advance of the Philistines. And the Philistines were gathered together to fight with Israel. When the men of Israel saw that they were in a strait (for the people were hard pressed), the people hid themselves in caves, in holes, in rocks, in tombs, and in pits. Also many people went over the Jordan to the land of Gad and Gilead. And Saul numbered the people who were with him, about six hundred men. And Saul and Jonathan his son, together with the people who were with them, were staying in Gibeah of Benjamin, while the Philistines encamped in Michmash. And the plunderers came out of the camp of the Philistines in three divisions: one division turned in the direction of Ophrah, in the land of Shual, and another division turned in the direction of Bethhoron, and another division turned in the direction of the hill that looks down over the valley of Zeboim toward the wilderness. 3. Jonathan’s proposal. And the garrison of the Philistines went out to the pass of Michmash. Now on that day Jonathan the son of Saul said to the young man who bore his armor, Come and let us go over to the Philistines’ garrison, that is on the other side. But he did not tell his father. And Saul was sitting in the outskirts of Gibeah under the pomegranate tree which is by the threshing-floor, and the people who were with him numbered about six hundred men. And Ahijah the son of Ahitub, Ichabod’s brother, the son of Phinehas, the son of Eli, the priest of Jehovah at Shiloh, was in charge of an ephod. And the people did not know that Jonathan had gone. And between the passes by which Jonathan sought to go over to the Philistines’ garrison there was a rocky crag on the one side, and a rocky crag on the other side; and the name of the one was Bozez [the Shining], and the name of the other Seneh [the Thorny]. The one crag rose up on the north in front of Michmash, and the other on the south in front of Geba. And Jonathan said to the young man who bore his armor, Come, let us go over to the garrison of these uncircumcised Philistines; perhaps Jehovah will act for us, for there is nothing that can prevent Jehovah from saving by many or by few. And his armorbearer said to him, Do whatever you think best; see, I am with you; your wish is mine. Then Jonathan said, See, we will pass over to the men and show ourselves to them. If they say to us, ‘Stand still until we can reach you,’ then we will stand still in our place, and will not go up to them. But if they say, ‘Come up to us,’ then we will go up; for Jehovah has given them into our hand; and this shall be the sign to us. 4. Jonathan’s attack. Now when both of them showed themselves to the garrison of the Philistines, the Philistines said, There are Hebrews coming out of the holes where they have hidden themselves. And the men of the garrison cried out to Jonathan and his armorbearer, saying, Come up to us that we may tell you something. Then Jonathan said to his armorbearer, Come up after me; for Jehovah has given them into the hand of Israel. And Jonathan climbed up on his hands and feet, and his armorbearer after him. And they fell before Jonathan, and his armorbearer kept despatching them after him. And in the first attack Jonathan and his armorbearer slew about twenty men with javelins and rocks from the field. And there was a trembling in the camp, in the field, and among all the people; the garrison, and even the raiders also trembled; and the earth quaked so that it produced a very great panic. 5. General attack and defeat of the Philistines. And the watchmen of Saul in Gibeah of Benjamin looked, and saw a tumult surging hither and thither. Then said Saul to the people who were with him, Investigate now and see who is gone from us. And when they had investigated they found that Jonathan and his armorbearer were not there. And Saul said to Ahijah, Bring hither the ephod; for at that time he had charge of the ephod before Israel. And while Saul was yet speaking to the priest, the tumult in the camp of the Philistines kept on increasing. Therefore Saul said to the priest, Draw back your hand. And Saul and all the people that were with him responded to the call, and came to the battle; and thereupon every man’s sword was turned upon his fellow, and there was very great confusion. And the Hebrews, who were with the Philistines heretofore, who had come up into the camp, also turned to be with the Israelites who were with Saul and Jonathan. Likewise all the men of Israel, who were in hiding in the hill-country of Ephraim, when they heard that the Philistines fled, also pursued close after them in the battle. So Jehovah saved Israel that day, and the battle passed over beyond Bethhoron. 6. Saul’s rash vow and Jonathan’s violation of it. And all the people were with Saul, about ten thousand men; and the fighting was scattered over all the hill-country of Ephraim. Then Saul committed a great act of folly that day, for he laid an oath on the people, saying, Cursed is the man who shall eat any food until evening and until I avenge myself on my enemies. So none of the people tasted food. Now there was honey on the surface of the ground, and when the people came to the honeycomb, the bees had just flown away, but no one put his hand to his mouth, for the people feared the oath. But Jonathan had not heard when his father adjured the people; therefore he put forth the end of the rod that was in his hand, and dipped it in the honeycomb and put his hand to his mouth, and his eyes were lightened. Then one of the people spoke up and said, Your father adjured the people saying, ‘Cursed be the man who eats food this day.’ But Jonathan said, My father has brought disaster on the land. See how I have been refreshed, because I have tasted a little of this honey. If only the people had eaten freely to-day of the spoil of their enemies which they found, how much greater would have been the slaughter of the Philistines! 7. Saul’s ceremonial precautions. But they smote the Philistines that day from Michmash to Aijalon, and the people were very faint. Then the people rushed upon the spoil and took sheep and oxen and calves and struck them to the earth, and the people ate them with the blood. When they told Saul, saying, See, the people are sinning against Jehovah in eating with the blood, he said to those who told him, Roll hither to me a great stone. And Saul said, Go out among the people and say to them, ‘Let each man bring to me his ox and his sheep, and slay it here and eat; but do not sin against Jehovah in eating the flesh together with the blood.’ And all the people brought that night, each what he had in his hand, and slew them there. So Saul built an altar to Jehovah; that was the first altar that he built to Jehovah. 8. Penalty of the broken vow. And Saul said, Let us go down after the Philistines by night and plunder among them until daybreak, and let us not leave a man of them. And they said, Do whatever you think best. Then said the priest, Let us here draw near to God. And Saul asked of God, Shall I go down after the Philistines? Wilt thou deliver them into the hand of Israel? But he did not answer him that day. And Saul said, Come hither, all you chiefs of the people and know and see in whom is this guilt to-day. For as Jehovah liveth, who delivereth Israel, though it be in Jonathan my son, he shall surely die. But no one of all the people answered him. Then he said to all Israel, You be on one side, and I and Jonathan my son will be on the other side. And the people said to Saul, Do what seems good to you. Therefore Saul said, Jehovah, God of Israel, why hast thou not answered thy servant this day? If the guilt be in me or in Jonathan my son, Jehovah, God of Israel, give Urim; but if the guilt is in thy people Israel, give Thummim. Then Jonathan and Saul were taken and the people escaped. And Saul said, Cast the lot between me and Jonathan my son. He whom Jehovah shall take, must die. And the people said to Saul, It shall not be so! But Saul overruled the people and they cast the lot between him and Jonathan his son. And Jonathan was taken. 9. Jonathan’s confession and deliverance. Then Saul said to Jonathan, Tell me what you have done. And Jonathan told him, saying, I did indeed taste a little honey with the end of the staff that was in my hand; and here I am! I am ready to die. And Saul said, May God do to me whatever he pleases, you shall surely die, Jonathan! But the people said to Saul, Shall Jonathan die who has wrought this great deliverance in Israel? Far from it! As Jehovah liveth, there shall not one hair of his head fall to the ground, for he has wrought with God this day. Therefore the people rescued Jonathan, so that he did not die. Then Saul went up from pursuing the Philistines; and the Philistines went to their own country. 10. Saul’s military policy. But the war against the Philistines was severe all the days of Saul. And whenever Saul saw any valiant or efficient man, he would attach him to himself. The name of the commander of his army was Abner the son of Ner, Saul’s cousin. And Kish the father of Saul and Ner the father of Abner were sons of Abiel. 11. His wars. Now when Saul had taken the kingdom over Israel, he fought against all his enemies on every side: against Moab, and the Ammonites, and Edom, and Beth-rehob, the king of Zobah, and the Philistines; and wherever he turned he was victorious. And he did mighty deeds and smote the Amalekites and delivered Israel out of the hands of its plunderers. I. Jonathan’s Attack upon the Philistines. Saul went forth to attack the Ammonites simply as a tribal deliverer. When he returned he had been called to the greater task of delivering the Hebrews from their Philistine oppressors. It was his son, Jonathan, however, who made the first attack, capturing the garrison of the Philistines at his native town Gibeah. This attack was the signal for a general Philistine advance. The Israelites, however, were unprepared. Instead of rallying about Saul and Jonathan, they fled before the organized forces of the Philistines. Saul and Jonathan were left with only a few hundred men, and the Hebrew cause seemed hopeless. Finding no real resistance, the Philistine army separated into three divisions and turned to plunder. II. The Capture of the Philistine Stronghold. It was at this critical moment, when the foe were most open to attack, that Jonathan, by his prowess and courage saved his father’s kingdom. The deep valley of the Michmash extends upward from the Jordan, cutting across central Canaan. On the northern side a small Philistine garrison guarded the pass. From the crags on the south Jonathan looked across the valley and conceived the bold plan of a single-handed attack. It is one of the most dramatic scenes in Israel’s history. Accompanied by his brave armorbearer he descended into the valley and then mounted the cliffs to the north, amidst the taunts of the Philistines. Their taunts were changed to wonder and then to fear, when Jonathan mounted the height and boldly attacked them. A panic, possibly, as the narrative suggests, increased by an earthquake, seized the Philistine garrison and quickly spread to the marauding bands. III. The Pursuit of the Philistines. News of the panic among the Philistines was soon brought to Saul. Following the custom of his age, he first turned to consult Jehovah through the priestly ephod before going out to fight with his foes. The increasing tumult, however, expelled all doubt. Without waiting for the divine response, Saul rallied his forces and was soon in hot pursuit. In their terror and confusion the Philistines turned against each other, and even the craven Israelites in their midst rose to join with Saul in the overthrow of their oppressors. Down across the hill country of Ephraim and beyond the passes of Bethhoron, the Philistines were driven in mad flight, and the Hebrews learned at last that their hated oppressors were not invincible. IV. Saul’s Rash Vow. In his eagerness to overcome his foes Saul, like Jephthah, made a rash vow. It was that he who tasted food until evening should die. Jonathan, however, who was in the van of the pursuit, unaware of his father’s vow, transgressed the ban. When his father’s vow was reported to him, with justice he condemned it. Later when Saul failed to secure a response to the divine oracle—perhaps because the priests knew of Jonathan’s act and were not ready to absolve Saul from the consequences of his vow—the king concluded that some one had disobeyed his solemn command. Accordingly he inquired through the sacred lot who was guilty. Jonathan, his son, proved to be the culprit. With a fearlessness and frankness that characterizes all that is recorded of this noble knight, Jonathan stated what he had done and declared that he was ready to die. Although he had won for Saul a throne and kingdom, he would have died to fulfil his father’s rash vow had not the people redeemed him. V. Saul’s Wars. The initial victory over the Philistines was far from decisive; but until the end of Saul’s reign the Philistines appear to have made no serious and united attempt to reconquer central Canaan. The hostilities between the two peoples took the form rather of border warfare. Hostile bands made a sudden attack on some outlying town, slaying the inhabitants and carrying away the spoil, and escaped before the pursuers could overtake them. A similar counter-attack would soon follow, and thus the petty wars of reprisal continued, apparently without intermission, throughout Saul’s reign. From the south those Bedouin wanderers, the Amalekites, invaded Canaan. To prevent their repeated attacks, Saul appears to have pursued them out into their wilderness home, and for the time being to have intimidated them. The biblical narrative also states that Saul carried on similar wars with the Edomites and Moabites to the south-east and with certain Aramean tribes in the north. Thus, with the exception of the Phoenicians on the north-west, Saul’s little kingdom was encircled by a close ring of active foes. His court was the camp, his sceptre the sword, and his nobles the warriors who rallied about him in defence of Israel’s liberties. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 64: 064. THE DECLINE OF SAUL AND THE RISE OF DAVID ======================================================================== THE DECLINE OF SAUL AND THE RISE OF DAVID ======================================================================== CHAPTER 65: 065. XLIII. DAVID’S INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC LIFE ======================================================================== § XLIII. DAVID’S INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC LIFE 1 Samuel 16:14-23, 1 Samuel 17:1-58; 1 Samuel 18:6-16; 1 Samuel 14:49-50; 1 Samuel 18:20-29; 1 Samuel 19:1-17 1. David’s introduction to the court of Saul. Now the spirit of Jehovah had departed from Saul and an evil spirit from Jehovah tormented him. And Saul’s servants said to him, See now, an evil spirit from Jehovah is tormenting you. Let your servants who are before you speak and they will seek for our lord a man skilful in playing the lyre. Then, whenever the evil spirit comes upon you, he shall play with his hands, and you will be better. Then Saul said to his servants, Provide me now a man who plays well, and bring him to me. Thereupon one of the young men answered and said, Behold, I have seen a son of Jesse the Bethlehemite who is skilful in playing and a valiant man, a soldier, judicious in speech, a man of good appearance, and Jehovah is with him. Therefore Saul sent messengers to Jesse and said, Send me David your son, who is with the flock. And Jesse took ten loaves of bread, and a skin of wine, and a kid, and sent them to Saul by David his son. So David came to Saul and entered his service; and Saul loved him so much that he became one of his armorbearers. And Saul sent to Jesse, saying, Let David enter my service, for he has found favor in my sight. And whenever the evil spirit from God came upon Saul, David would take the lyre and play with his hand and Saul would breathe freely and would feel better and the evil spirit would depart from him. 2. Goliath’s challenge to the Hebrews. Now the Philistines mustered together their forces for war, and they were gathered together at Socoh, which belongs to Judah, and encamped between Socoh and Azekah, in Ephesdammim. And Saul and the men of Israel were gathered together and encamped in the valley of Elah; and they drew up in battle-array against the Philistines. And the Philistines were standing on the mountain on the one side, and the Israelites were standing on the mountain on the other side, and the valley was between them. And there came out a champion from the camp of the Philistines, named Goliath of Gath, whose height was about ten feet. And he had a helmet of bronze upon his head, and he was clad with a bronze breast-plate of scales, the weight of which was about two hundred pounds. And he had greaves of bronze upon his legs and a javelin of bronze between his shoulders. And the shaft of his spear was like a weaver’s beam, and the head of his iron spear weighed about twenty-four pounds; and his shield-bearer went before him. And he stood and cried out to the ranks of Israel and said to them, Why have you come out to draw up the line of battle? Am not I a Philistine and you Saul’s servants? Choose a man for yourselves and let him come down to me. If he be able to fight with me and kill me, then we will be your servants; but if I prevail against him and kill him, then shall you be our servants and serve us. And the Philistine said, I have insulted the ranks of Israel to-day; give me a man that we may fight together. And when Saul and all Israel heard these words of the Philistine, they were terrified and greatly afraid. 3. David’s offer to fight with Goliath. But David said to Saul, Let not my lord’s courage fail him; your servant will go and fight with this Philistine. And Saul said to David, you are not able to go against this Philistine to fight with him, for you are only a youth and he has been a warrior from his youth. But David said to Saul, Your servant was a shepherd with his father’s flock; and when a lion, or a bear would come and take a lamb out of the flock, I would go out after him and smite him and deliver it from his mouth; and if he rose up against me, I would seize him by his beard, and slay him with a blow. Your servant smote both lion and bear. Now this uncircumcised Philistine shall be like one of them, since he has insulted the armies of the living God. David also said, Jehovah who delivered me from the paw of the lion, and from the paw of the bear, will deliver me from the hand of this Philistine. Therefore Saul said to David, Go, and may Jehovah be with you. 4. The arming. And Saul clothed David with his garments, and put a helmet of bronze on his head and clad him with a coat of mail. And David girded his sword over his coat and made a vain attempt to go, for he had not tried them. Then David said to Saul, I cannot go with these, for I have not tried them. And David put them off him. 5. The preliminaries. And he took his club in his hand, and chose five smooth stones out of the brook and put them in his bag, and took his sling in his hand, and he drew near to the Philistine. And when the Philistine looked and saw David, he despised him, for he was but a youth. And the Philistine said to David, Am I a dog that you come to me with a club? And the Philistine cursed David by his gods. And the Philistine said to David, Come to me that I may give your flesh to the birds of the heavens and to the beasts of the field. Then David answered the Philistine, You come to me with a sword and a spear and a javelin, But I come to you in the name of Jehovah of hosts, And the God of the ranks of Israel whom you have insulted. To-day Jehovah will deliver you into my hands, That I may smite you and cut off your head; And I will this day give the dead of the army of the Philistines To the birds of the heavens and to the wild beasts of the earth, That all the world may know that there is a God in Israel, And that all this assembly may know That not with the sword and spear doth Jehovah save, For the battle is Jehovah’s and he will give you into our hand. 6. The duel. Then when the Philistine arose and came and drew near to meet David, David put his hand in his bag and took from it a stone and slung it and smote the Philistine on his forehead; and the stone sank into his forehead, so that he fell on his face to the earth. Then David ran and stood over the Philistine, and took his sword, and drew it out of its sheath, and slew him, and cut off his head with it. 7. Flight of the Philistines. When the Philistines saw that their champion was dead, they fled. And the men of Israel and Judah arose and raised the battle-cry and pursued the Philistines to the entrance to Gath and to the gates of Ekron, so that the wounded of the Philistines fell down on the way from Shaaraim, even to Gath and Ekron. And when the Israelites returned from pursuing the Philistines, they plundered their camp, but David took the head of the Philistine and brought it to Jerusalem; and he put his armor in his tent. 8. David’s popularity. Now when they came back, as David returned from slaying the Philistine, the women came out dancing from all the cities of Israel to meet Saul the king with tambourines, with cries of rejoicing, and with cymbals. And the women sang to each other as they danced, and said, Saul has slain his thousands, But David his ten thousands. 9. Saul’s fear of him. And it made Saul very angry, and this saying displeased him, and he said, They ascribed to David ten thousands, while to me they ascribed but thousands, and what can he have more but the kingdom? And Saul kept his eye on David from that day forward. And Saul was afraid of David. Therefore Saul removed him from him, and made him his commander over a thousand; and he went out and came in at the head of the people. And David acted wisely and prospered in all his ways, for Jehovah was with him. And when Saul saw that he acted wisely and prospered, he stood in dread of him. But all Israel and Judah loved David, for he went out and came in at their head. 10. Saul’s family. Now the sons of Saul were: Jonathan, Ishbaal, and Malchishua. And these are the names of his two daughters: the eldest, Merab, the youngest, Michal. And the name of Saul’s wife was Ahinoam the daughter of Ahimaaz. 11. David’s marriage with Michal. And Michal, Saul’s daughter, loved David. And when they told Saul, he was pleased. And Saul said, I will give her to him, that she may be a snare to him and that the hand of the Philistines may be upon him. So Saul commanded his servants, saying, Communicate with David secretly and say, ‘See, the king is pleased with you and all his servants love you; now therefore become the king’s son-in-law.’ And Saul’s servants spoke these words in the ears of David. And David said, Is it an easy thing in your opinion to become the king’s son-in-law, when I am a poor man and of no reputation? And the servants of Saul told him saying, David spoke thus. And Saul said, Thus shall you say to David, ‘The king desires no bride-price, but a hundred foreskins of the Philistines, in order to take vengeance on the king’s enemies.’ But Saul thought to make David fall by the hand of the Philistines. And when his servants told David these words, David was well pleased with the prospect of being the king’s son-in-law. And the days were not yet expired; and David arose and went together with his men and slew of the Philistines a hundred men; and David brought their foreskins and paid them in full to the king, in order to become the king’s son-in-law. Therefore Saul gave him Michal his daughter as wife. And when Saul saw and knew that Jehovah was with David and that all Israel loved him, Saul feared David still more. 12. Jonathan’s intercession. And Saul commanded Jonathan his son and all his servants to put David to death. But Jonathan, Saul’s son, was very fond of David. And Jonathan spoke well of David to Saul his father, and said to him, Let not the king sin against his servant David, because he has not sinned against you and because his conduct toward you has been exceedingly good; for he took his life in his hand and smote the Philistine, and Jehovah wrought a great deliverance for Israel. You saw it and rejoiced. Why then will you sin against innocent blood, in slaying David without a cause? And Saul harkened to the voice of Jonathan; and Saul gave an oath, As Jehovah liveth, he shall not be put to death. And Jonathan called David, and Jonathan made known to him all these words. And Jonathan brought David to Saul, so that he was again in his presence as formerly. 13. Saul’s attempt to kill David. But when there was war again, David went out and fought against the Philistines, and slew great numbers of them, so that they fled before him. Then an evil spirit from Jehovah came upon Saul, while he was sitting in his house with his spear in his hand, and David was playing on the lyre. And Saul sought to pin David to the wall with the spear, but he slipped away out of Saul’s presence, so that he smote the spear into the wall, and David fled and escaped. 14. David’s escape. And that night Saul sent messengers to David’s house to watch him, so as to kill him in the morning. But Michal, David’s wife, told him, saying, If you do not save your life to-night, to-morrow you will be slain. So Michal let David down through the window; and he fled away and escaped. And Michal took the household god and laid it in the bed, and put a cloth of goat’s hair for its head and covered it with the garment. And when Saul sent messengers to take David, she said, He is sick. Then Saul sent the messengers to see David, saying, Bring him up to me in the bed, that I may put him to death. And when the messengers came in, there the household god was in the bed, with the cloth of goat’s hair for its pillow. And Saul said to Michal, Why have you deceived me thus, and let my enemy go, so that he has escaped? And Michal answered Saul, He said to me, ‘Let me go; why should I kill you?’ I. The Various Accounts of David’s Achievements. With the sixteenth chapter of I Samuel, the interest of the narrative passes from Saul to David. In a series of closely connected, graphic narratives the story of David’s rapid rise to the kingship is vividly told. This ancient Judean David narrative is paralleled or supplemented by certain popular stories, evidently taken from the lips of the people. One or two stories, which magnify the work of Samuel, come from the group of prophetic traditions which were probably treasured by the later guilds of the prophets. II. David’s Introduction to the Court of Saul. As king of Israel, it was almost impossible that Saul should remain “among the prophets.” Later tradition suggests that early in his reign he alienated the prophets. One tradition of the war against the Amalekites states that the reason was because Saul failed to carry out Samuel’s demand that all the captive foes be slain. In a subsequent period, one of the sons of the prophets in the same way denounced Ahab, because he refused to slay the captive Aramean king, Benhadad. The narrative at least suggests the wide difference in point of view and policy between Saul, the war-like and patriotic king, and the sons of the prophets, who, in their religious zeal, did not hesitate to exterminate all of Jehovah’s foes. The harassing wars in which Saul was constantly involved evidently wore upon the stalwart, patriotic defender of his subjects. The sense of isolation, and of failure to unite all the varied elements in his kingdom also undoubtedly increased his malady. This disease has been diagnosed by modern medical authorities as either epilepsy or else acute melancholia. Suddenly, the strong, energetic warrior would become morose and malignant. In the popular thought of his day an evil spirit tormented him. Following the advice of his servants, Saul consented to have them secure some one skilled in playing the lyre to soothe him, when these attacks seized him. It was thus, according to the earliest narrative, that David, the son of Jesse, was brought to the court of Saul. The picture which is given of him is remarkably clear and detailed. Far from being the stripling of the later popular tradition, David was already a famous warrior, who had won renown on the battle-field. To him the giant Saul was soon ready to intrust his life, as is shown by his making David one of his armorbearers. He was also as skilled in the use of his tongue as of his sword. Already he was famous for his tactful speech. These qualities and his attractive appearance constituted the charm which enabled David in time to win the affectionate regard of practically all the varied elements in Saul’s heterogeneous kingdom. This invincible winning power and his success on the battle-field were doubtless the basis of the popular conviction that “Jehovah was with him.” III. David’s Contest with Goliath. In the Greek text of the seventeenth chapter of I Samuel only one account of David’s contest with Goliath is recorded. This version was apparently taken from the early David stories, and is the immediate sequel to the account of David’s introduction to the court of Saul. In the Hebrew text, however, a popular version of the story has been closely combined with the account given in the Greek text. This later account is the more familiar because it is the more dramatic. David is here represented as a mere shepherd lad, sent by his father with provisions for his brothers in the army. Volunteering to go out and slay the Philistine champion, he is brought into the presence of Saul and Abner, who, according to this popular story, had never before heard of David. In the popular account of the achievements of David’s warriors, the slaying of Goliath, the Gittite, whose sword was like a weaver’s beam, is attributed to one of David’s fellow-townsmen, Elhanan. It is evident however, that Goliath was not slain three times. The close connection of the Greek (and less familiar Hebrew) version of David’s victory with the preceding and following extracts from the early Judean David stories strongly favors the conclusion that it is the earliest and most authentic account of the event. Hence, there is good historical ground for believing that Goliath was slain by the hand of Saul’s valiant armor-bearer. In view of his important position in the army, it was natural that David should feel under obligation to champion the Hebrew cause. He must, like Saul, have been a man of gigantic stature, otherwise the king would not have suggested that he put on the royal armor. David refused to wear it, not because he was overpowered by its weight, but because he had had no experience in its use. He wisely employed the weapon with which he was most familiar. His gigantic opponent was armed with the sword and javelin with which men fought hand to hand. In fighting at a distance the two weapons commonly used by the Hebrew warriors were the sling and bow. A later tradition, preserved in Chronicles, states that the Benjamite warriors were famous for their effective use of the sling. In the trained hand of a skilled warrior like David, the sling and shot corresponded to the rifle of modern warfare. With this weapon of his childhood days David, the royal armorbearer, went out and slew the champion of the Philistines. According to the earliest version of the tradition, it was as the result of this valiant deed that David suddenly leaped into national prominence and popularity. IV. Saul’s Jealousy of David. The slaughter of Goliath was followed by a signal victory over the Philistines. When the Hebrew warriors returned from battle, the women came out to greet them with a song of triumph. In that song David was exalted above Israel’s king. The situation was one to arouse jealousy, even in a better-balanced mind than that of Saul. The kingship was not yet a well-established institution. To maintain his position the king must be recognized as the strongest man in his realm. Saul’s authority rested almost entirely on his military achievements. Suddenly his glory had been eclipsed by that of another, who not only had the support of the powerful tribe of Judah but was also endowed with a unique personal charm. It would appear that David at this time was innocent of any deliberate attempt to undermine the authority of Saul. His moderation at a later crisis (§ XLV), and Jonathan’s trust and devotion further confirm this conclusion. There was much, however, to arouse Saul’s suspicion. His pathetic position calls for sympathy rather than harsh condemnation. While under the malign influence of his malady, he plotted how he might put out of the way this dangerous rival, but in each attempt he failed. That divine Providence, which was guiding the fortunes of Israel, was also protecting and preparing the man who was destined to be its future deliverer. V. The Importance of David’s Experience at Saul’s Court. David’s experience as a shepherd, following the flocks among the rugged Judean hills, developed a strong, rugged physique. His contest with the wild beasts trained him for the later contests with men. At the court of Saul he became acquainted with the forces and leaders who were determining the course of Israel’s history. He also gained an insight into the real needs of his nation. His brilliant achievements and fascinating personality won the favor of all ranks. It was also during this period that he attracted to himself certain adventurous souls, who followed him in his fugitive life and remained loyal to him through his many varied fortunes, until he finally became the head of a great and powerful empire. At the military court of Saul and in his numerous forays against the Philistines, he became acquainted with the military tactics of his day and learned not only how to lead, but also how to effectively direct large bodies of men. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 66: 066. XLIV. DAVID AS A FUGITIVE ======================================================================== § XLIV. DAVID AS A FUGITIVE 1 Samuel 20, 1 Samuel 21:1-9, 1 Samuel 22 1. David’s interview with Jonathan. Then David came and said before Jonathan, What have I done? What is my guilt? And what is my sin before your father, that he is seeking my life? And he replied to him, Far be it! You shall not die. See, my father does nothing great or small, but that he discloses it to me; and why should my father hide this from me? Not so. And David answered and said, Your father well knows that I have found favor in your eyes, and he is saying to himself, ‘Let not Jonathan know this, lest he be pained.’ Nevertheless as surely as Jehovah liveth, and as you live, there is but a step between me and death. Then Jonathan said to David, What do you desire to have me do for you? And David answered Jonathan, Behold, to-morrow is the new moon and I should not fail to sit at the table with the king; therefore let me go and I will hide myself in the field until evening. If your father misses me, then say, ‘David urgently asked leave of me to run to Bethlehem his city; for the yearly sacrifice is there for all the family.’ If he says ‘Good,’ then it is well with your servant; but if it arouses his anger, then know that evil is determined upon by him. Now deal kindly with your servant, for you have brought your servant into a sacred covenant with yourself; but if there is guilt in me, slay me yourself, for why should you bring me to your father? And Jonathan said, Far be it from you! for if I should learn that my father had determined that evil should come upon you, I would tell you. Then David said to Jonathan, Who will tell me, if your father answers me harshly? And Jonathan replied to David, Come, and let us go out into the field. So the two of them went out into the field. 2. The covenant between them. And Jonathan said to David, Jehovah, the God of Israel, be witness that I will sound my father about this time tomorrow, and if he is well disposed toward David, then I will send and disclose it to you. God do to Jonathan whatever he will, should my father be disposed to do you evil, and I disclose it not to you and send you away that you may go in peace. And may Jehovah be with you, as he has been with my father. And if I am yet alive, O may you show me the kindness of Jehovah! But if I should die, may you never withdraw your kindness from my house. And if, when Jehovah hath cut off the enemies of David, every one from the face of the earth, the name of Jonathan should be cut off by the house of David, may Jehovah require it at the hand of David’s enemies. So Jonathan took oath again to David, because of his love to him; for with all his heart he loved him. 3. Their plan. Then Jonathan said to him, To-morrow is the new moon and you will be missed, because your seat will be empty. And on the third day you will be greatly missed. Then you shall come to the place where you hid yourself on the day of the affair, and you shall sit down there beside the heap of stones. And on the third day I will shoot arrows on one side of it, as though I shot at a mark. Then, I will send the lad, saying,’ Go, find the arrows.’ If I say to the lad, ‘See, the arrows are on this side of you; pick them up!’—then come; for it is well for you, and, as Jehovah liveth, there is nothing the matter. But if I say to the boy, ‘See, the arrows are beyond you,’ go, for then Jehovah sendeth you away. And as to the word which you and I have spoken, behold, Jehovah is witness between you and me forever. 4. Discovery of Saul’s feeling toward David. So David hid himself in the field; and when the new moon came, the king sat down at the table to eat. And the king sat upon his seat as usual, even on the seat by the wall, and Jonathan sat opposite, and Abner sat by Saul’s side; but David’s place was empty. Nevertheless Saul did not say anything that day, for he thought, It is an accident, he is not ceremonially clean, for he has not been cleansed. But when on the day following the new moon, David’s place was empty, Saul said to Jonathan his son, Why has not the son of Jesse come to the meal, either yesterday or to-day? And Jonathan answered Saul, David urgently asked leave of me to go to Bethlehem, for he said, ‘Let me go, since our family has a sacrifice in the city; and my brothers have commanded me. Now if I have found favor in your sight, let me slip away and see my kinsmen.’ Hence he has not come to the king’s table. Then Saul’s anger was kindled against Jonathan, and he said to him, Son of a depraved woman! Do I not know that you are associated with the son of Jesse to your own shame and to the shame of your mother’s nakedness? For as long as the son of Jesse lives on the earth, neither you nor your kingdom will be established. Therefore now send and bring him to me, for he is doomed to die. Then Jonathan answered Saul his father and said to him, Why should he be put to death? What has he done? But Saul lifted up his spear at him to smite him. So Jonathan knew that his father had determined to put David to death. Therefore Jonathan rose from the table in hot anger, and ate no food the second day of the month, for he was grieved for David, because his father reviled him. 5. The warning. But in the morning Jonathan went out into the field at the time appointed with David, and a little lad with him. And he said to his lad, Run, find now the arrows which I shoot. And as the lad ran, he shot an arrow beyond him. And when the lad came to the place where the arrow which Jonathan had shot lay, Jonathan cried after the lad, and said, Is not the arrow beyond you? And Jonathan cried after the lad, Hurry, quick, do not stop! So Jonathan’s lad gathered up the arrows, and brought them to his master. But the lad had no knowledge of anything; only Jonathan and David understood the matter. 6. The final parting. And Jonathan gave his weapons to his lad, and said to him, Go, carry them to the city. And as soon as the lad had gone, David rose from beside the stone heap, and fell on his face to the ground and prostrated himself three times, and they kissed each other and wept long together. Then Jonathan said to David, Go in peace! As to what we two have sworn in the name of Jehovah—Jehovah will be between me and you and between my descendants and your descendants forever. Then David rose and departed and Jonathan went into the city. 7. David’s flight to the priest at Nob. And David came to Nob, to Ahimelech the priest. And Ahimelech came trembling to meet David and said to him, Why are you alone and no one with you? And David answered Ahimelech the priest, The king has entrusted me with a matter and has said to me, ‘Let no one know anything about the matter upon which I am sending you and which I have commanded you’; and I have directed the young men to meet me at a certain place. Now, therefore, if you have five loaves of bread at hand, or whatever can be found, give it to me. And the priest answered David, saying, There is no ordinary bread at hand, but there is holy bread, if only the young men have kept themselves from women. And David answered the priest and said to him, Of a truth women have been kept from us; as always when I set out on an expedition, the weapons of the young men were consecrated, though it is but an ordinary journey; how much more then to-day shall their weapons be holy! So the priest gave him holy bread, for there was no bread there but the showbread, that was taken from before Jehovah in order to put hot bread there the day it was taken away. Now one of the servants of Saul was there that day, detained before Jehovah, by the name of Doeg, an Edomite, the chief of Saul’s herdsmen. And David said to Ahimelech, Have you not here at hand a spear or sword? For I brought neither my sword nor my weapons with me, because the king’s matter required haste. And the priest said, The sword of Goliath, the Philistine whom you slew in the valley of Elah, there it is wrapped in a garment behind the ephod. If you wish to take that, take it, for there is no other except that here. And David said, There is none like that, give it to me. 8. David as an outlaw leader. David therefore departed thence and escaped to the stronghold of Adullam. And when his brethren and all his father’s clan heard it, they went down there to him. And every one who was in distress, and every one who was in debt, and every one who was embittered gathered about him, and he became their leader. And there were with him about four hundred men. 9. His parents with the king of Moab. And David went from there to Mizpeh in Moab; and he said to the king of Moab, Let my father and my mother dwell with you, until I know what God will do for me. And he left them in the presence of the king of Moab; and they dwelt with him all the while that David was in the stronghold. 10. Doeg’s malicious testimony. Now when Saul heard that David and the men with him were discovered (Saul was sitting in Gibeah, under the tamarisk-tree on the high place, with his spear in his hand, and all his servants were standing about him), Saul said to his servants who were standing before him, Hear O Benjamites! Will the son of Jesse likewise give you all fields and vineyards? Will he make you all commanders of thousands and commanders of hundreds, that all of you have conspired against me, and no one discloses to me that my son has made a covenant with the son of Jesse, and none of you has pity upon me or discloses to me that my son has stirred up my servant to be an enemy against me, as is now the case? Then Doeg the Edomite, who was standing by the servants of Saul, answered and said, I saw the son of Jesse coming to Nob, to Ahimelech the son of Ahitub. And he inquired of God for him and gave him provisions and the sword of Goliath the Philistine. 11. Slaughter of the priests. Then the king summoned Ahimelech the priest, the son of Ahitub, and all his father’s house, the priests who were in Nob, and they came all of them to the king. And Saul said, Hear now, O son of Ahitub! And he answered, Here am I, my lord! And Saul said to him, Why have you, together with the son of Jesse, conspired against me, in that you have given him bread and a sword and have inquired of God for him, that he should rise against me as an enemy, as is now the case? Then Ahimelech answered the king and said, But who among all your servants is like David, trusted and the king’s son-in-law and captain over your retainers and honored in your household? Is this the first time I have inquired of God for him? Far be it from me! Let not the king impute anything to his servant nor to any one of my clan, for your servant did not know the slightest thing about all this. But the king said, You shall surely die, Ahimelech, together with all your clan. And the king said to the runners who stood before him, Turn about and slay the priests of Jehovah, for their hand also was with David, and, although they knew that he was fleeing, they did not disclose it to me. But the servants of the king would not put forth their hands to strike down the priests of Jehovah. Then the king said to Doeg, Turn and strike down the priests. And Doeg the Edomite turned and himself struck down the priests. So he slew on that day eighty-five men who wore the ephod. And the priestly city Nob he put to the sword, both men and women, children and infants, oxen and asses and sheep. 12. Abiathar’s escape. And one of the sons of Ahimelech the son of Ahitub, named Abiathar, escaped and fled to David. And Abiathar told David that Saul had slain the priests of Jehovah. And David said to Abiathar, I knew that day, because Doeg the Edomite was there, that he would surely tell Saul. I myself am guilty of all the lives of your clan. Remain with me, fear not; for whoever seeks your life must also seek mine, since you are placed in my charge. I. The Friendship of David and Jonathan. The history of this period is for the most part a record of intrigue and rivalry and bloodshed. It is this dark background that brings out in clearest relief the noble friendship of David and Jonathan. That friendship is unique because of the two characters who figure in it. Jonathan, the heir-apparent, had, like his father, good ground for viewing with suspicion David’s rapid rise to popularity. It was remarkable, on the other hand, that David could place his trust and life in the keeping of the son of Saul. It was clearly a case of two noble souls overleaping the seemingly insuperable barriers which separated them, and meeting under the attraction of a strong and genuine affection. Of the two friends Jonathan figures as the nobler and more unselfish, for his friendship with David cost him the more. In the face of his father’s suspicion and opposition, he persisted in being loyal to him whom the course of events was rapidly carrying toward the throne. II. The Proof of Jonathan’s Friendship. Saul had clearly revealed his jealousy of David, while under the power of his evil malady. David, however, was loath to bid farewell to the court before he was sure that Saul’s anger was more than a passing tempest. Accordingly the two friends agreed upon a practical plan for discovering the real state of Saul’s mind. It was apparently the custom for all members of the different Hebrew clans to assemble that they might together celebrate the feast of the new moon. The reason offered for David’s absence was therefore plausible. Saul’s burst of anger clearly revealed his attitude toward his armorbearer. For David to have returned would have been to court death. Only one course remained, and that was to seek safety in flight. The danger of an open meeting between the two friends was obvious. Their plan of communicating secretly with each other proved effective. Tradition also gives a touching picture of their final parting. III. David and the Priests of Nob. David naturally fled southward toward his home and kinsmen. As he fled, he found himself half famished near the priestly town of Nob, a little north of Jerusalem. To have confessed that he was fleeing from the jealous, half-insane Saul, would have been to warn the priests and to cut off all possibility of receiving food. David yielded to the strong temptation to deceive, and deliberately withheld the actual facts. To satisfy David’s need, Ahimelech, the priest, disregarded the ceremonial law and gave him some of the sacred showbread, which was to be eaten only by members of the priestly families. Refreshed, and armed with the sword of Goliath the Philistine, David departed to enter upon his outlaw life. IV. David’s Followers. Adullam, with its numerous caves and its commanding position on the western headlands of Judah, which look out upon the Philistine plain, became for a time the home of David and his followers. It was within the territory of Canaan, in close touch with Saul’s court and with David’s kinsmen in the south, and yet on the border line just beyond the reach of Saul’s sword. Here there rallied about him a heterogeneous group of followers. They included the warriors in his father’s clan—Joab probably among them—and the outcasts and refugees from Saul’s court and from the neighboring tribes and kingdoms. In the later list of his valiant warriors appear the names of Hittites, Edomites, and Philistines. They joined David doubtless because of admiration for his achievements, and because he could promise them adventure and spoil. The task of leading, controlling and satisfying the rough, mixed elements that gathered about him was a severe test even for the genius of a David, and proved a valuable training for one who was destined to become king of the jealous factions of Northern and Southern Israel. As an exile from Saul’s court, he was at liberty and in a position to make alliances with Israel’s foes. Among the Moabites he found shelter and hospitality for his father and mother, whose lives would not have been safe in Saul’s kingdom. V. The Fate of the Priests of Nob. The narrative contains a striking illustration of the dangers and fatal consequences of falsehood. When David came as a fugitive to the priests at Nob, there was present by chance a certain Edomite by the name of Doeg, the Iago of early Hebrew history. He had evidently escaped the charm of David’s personality. His sole aim appears to have been, by fair means or foul, to ingratiate himself into Saul’s favor. Possibly he also had a personal grudge against the priests of Nob. At the moment when Saul’s suspicions were aroused against David, Doeg, with diabolical cunning, told him how the young Judean was received by Ahimelech the priest. Under the influence of his mad frenzy, Saul at once summoned the priests and charged them with conspiracy. Unfortunately, Ahimelech was unaware of the estrangement between the king and David, so that his answer only increased Saul’s fury. None of the king’s followers responded to his command to slay the innocent priests except the despicable Edomite. Abiathar the son of Ahimelech alone escaped and found refuge with David, who expressed deep contrition at the consequences of his deception. Thus it was that Saul alienated still further the religious leaders of his kingdom. He presents a pathetic picture. At the moment when he was most in need of sane counsellors, he stood almost alone. In driving David from his court, he not only lost the services of his ablest warrior and leader, but also weakened the loyalty of the strong southern tribes. The better elements in his kingdom must have viewed his policy askance. Priests and prophets condemned his acts and refused to interpret to him Jehovah’s will. Under the mad impulse of the moment, the patriot, who was ready to die for his people, figured in the rôle of a cruel tyrant. In the presence of his powerful pitiless foes, the shadows which suggested the coming end already began to gather about Israel’s first king. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 67: 067. XLV. DAVID’S LIFE AS AN OUTLAW ======================================================================== § XLV. DAVID’S LIFE AS AN OUTLAW 1 Samuel 23, 26, 26 1. Disclosure of David’s hiding place to Saul. Now when David was told, The Philistines are fighting against Keilah and are robbing the threshing floors, David inquired of Jehovah, saying, Shall I go and attack these Philistines? And Jehovah said to David, Go, attack the Philistines, and save Keilah. But David’s men said to him, Behold we are afraid here in Judah; how much more then if we go to Keilah against the armies of the Philistines. Then David inquired of Jehovah yet again. And Jehovah answered him, saying, Arise, go down to Keilah, for I will deliver the Philistines into thy hand. So David and his men went to Keilah, and fought with the Philistines and drove away their cattle and slew a great many of them. Thus David delivered the inhabitants of Keilah. Now when Abiathar the son of Ahimelech fled to David to Keilah, he came down with the ephod in his hand. And when it was told Saul that David had come to Keilah, Saul said, God has sold him into my hand; for he has entrapped himself in entering into a town that has doors and bars. 2. David’s escape. And Saul summoned all the people to war, to go down to Keilah, to besiege David and his men. And when David knew that Saul was devising evil against him, he said to Abiathar the priest, Bring here the ephod. And David said, O Jehovah, the God of Israel, thy servant hath surely heard that Saul is seeking to come to Keilah, to destroy the city because of me. Will Saul come down, as thy servant hath heard? O Jehovah, God of Israel, I beseech thee, tell thy servant. And Jehovah said, He will come down. Then David said, Will the men of Keilah deliver me and my men into the hand of Saul? And Jehovah said, They will deliver thee up. Then David and his men, who were about six hundred, arose and departed from Keilah, and wandered hither and thither. And when it was reported to Saul that David had escaped from Keilah, he abandoned his expedition. So David dwelt in the wilderness in the strongholds and remained in the hill-country in the Wilderness of Ziph. 3. Saul’s pursuit of David. Then the Ziphites came to Saul at Gibeah, saying, Is not David hiding in the hill of Hachilah, which is east of the desert? Accordingly Saul arose, and went down to the Wilderness of Ziph, having three thousand men of Israel with him, to seek David in the Wilderness of Ziph. And Saul encamped in the hill of Hachilah, which is east of the desert on the way. But David remained in the wilderness. And when he saw that Saul was following him into the wilderness, David sent out spies and learned that Saul had come from Keilah. And David arose and came to the place where Saul had encamped. And David saw the place where Saul, with Abner the son of Ner, the commander of his army lay, and Saul lay within the barricade, and the people were encamped round about him. 4. David’s regard for Saul’s life. Then David spoke and said to Ahimelech the Hittite and to Abishai the son of Zeruiah, Joab’s brother, saying, Who will go down with me to Saul to the camp? And Abishai said, I will go down with you. So David and Abishai came to the people by night; and Saul was lying there asleep within the barricade, with his spear stuck into the earth at his head, with Abner and the people lying round about him. Then Abishai said to David, God has delivered your enemy into your hand to-day. Now therefore let me smite him with his spear to the earth at one stroke, and I will not need to smite him twice! But David said to Abishai, Destroy him not; for who can lay his hand upon Jehovah’s anointed and be innocent? And David said, As Jehovah liveth, either Jehovah shall smite him, or his day shall come to die, or he shall go down into battle and be destroyed. Jehovah forbid that I should put forth my hand against Jehovah’s anointed; but now take the spear that is at his head and the jug of water and let us go. So David took the spear and the jug of water from Saul’s head and they departed. And no man saw it or knew it, neither did any awake, for they were all asleep because a deep sleep from Jehovah had fallen upon them. 5. His words to Saul. Then David went over to the other side and stood on the top of a mountain at a distance, a great space being between them. And David cried to the people and to Abner, the son of Ner, saying, Do you make no answer Abner? Then Abner answered and said, Who are you that calls? And David said to Abner, Are you not a man? And who is like you in Israel? Why then have you not kept guard over your lord the king? For one of the people came to destroy your lord. This that you have done is not good. As Jehovah liveth, you are deserving of death, because you have not kept watch over your lord, Jehovah’s anointed. And now see where the king’s spear is and his jug of water that was at his head. 6. Saul’s reply. Then Saul recognized David’s voice and said, Is this your voice, my son David? And David said, It is my voice, my lord, O king. And he said, Why is my lord pursuing his servant? For what have I done? Or of what kind of evil have I been guilty? Now therefore let my lord the king hear the words of his servant. If Jehovah hath stirred you up against me, let him accept an offering; but if they be men, cursed be they before Jehovah, for they have driven me out to-day, so that I have no part in the inheritance of Jehovah, saying, ‘Go serve other gods.’ Now therefore, may my blood not fall to the earth far away from the presence of Jehovah, for the king of Israel has come out to seek my life, as one hunts a partridge on the mountains. Then Saul said, I have done wrong; return, my son David, for I will do you no more harm, because my life was regarded as sacred by you to-day. I have acted foolishly and have erred exceedingly. And David answered and said, There is the king’s spear! Let one of the young men come over and take it. And Jehovah will reward each man’s righteousness and fidelity; for Jehovah delivered you into my hand to-day, but I would not raise my hand against Jehovah’s anointed. And just as your life was to-day of great value in my sight, so may my life be of great value in Jehovah’s sight, and let him deliver me out of all affliction. Then Saul said to David, Be blessed, my son David; you shall do great things and shall surely succeed! So David went his way, but Saul returned to his place. 7. Nabal the Calebite. Then David arose and went into the wilderness of Maon. And there was a man in Maon, whose business was in Carmel. And the man was very rich, and he had three thousand sheep and a thousand goats, and he was shearing his sheep in Carmel. Now the man’s name was Nabal; and his wife’s name was Abigail; and the woman was sensible and comely, but the man was rough and ill-mannered; and he was a Calebite. 8. David’s message to him. And David heard in the wilderness that Nabal was shearing his sheep. And David sent ten young men, and David said to the young men, Go up to Carmel and enter Nabal’s house and greet him in my name; and you shall say to him and to his clan, ‘Peace be to you and your house and all that you have. And now I have heard that you have shearers. Your shepherds were with us, and we did not jeer at them, and nothing of theirs was missing all the while they were in Carmel. Ask your young men and they will tell you. Therefore let the young men find favor in your eyes, for we have come on a feast day. Give, therefore, whatever you have at hand to your servants and to your son David.’ And when David’s young men came, they spoke to Nabal in the name of David and waited as directed. 9. Nabal’s insulting reply. Then Nabal answered David’s servants, and said, Who is David? And who is the son of Jesse? Many are the slaves these days who break away, each from his master! Should I then take my bread and my water and my meat that I have slain for my shearers, and give it to men of whom I know not whence they are? So David’s young men turned back on their way, and came and reported all these words to him. And David said to his men, Let every man gird on his sword. And they girded on each man his sword. And David also girded on his sword; and there went up after David about four hundred men; and two hundred remained with the baggage. 10. Abigail’s prompt action. But one of the young men had told Abigail, Nabal’s wife, saying, David has just sent messengers from the wilderness to salute our master, and he railed at them. But the men have been very good to us and we have not been jeered at nor have we missed anything, as long as we went with them, when we were in the fields. They were a wall about us both by night and by day all the while we were with them keeping the sheep. Now therefore know and consider what you will do, for evil is determined against our master and against all his house, for he is such a base scoundrel that no one can speak to him. Then Abigail quickly took two hundred loaves of bread and two skins of wine and five roasted sheep and three and a third bushels of parched grain and a hundred bunches of raisins and two hundred cakes of figs and laid them on asses. And she said to her young men, Go on before me; see, I am coming after you. But she said nothing about it to her husband Nabal. And just as she was riding on the ass and coming down under cover of the mountain, David and his men were also coming down toward her, so that she met them. Now David had said, Surely for nothing did I guard all that belongs to this fellow in the wilderness, so that nothing of all that belongs to him was missing, for he has returned me evil for good. God do whatever he will to David, if I leave by daybreak of all who belong to him as much as a single man. 11. Her wise counsel to David. And when Abigail saw David, she alighted quickly from her ass and fell on her face before David and bowed to the ground. And she fell at his feet and said, Upon me, my lord, upon me be the guilt. Only let your maid-servant speak in your ears, and heed the words of your maid-servant. Let not my lord pay any attention to that base scoundrel, Nabal, for as his name is, so is he; Reckless Fool is his name and folly is his master; but your maid-servant saw not the young men of my lord, whom you sent. Now my lord, as Jehovah liveth and as you live, since Jehovah hath kept you from committing an act of bloodshed and from delivering yourself by your own hand—and may your enemies and those who seek to do evil to my lord be as Nabal—let this present, which your maid-servant has brought to my lord, be given to the young men who follow my lord. Forgive, I pray, the trespass of your maid-servant, for Jehovah will certainly make for my lord a secure house, for my lord is fighting the wars of Jehovah, and no evil shall be found in you as long as you live. And should a man rise up to pursue you and to seek your life, the life of my lord shall be bound in the bundle of the living in the care of Jehovah your God, but the lives of your enemies will he sling out, as from the hollow of a sling. And when Jehovah hath done to my lord all the good that he hath promised you and hath made you prince over Israel, then this shall not be a qualm or a burden on the conscience of my lord, that you have shed blood without cause or that my lord has delivered himself by his own hand. And when Jehovah shall give prosperity to my lord, then remember your maid-servant. 12. David’s grateful response. And David said to Abigail, Blessed be Jehovah, the God of Israel, who sent you this day to meet me, and blessed be your discretion, and blessed be you yourself, who have kept me this day from committing an act of bloodshed and from delivering myself by my own hand. For as sure as Jehovah, the God of Israel, liveth, who hath kept me from doing you harm, except you had quickly come to meet me, verily there would not have been left to Nabal by daybreak so much as one man. So David received from her hand that which she had brought him; and to her he said, Go up in peace to your house. See, I have heeded your advice, and granted your request. 13. Death of Nabal. But when Abigail came to Nabal, he was just having a banquet in his house, like a king. And Nabal’s heart was merry within him, for he was very drunk, so that she did not tell him anything at all until daybreak. But then in the morning, when the effects of the wine were gone from Nabal, his wife told him these things, and his heart died within him and he became a stone. And at the end of about ten days Jehovah smote Nabal, so that he died. 14. David’s marriage with Abigail. Now when David heard that Nabal was dead, he said, Blessed be Jehovah who hath avenged the case of my insult at the hand of Nabal and hath kept back his servant from evil; and the evil-doing of Nabal hath Jehovah brought back upon his own head. Thereupon David sent and wooed Abigail to take her to him to be his wife. And when the servants of David came to Abigail at Carmel and said to her, David has sent us to you to take you to him to be his wife, she arose and bowed with her face to the earth and said, See, your slave is willing to be a maid-servant to wash the feet of my lord’s servants. Thereupon Abigail quickly arose and mounted an ass, and five maidens followed as servants. So she accompanied the messengers of David and became his wife. 15. His other wives. David also took Ahinoam of Jezreel, and they both became his wives. But Saul had given Michal his daughter, David’s wife, to Palti the son of Laish of Gallim. I. The Relief of Keilah. Although an exile from Saul’s court, David still maintained his loyalty to the Hebrew cause. When the news came that the Philistines were besieging Keilah, four or five miles southeast of Adullam, David at once consulted Jehovah through the oracle which Abiathar had brought with him. The nature of the ephod or oracle is unknown. Probably it was simply a contrivance by which to cast a sacred lot. The interpretation, however, belonged to the priest. A rare opportunity was thus given for this enlightened representative of Jehovah, under the protection of his sacred office and with divine authority, to counsel David and his followers at each crisis in their varying fortunes. Acting in accordance with the command thus received, David delivered the inhabitants of Keilah, and there made his home until the news of Saul’s pursuit again drove him forth into the wilderness to the southeast of Judah. II. David’s Regard for the Life of Saul. In the rolling, rocky hill country of southern Judah, it was comparatively easy for David and his followers to elude Saul’s pursuit. He was obliged, however, always to reckon with the treachery of the neighboring tribesmen. The Ziphites attempted thus to betray him. David’s followers were, however, familiar with this territory and well aware of Saul’s approach. Two slightly variant versions of the incident have been preserved. The older gives a vivid picture of Saul sleeping soundly on the rocky ground, with his tired warriors about him, protected from the attack of wild beasts by the usual barricade with which the Hebrew army at night was surrounded. David with one of his followers crept so quietly into the camp that Saul lay all unconscious beneath the spear point of Abishai. The cruel laws of ancient warfare prompted David to give the signal which would free him from his malignant pursuer, and perhaps open the way for him to mount the throne; but a higher principle deterred him. In Saul he recognized the man, not only anointed by Samuel, but called by the needs of his age, his own personal ability and the divinely guided course of events to the leadership of his race. Many oriental rulers before and after David mounted the throne by murdering their predecessor; but David deliberately chose the longer and surer way. His act reveals that higher ethical standard which was already beginning to be recognized among Jehovah’s people. The revulsion of feeling which Saul experienced, when he learned of David’s magnanimity was perfectly consistent with his character as revealed elsewhere. For the moment his old love for David returned; but the Judean chieftain had learned not to trust his life to Saul’s changing moods, and therefore wisely kept himself aloof from the Hebrew court. III. The Meanness of Nabal. The problem which confronted David, that of supporting his six hundred restless warriors in the thickly peopled, unproductive border-land of southern Judah, was exceedingly difficult. Occasional forays against hostile Arab tribes in part supplied their needs; but for the most part they were dependent upon the gifts of the neighboring friendly clans. From time immemorial one unwritten law of the border-land had been that the shepherds and villagers should pay the neighboring nomadic tribesmen for immunity from attack. The other well established law of hospitality required that, especially at the annual festivals, those who had possessions should share liberally with those who had not. In the code of Deuteronomy this principle is definitely expressed in the command to share the festal meal with the poor Levites and resident aliens. In demanding a liberal gift from Nabal, the wealthy Calebite, whose flocks and shepherds David’s followers had protected, David was standing squarely on the customary law of the wilderness. In repudiating his obligations Nabal defied that law; but for David to have followed the impulse of the moment and turned his sword against a friendly clan would have been suicidal to his interests. IV. Abigail’s Wise Counsel. At this critical moment in David’s history Nabal’s wife, Abigail, a woman who possessed much personal charm and tact, came to his rescue. By her prompt action she saved him from committing a great crime. The abundant supply of provisions which she brought, incidentally reveals the different kinds of food known to the early Hebrews. Her gifts and wise counsel evidently not only placated David but won his heart. Nabal, perhaps as the result of a stroke of paralysis induced by intemperate habits and the unpalatable news which Abigail brought him, died soon after, and thus the way was opened for David’s marriage with Abigail. By his contemporaries Nabal’s sudden death was naturally regarded as a divine judgment. V. David’s Marriages. Throughout all their history, polygamy seems to have been the exception rather than the rule among the Hebrews. The tribal chieftains and kings were almost the only ones who appear to have indulged in this pernicious oriental institution. Their object was to extend their power and influence by means of alliances with neighboring tribes and peoples. The accepted method of sealing such alliances was by intermarriage. The fact that David, even during his outlaw life, had two wives in addition to Michal—whom Saul had given to another husband—reveals the ambition which was already beginning to stir within the mind of the young Judean leader. His marriage with Abigail was apparently prompted by true love. It brought to him a sane and devoted counsellor. It also strengthened still further his position among the tribes of the South Country. Thus at every step David was increasing his hold upon the Hebrews of the south, and preparing for the moment when they should choose their own king. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 68: 068. XLVI. DAVID AMONG THE PHILISTINES ======================================================================== § XLVI. DAVID AMONG THE PHILISTINES 1 Samuel 27:1-12; 1 Samuel 28:1-2, 1 Samuel 29-30 1. David a refugee at the court of Achish. Then David said to himself, I shall be destroyed some day by the hand of Saul. There is nothing better for me than that I should escape into the land of the Philistines. Then Saul will despair of seeking me longer in all the territory of Israel, and I will escape from his hand. So David arose and went over, together with the six hundred men who were with him, to Achish the son of Maoch, king of Gath. And David dwelt with Achish at Gath, together with his men, each with his household, David with his two wives, Ahinoam the Jezreelitess and Abigail the Carmelitess, Nabal’s wife. And when Saul was informed that David had fled to Gath, he sought him no more. 2. Life as a feudal lord at Ziklag. But David said to Achish, If now I have found favor in your sight, let a place in one of the towns in the open country be given me, that I may dwell there; for why should your servant dwell in the royal city with you? Then Achish gave him Ziklag at that time; therefore Ziklag belongs to the kings of Judah to this day. And the length of the time that David dwelt in the open country of the Philistines was a year and four months. And David and his men went up, and made a raid upon the Geshurites, the Girzites, and the Amalekites; for these tribes dwell in the land which extends from Telem as far as Shur, even to the land of Egypt. And as often as David smote the land, he did not leave alive man or woman, but taking the sheep, the oxen, the asses, the camels, and the clothing, he returned and came to Achish. Then, when Achish said, Where have you made a raid today? David answered, Against the South Country of Judah, or against the South Country of the Jerahmeelites and against the South Country of the Kenites. But David never left alive man or woman, to bring them to Gath, for he thought, They might give information against us and say, ‘Thus has David done.’ And such was his custom all the while he dwelt in the open country of the Philistines. And Achish trusted David, saying, He has brought himself into ill-repute with his people Israel; therefore he will be my servant forever. 3. Summons to fight against Israel. Now in those days the Philistines assembled their forces to make a campaign against Israel. And Achish said to David, Be assured that you, together with your men, must go with me along with the forces. And David said to Achish, Therefore you shall now know what your servant can do. And Achish said to David, Therefore I make you my body-guard from this time on. 4. Protest of the Philistine commanders. And the Philistines had assembled their forces at Aphek; and the Israelites encamped by the fountain in Jezreel. And the tyrants of the Philistines were marching past, with hundreds and with thousands; and David and his men marched in the rear guard with Achish. Then the commanders of the Philistines said, What are these Hebrews? And Achish said to the commanders of the Philistines, This is David, the servant of Saul, the king of Israel, who has now already been with me two years, and I have found no fault in him from the time that he came over to me to the present. But the commanders of the Philistines were enraged against him, and said to him, Send back the man that he may return to the place where you have stationed him. Let him not go down with us to battle and let him not be in the camp an adversary to us; for with what could this fellow better ingratiate himself with his master than with the heads of these men? Is not this David of whom they sang responsively in the dances, saying, Saul has slain his thousands, But David his ten thousands? 5. David’s dismissal. Then Achish called to David and said to him, As Jehovah liveth, you are upright, and it is my desire that you should go out and in with me in the camp; for I have found no evil in you from the time that you came to me to the present, but you are not regarded favorably by the tyrants. Therefore now return and go in peace, that you may do nothing to displease the tyrants of the Philistines. And David said to Achish, But what have I done? And what have you found in your servant from the day that I entered into your service to this day, that I may not go and fight against the enemies of my lord the king? And Achish answered and said to David, I know that you are as good in my sight as a Messenger of God, but the commanders of the Philistines have said, ‘He shall not go up with us to the battle.’ Therefore now rise early in the morning, with the servants of your lord who came with you, and go to the place where I have stationed you, and do not entertain any evil design in your heart, for you are good in my sight, but rise early in the morning and as soon as it is light, depart. So David rose early, together with his men, to depart in the morning to return to the land of the Philistines. And the Philistines went up to Jezreel. 6. The Amalekite raid on Ziklag. Now when David and his men on the third day came to Ziklag, the Amalekites had made a raid on the South Country and upon Ziklag, and had smitten Ziklag and burnt it with fire, and had carried away captive the women and all who were in it, both small and great, without slaying any, and had carried them off and gone on their way. And when David and his men came to the city, there it was burned down, and their wives and their sons and their daughters had been taken captive. Then David and the people who were with him wept aloud until they were no longer able to weep. And David’s two wives had been taken captive, Ahinoam the Jezreelitess, and Abigail the wife of Nabal the Carmelite. 7. The divine command to pursue the marauders. And David was in great straits, for the people spoke of stoning him, because the soul of all the people was embittered, each for his sons and for his daughters; but David strengthened himself in reliance on Jehovah his God. And David said to Abiathar the priest, the son of Ahimelech, Bring here to me the ephod. And Abiathar brought thither the ephod to David. And David inquired of Jehovah, saying, Shall I pursue this marauding band? Shall I overtake them? And he answered him, Pursue, For thou shalt surely overtake, And thou shalt surely rescue. 8. The pursuit. So David went, together with the six hundred men who were with him, and came to the brook Besor, where those who were left behind remained. But David pursued together with four hundred men; while two hundred remained behind, who were too faint to cross the brook Besor. And they found an Egyptian in the field and brought him to David and gave him food to eat and water to drink; and they gave him a piece of a cake of figs, and two clusters of raisins. And when he had eaten, his spirit revived, for he had eaten no bread and drunk no water for three days and nights. And David said to him, To whom do you belong? And whence are you? And he said I am an Egyptian lad, an Amalekite’s servant, and my master abandoned me because three days ago I fell sick. We made a raid upon the South Country of the Cherethites and upon that which belongs to Judah and upon the South Country of Caleb, and Ziklag we burned with fire. And David said to him, Will you bring me down to this band? And he said, Swear to me by God, that you will neither kill me nor deliver me into the hands of my master, and I will bring you down to this band. 9. The attack and recovery of the plunder. And when he had brought him down, there they were spread over all the land, eating and drinking and dancing, on account of all the great spoil that they had taken from the land of the Philistines and from the land of Judah. And David smote them from twilight to evening in order to destroy them completely. And none escaped except four hundred young men, who rode upon the camels and fled. And David recovered all the persons whom the Amalekites had taken; and David rescued his two wives. And there was nothing of them missing either small or great, sons or daughters, spoil or anything that they had taken to themselves—David brought back all. And he took all the flocks and the herds and drove those animals before the people, and they said, This is David’s spoil. 10. The precedent regarding the division of spoil. Now when David came to the two hundred men, who had been too faint to follow him, so that he had to leave them behind at the Brook Besor, they went out to meet David, and the people who were with him. And when they came near to the people, they saluted them. Then all the wicked and base scoundrels among the men who went with David began to say, Because they did not go with us, we will not give them any of the spoil that we have recovered, except to each, his wife and his children, that he may take them away and depart. But David said, Do not so, after that which Jehovah hath given us and after he hath preserved us and delivered the marauding band that came against us into our hand. And who will give heed to you in this matter? For : As is the share of him who goes down into battle, So is the share of him who remains with the baggage. They shall share alike. And from that time on he made it a statute and precedent in Israel to this day. 11. Presents sent to the southern chieftains. And when David came to Ziklag, he sent some of the spoil to the elders of Judah, his friends, saying, See! a present for you from the spoil of the enemies of Jehovah, to them who were in Bethel, in Ramoth in the South Country, in Jattir, in Aroer, in Siphmoth, and to them who were in Eshtemoa, in Carmel, in the cities of the Jerahmeelites, in the cities of the Kenites, in Hormah, Beersheba, in Athach, in Hebron, and to those in all the places where David and his men had sojourned. I. David as a Vassal of Achish. David’s act in throwing himself upon the mercy of the Philistines shows to what difficult straits he had been reduced. The deed was in keeping with the customs of the time. Refugees frequently fled from one tribe to another. The Semitic law of hospitality protected the stranger, even though he came from a hostile tribe. Between courageous foemen, such as David and the Philistines had proved themselves on many battle-fields, a friendly alliance was easy. In welcoming the ablest champion of the Hebrews, the Philistines would naturally feel that they had won a great advantage over Saul. With David came six hundred of the most experienced Hebrew warriors. With David also went the interest and loyalty of the tribes of southern Canaan. This blow to Saul’s power probably encouraged the Philistines to make that determined attack upon the Hebrews which resulted in the great disaster on Mount Gilboa. David also doubtless trusted to his own personal charm, which had so often proved invincible. Again his expectations were not disappointed. He soon commanded the absolute confidence of the Philistine king of Gath. At his own request, David, with his followers, was assigned to Ziklag, situated somewhere on the southern Philistine border. There he was able, without close observation, to play the difficult rôle which he had assumed. Only a diplomat like David could have succeeded. It was essential to his future hopes that he should not alienate his Hebrew kinsmen. At the same time he must prove his loyalty to his Philistine master. Successful forays against the Amalekites enabled him for a time to satisfy the difficult demands of the situation. II. The Philistine Advance. The course of events soon placed David in a most trying situation. The confidence of the Philistine king involved him in an almost impossible dilemma. As the body-guard of Achish, he was commanded to join the Philistine army in its march against Saul; but David’s diplomacy proved equal to the test. It is difficult to determine what course he would have followed on the actual battle-field. The fears of the Philistine commanders would probably have been realized. Fortunately their lack of confidence compelled Achish to dismiss David, and he was thus delivered from his most difficult dilemma. III. The Pursuit and Defeat of the Amalekites. The moment of David’s return to his home at Ziklag was supremely opportune. Assuming that he would join the Philistines in their campaign, David’s old foes, the Amalekites, had improved the opportunity to attack and loot Ziklag. Following the command of the divine oracle, David with his followers was soon in hot pursuit. A sudden attack at evening quickly scattered the robbers and left David in possession of their spoil. The precedent, which he established in dividing this spoil, became henceforth a binding law. The incident well illustrates the way in which the ancient Hebrew laws came into existence. A principle thus concretely laid down by a chieftain or king soon crystallized into a definite statute, which was recognized as binding by succeeding generations. Following the tendency of later Judaism, the priestly writers in Numbers 31:27 attribute the origin of this institution to Moses. IV. The Distribution of the Spoil. David’s distribution of that part of the Amalekite spoil which fell to him reveals clearly his ambition. Portions were sent to the elders of all the important towns in southern Judah and the South Country. The Bethel near Ziklag, Aroer, Carmel, Hebron, Beersheba and possibly Arad are among the towns definitely mentioned. In addition to his own tribesmen of Judah, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites were similarly favored. These gifts clearly represent a bid for the support of the tribes of southern Canaan. In the light of the events which quickly followed, they prepared the way for that call which soon came to David to become king of Judah; and when the place sought the man, the man was fully ready for the place. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 69: 069. XLVII. SAUL’S DEFEAT AND DEATH ======================================================================== § XLVII. SAUL’S DEFEAT AND DEATH 1 Samuel 28, 31; 2 Samuel 1 1. Saul’s desire for a revelation. Now Samuel had died and all Israel had lamented for him and buried him in Ramah, his own city. And Saul had put the mediums and the wizards out of the land. And when the Philistines assembled and came and encamped in Shunem, Saul assembled all Israel, and they encamped in Gilboa. And when Saul saw the army of the Philistines, he was afraid and his heart was filled with apprehension. And Saul inquired of Jehovah, but Jehovah did not answer him either by dreams or by Urim or by prophets. Then Saul said to his servants, Find for me a medium who has a talisman, that I may go to her and inquire of her. And his servants said to him, Behold, there is at Endor a medium who has a talisman. 2. The midnight scene at Endor. Therefore Saul disguised himself and put on other clothes and went, taking two men with him, and they came to the woman by night. And he said, Divine for me by the talisman and bring up for me the one whom I shall name to you. And the woman said to him, Behold, you know what Saul has done, how he has cut off the mediums and the wizards from the land. Why then are you laying a snare for my life, to put me to death? And Saul swore to her by Jehovah, saying, As Jehovah liveth, no guilt shall come upon you for this thing. Then the woman said, Whom shall I bring up to you? And he said, Bring up Samuel. And when the woman saw Samuel, she screamed. And the woman said to Saul, Why have you deceived me, for you are Saul? And the king said to her, Do not be afraid! What do you see? And the woman said to Saul, I see a god coming out of the earth. And he said to her, What is his appearance? And she said, An old man is coming up, and he is wrapped in a mantle. Then Saul knew that it was Samuel, and he bowed with his face to the earth and worshipped. 3. The message of doom. And Samuel said to Saul, Why have you disturbed me by bringing me up? And Saul answered, I am in great straits, for the Philistines are making war against me and God has turned from me and answers me no more, either by prophets or by dreams; so I have called you to tell me what I shall do. And Samuel said, Why do you ask of me when Jehovah hath turned from you and become your adversary? And to-morrow you and your sons with you shall fall; Jehovah will deliver the army of Israel also into the power of the Philistines. 4. Effect upon Saul. Then Saul fell at once at full length upon the earth and was greatly afraid, because of the words of Samuel; also he had no strength in him, for he had not eaten bread during all the day and all the night. And when the woman came to Saul and saw that he was greatly troubled, she said to him, See, your maid-servant has heeded your voice, and I have taken my life in my hand and have listened to your words which you spoke to me. Now therefore, listen also to the advice of your maid-servant and let me set before you a morsel of meat, and eat that you may have strength, when you go on your way. But he refused, and said, I will not eat. But his servants, together with the woman, urged him, until he listened to their advice. So he rose from the earth and sat upon the couch. And the woman had a fatted calf in the house; and she quickly killed it, and took flour and kneaded it and baked from it unleavened bread. And she set it before Saul and his servants, and they ate. Then they rose up and went away that night. 5. Defeat of the Israelites and death of Saul. Now the Philistines fought against Israel, and the Israelites fled from before the Philistines and fell down slain on Mount Gilboa. And the Philistines followed close after Saul and his sons; and the Philistines slew Jonathan and Abinadab and Malchishua, the sons of Saul. And they pressed hard upon Saul, and the archers found him out, and he was wounded by the archers. Then said Saul to his armorbearer, Draw your sword and run me through with it, lest these uncircumcised Philistines come and make sport of me. But his armorbearer would not, for he was greatly afraid. Therefore Saul took his own sword and fell upon it. And when his armorbearer saw that Saul was dead, he likewise fell upon his sword and died with him. So Saul and his three sons and his armorbearer died together on the same day. 6. Fate of Saul’s body. And when the Israelites, who were in the cities of the valley and in the cities of the Jordan, saw that the Israelites had fled and that Saul and his sons were dead, they also left the cities and fled, and the Philistines came and remained in them. But when on the following day the Philistines came to strip the slain, they found Saul and his three sons fallen on Mount Gilboa. And they cut off his head and stripped off his armor and sent throughout the land of the Philistines to bring good news to their idols and to the people. And they put his armor in the temple of Ashtarte, and they fastened his body on the wall of Bethshan. And when the inhabitants of Jabesh in Gilead heard what the Philistines had done to Saul, all the valiant men arose and marched all night and took the bodies of Saul and his sons from the wall of Bethshan; and they came to Jabesh and lamented over them there. And they took their bones and buried them under the tamarisk tree in Jabesh, and they fasted seven days. 7. Arrival of the messenger. Now, after the death of Saul, when David had returned from smiting the Amalekites, David remained two days in Ziklag. Then on the third day there came a man out of the camp from Saul, with his clothes torn and with earth upon his head. And as soon as he came to David, he fell to the earth and did obeisance. And David said to him, Whence do you come? And he answered him, From the camp of Israel have I escaped. And David said to him, How was the affair? Tell me. And he answered, The people fled from the battle, and many of the people fell, and also Saul and Jonathan his son are dead. 8. Lamentation over the fallen. Then David took hold of his clothes and tore them; and all the men who were with him did likewise. And they mourned and wept and fasted until evening for Saul and for Jonathan his son and for the people of Jehovah and for the house of Israel, because they had fallen by the sword. 9. David’s dirge. Then David sang this dirge over Saul and Jonathan his son (behold, it is written in the Book of Jashar), and said, 10. Greatness of the calamity. Weep, O Judah! Grieve, O Israel! On thy heights are the slain! How the mighty have fallen! Tell it not in Philistine Gath, Declare it not in the streets of Askelon; Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice, Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised exult. Ye mountains of Gilboa, may no dew descend, Nor rain upon you, O ye fields of death! For there was the shield of the mighty thrown down, The shield of Saul, not anointed with oil. 11. Valor of the fallen. From the blood of the slain, from the fat of the mighty, The bow of Jonathan turned not back, The sword of Saul returned not empty. 12. Their attractiveness. Saul and Jonathan, the beloved and the lovely! In life and in death they were not parted; They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions. 13. Saul’s services to Israel. Daughters of Israel, weep over Saul, Who clothed you daintily in finest linen, Golden ornaments he placed on your garments, How the mighty have fallen in the midst of battle! 14. David’s love for Jonathan. Jonathan, in thy death me thou hast wounded! O Jonathan, my brother, for thee I’m in anguish, To me thou wert surpassingly dear, Thy love were far more than the love of woman! 15. The lament, How the mighty have fallen, And the weapons of war perished! I. Saul’s Visit to the Medium of Endor. Samuel appears but once in the earliest narratives. The occasion was his memorable meeting with Saul. His activity at that great crisis in Israel’s history rightly won for him a place beside Moses and Deborah. The fact that a large body of later traditions gather about his name confirms still further his title to greatness. From this later group of traditions apparently comes the account of Saul’s visit to the medium of Endor. It throws much light on the life and thought of early Israel, and gives a tragic picture of Saul in his later days. Deprived of the counsel and support of the priests and prophets of his realm, he resorted to one of the representatives of the old heathenism, which still survived in Palestine. For the gigantic Saul disguise was futile. The medium whom he consulted regarding the outcome of the impending battle, must have recognized him from the first. Her methods are those employed by mediums of all ages. She, not Saul, claims to see the dead prophet Samuel and interprets the message to the king. The message itself was clearly suggested by the political situation. Before the organized and powerful army of the Philistines, only defeat awaited the Hebrews. As Saul goes forth to fight his last, losing battle, he commands both pity and a certain admiration. II. The Battle on Mount Gilboa. Very briefly the early David narrative records the disastrous event. In approaching Israel along the plain of Esdraelon, the Philistines apparently aimed to separate Saul from his northern subjects. The elders of the southern Palestinian towns, who received the spoil sent them by David, had apparently not rallied about Saul. It would seem, therefore, that with only a part of his subjects, he met the Philistine attack. The heights about Gilboa on the southeastern side of the plain of Esdraelon, where the advantages would be with the defenders, were chosen by Saul as a battle field. The Hebrews, however, were so lacking in courage that the battle soon became a mad rout. Although forsaken by their warriors, Saul and his sons and his armorbearer refused to flee. When his sons had already fallen beside him and he was himself severely wounded Saul chose to die by his own sword rather than to fall into the hands of the pitiless foes. The treatment of Saul’s body by the Philistines reveals the brutality of the age and suggests the indignities which Saul escaped by his self-inflicted death. One bright gleam lights up the sad scene. In gratitude for the deliverance which Saul had brought them at the beginning of his reign, the citizens of Jabesh in Gilead across the Jordan rescued the body of the dead king from the walls of Bethshan and buried it under a famous tree near their city. III. David’s Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan. The men of Jabesh did not lament alone over the death of the fallen heroes. When at length a fugitive escaped from Saul and bore the news of the disaster to David, he and his followers joined in the universal lamentation. The desire to conciliate the northern tribes undoubtedly influenced the conduct of David, but a deeper motive, that of genuine sorrow, breathes through the dirge which tradition attributes to him. There is good ground for believing that tradition is right in ascribing this noble song of lamentation to the singer who had so often soothed Saul’s perturbed spirits. The ancient minstrel appears to have improvised as he played. A part of David’s charm was apparently his skill as a poet. The occasion was one which would naturally lead him to exercise this skill. The detailed references in the song fit well the lips of David. The genuine pathos and sorrow, especially over the death of the beloved Jonathan, all point to David as the author. The artistic beauty of the poem is unsurpassed. It opens with a stanza in the quick two-beat measure, which rises in the second stanza to the three beat, and in the third to the four-beat measure, which is maintained throughout the song, until the last refrain is introduced, giving the effect of a final sob. In the first stanza the nation is called upon to join in the lamentation, in the second the cruel exultation of the Philistines is viewed with horror and in the third Nature and especially the mountains of Gilboa, the scene of the disastrous battle, are called upon to join in the universal lamentation. In the next two stanzas the courage, the prowess and the virtues of Saul and Jonathan are powerfully presented. The women of Israel, who led in the ancient lamentations, are reminded of what Saul has done for them and the nation. The culmination of the poem is reached in the pathetic stanza in which David protests his deep love for Jonathan and voices his own bitter sorrow. IV. Saul’s Strength and Weakness. The estimates regarding the character of Saul vary greatly. The task of determining the real character of Saul is complicated by the fact that we are dependent for our knowledge of the latter part of this period upon a group of narratives in which the interest is with David rather than with Israel’s first king. Even in the early Saul narratives, his rash impulsiveness is revealed in the vow which he made, while in pursuit of the Philistines. His faults are especially glaring because they are so unkingly. Self-will, anger, jealousy and intemperate action are almost inexcusable in him who is called to rule others. There are suggestions in the ancient narrative that these faults were largely due to physical causes, and if so they do not represent the real Saul. At the same time physical maladies are in many cases the result of moral defects. That Saul from the first was lacking in self-control, breadth of vision and a deep religious instinct seems clear. It was perhaps too much to expect that the rude age in which he lived would produce a fully developed ruler of men. With his courage, enthusiasm and patriotic zeal Saul satisfied the demands of the moment. His natural impulses were noble and generous. There was much in his character to command admiration. David’s tribute to him rests upon a substantial basis of fact. His closing years, there fore, are all the more tragic because his petty faults gained the ascendency and obscured the true nobility of his nature. V. The Significance of Saul’s Reign. David’s brilliant achieve ments almost completely overshadow those of Saul. Yet it is important to remember that David’s work would have been impossible had not Saul prepared the way. By his courage and patriotism he accomplished the almost impossible task of uniting the rival Hebrew tribes. By personal example and direction he taught the Israelites, on many a hard-fought battle-field, how to wield the sword and to win victories from their powerful foes. Against great odds, he threw off the Philistine yoke and established Israel’s prestige among the nations. He also opened the highways of commerce, so that the Hebrews began to enjoy the products of that highly civilized ancient world. The simplicity and severity of his own life and court kept back for a time that wave of oriental luxury which was destined all too soon to engulf Israel. He did much to fix in the minds of the Israelites that high, democratic ideal of the kingship, which tyrants, like Solomon and Ahab, were unable to dislodge. Thus Saul established those noble precedents which David, in more favorable circumstances, followed with far greater glory and success. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 70: 070. THE POLITICAL EVENTS OF DAVID’S REIGN ======================================================================== THE POLITICAL EVENTS OF DAVID’S REIGN ======================================================================== CHAPTER 71: 071. XLVIII. THE TWO HEBREW KINGDOMS UNDER DAVID AND ISHBAAL ======================================================================== § XLVIII. THE TWO HEBREW KINGDOMS UNDER DAVID AND ISHBAAL 2 Samuel 2:1 to 2 Samuel 5:6 1. David king at Hebron. Now after this David inquired of Jehovah, saying, Shall I go up to one of the cities of Judah? And Jehovah answered him, Go up. And when David said, Whither shall I go up, he said, To Hebron. So David went up with his two wives, Ahinoam, the Jezreelitess, and Abigail, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite. And David brought up the men who were with him, each with his household, and they dwelt in the towns of Hebron. And the men of Judah came and there anointed David king over the house of Judah. 2. His message to the Gileadites. And when they told David about the men of Jabesh in Gilead who had buried Saul, David sent messengers to the men of Jabesh in Gilead and said to them, May you be blest of Jehovah, because you have shown this kindness to your lord Saul and have buried him. Even so may Jehovah show kindness and truth to you; and I also will do well by you, because you have done this thing. Now therefore be courageous and valiant; for Saul your lord is dead, and the house of Judah have anointed me king over them. 3. Ishbaal’s kingdom. Now Abner the son of Ner, commander of Saul’s army, had taken Ishbaal the son of Saul, and brought him over to Mahanaim. And he made him king over Gilead and the Ashurites and Jezreel and Ephraim and Benjamin and all Israel. But the house of Judah followed David. And the time that David was king in Hebron over the house of Judah, was seven years and six months. 4. Battle of Gibeon. Now Abner the son of Ner and the servants of Ishbaal the son of Saul went out from Mahanaim to Gibeon. And Joab the son of Zeruiah and the servants of David went out and met them at the pool of Gibeon. And they sat down, the one on the one side of the pool and the other on the other side of the pool. Then Abner said to Joab, Let the young men arise and play before us. And Joab said, Let them arise. Then they arose and went over by number: twelve for Benjamin and Ishbaal the son of Saul, and twelve of the servants of David. And they each caught his opponent by the head and thrust his sword into his side, so they fell down together. Therefore that place was called, Field of the Enemies (which is in Gibeon). And the battle was very fierce that day, and Abner and the men of Israel were vanquished before the servants of David. 5. Death of Asahel. And the three sons of Zeruiah were there, Joab, Abishai, and Asahel; and Asahel was as swift of foot as one of the gazelles which are in the field. And Asahel pursued Abner; and as he went he turned neither to the right nor to the left from the pursuit of Abner. Then Abner looked behind him and said, Is it you, Asahel? And he answered, It is I. Therefore Abner said to him, Turn aside to your right or to your left and seize one of the young men and take his spoil. But Asahel would not turn aside from pursuing him. Therefore Abner said again to Asahel, Turn aside from following me. Why should I smite you to the ground? How then could I look Joab your brother in the face? But he refused to turn aside. Therefore Abner smote him with a backward stroke in the body, so that the spear came out at his back; and he fell there and died in his place. Then all who came to the place where Asahel had fallen and died, stood still. 6. Abner’s escape. But Joab and Abishai pursued after Abner. And as the sun was setting, they came to the hill of Ammah, which is before Giah on the highway in the wilderness of Gibeon. And the Benjamites assembled behind Abner and formed a solid phalanx, and stood on the top of a hill. Then Abner called to Joab and said, Shall the sword devour forever? Do you not know that the end will be bitterness? How long then will it be before you command the people to turn from pursuing their kinsmen? And Joab said, As Jehovah liveth, if you had not spoken, then assuredly not until morning would the people have ceased each from pursuing his brother. So Joab blew the trumpet; and all the people stood still and pursued Israel no more, nor did they fight any more. But Abner and his men marched all that night through the Arabah and crossed the Jordan and went through the whole Bithron and came to Mahanaim. 7. Losses in the battle. And Joab returned from the pursuit of Abner. And when he had gathered all the people together, nineteen of David’s servants besides Asahel were missing; while the servants of David had smitten of Benjamin and of Abner’s men three hundred and sixty. And they took up Asahel and buried him in his father’s sepulchre, which was in Bethlehem. And Joab and his men marched all night, and day dawned upon them at Hebron. 8. Results of the war. And the war between the house of Saul and the house of David was prolonged; but David kept growing stronger, while the house of Saul grew gradually weaker. 9. Abner’s quarrel with Ishbaal. Now, while there was war between the house of Saul and the house of David, Abner made himself strong in the house of Saul. And Saul had a concubine, whose name was Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah. And Ishbaal the son of Saul said to Abner, Why do you go in unto my father’s concubine? Then Abner was very angry because of the words of Ishbaal and said, Am I a dog’s head, who am at this time showing kindness to the house of Saul your father, to his kinsmen, and to his friends, and have not delivered you into the hand of David, that you now charge me with guilt in connection with a woman? God do to Abner whatever he pleaseth, if, as Jehovah hath sworn to David, I do not even so to him, by transferring the kingdom from the house of Saul and by establishing the throne of David over Israel and over Judah from Dan to Beersheba. And he did not dare to make Abner any answer, for he feared him. 10. Negotiations between Abner and David. So Abner sent messengers to David to Hebron, saying, Make your league with me, then I will co-operate with you in bringing over all Israel to you. And he said, Good, I will make a league with you, but one thing I require of you, that is, you shall not see my face unless you bring Michal, Saul’s daughter, when you come to see me. Then David sent messengers to Ishbaal, Saul’s son, saying, Give me my wife Michal, whom I bought for a hundred foreskins of the Philistines. And Ishbaal sent and took her from her husband, Paltiel the son of Laish. But her husband followed her, weeping as he went, to Bahurim. Then Abner said to him, Go, return; and he returned. 11. His visit to David. And when Abner came to David at Hebron, accompanied by twenty men, David gave Abner and the men who were with him a feast. And Abner said to David, I will arise and go and will gather all Israel to my lord the king, that they may make a covenant with you and that you may be king over all which you desire. Then David sent Abner away, and he went in peace. 12. His murder by Joab. Just then the servants of David and Joab came from a raid, and brought in with them great spoil; but Abner was not with David in Hebron, for he had sent him away, and he had gone in peace. So when Joab and all the band that was with him came home, they told Joab, saying, Abner the son of Ner came to the king, and he has sent him away, and he has gone in peace. Then Joab went to the king and said, What have you done? Behold, Abner came to you; why have you now sent him away, so that he is gone? Do you not know that Abner the son of Ner came to deceive you and to note your going out and your coming in and to know all that you are doing? And when Joab came out from David, he sent messengers after Abner, and they brought him back from the Cistern of Sirah without David’s knowing it. And when Abner returned to Hebron, Joab took him apart to the side of the gate to speak with him quietly, and smote him there in the body. So he died for the blood of Asahel Joab’s brother. 13. David’s condemnation of the act. But afterward when David heard it, he said, I and my kingdom are forever guiltless before Jehovah of the blood of Abner the son of Ner. May it fall upon the head of Joab and upon all his father’s house, and may there not fail from the house of Joab one who has an issue, or who is a leper, or who is effeminate, or who falls by the sword, or who lacks bread. 14. His lamentation over Abner. And David said to Joab, and to all the people who were with him, Tear your clothes, and gird yourselves with sackcloth, and mourn before Abner! And King David followed the bier. And when they buried Abner in Hebron, the king wept with a loud voice at the grave of Abner, and all the people wept. And the king sang a dirge for Abner and said, Must Abner die as dies the impious fool? Thy hands were not bound, Thy feet were not put into fetters; As one falls before ruthless men, thou didst fall. Then all the people wept still more over him. Afterward all the people came to urge David to eat bread while it was yet day; but David took oath, saying, God do to me whatever he will, if I taste bread or anything else before the sun goes down. And when all the people observed it, they were pleased; for everything that the king did pleased all the people. So all the people and all Israel understood that day that the king had nothing to do with the slaying of Abner the son of Ner. And the king said to his servants, Do you not know that a prince and a great man has fallen to-day in Israel? And I am this day weak, though anointed king, for these men, the sons of Zeruiah, are too strong for me. May Jehovah requite the evil-doer according to his wickedness! 15. Assassination of Ishbaal. Now when Ishbaal, Saul’s son, heard that Abner was dead in Hebron, his hands became limp and all the Israelites were thrown into confusion. And Ishbaal, Saul’s son, had two men who were captains of guerilla bands: the name of one was Baanah, and the name of the other Rechab, sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, of the Benjamites (for Beeroth is also reckoned to Benjamin, and the Beerothites fled to Gittaim and have been sojourners there until this day). And the sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, Rechab and Baanah, went and came about mid-day to the house of Ishbaal, as he was taking his rest at noon. And just then the doorkeeper of the palace was cleaning wheat, and she became drowsy and slept. So Rechab and Baanah his brother slipped in and thus entered the house, while the king was lying on his bed in his sleeping room, and they smote and killed him and cut off his head. 16. David’s attitude toward it. Then they took his head and went all night by the way of the Arabah. And they brought the head of Ishbaal to David to Hebron and said to the king, Here is the head of Ishbaal, the son of Saul your enemy, who sought your life. But Jehovah hath avenged my lord the king this day on Saul and his descendants. Then David answered Rechab and Baanah his brother, the sons of Rimmon the Beerothite, and said to them, As Jehovah liveth, who hath delivered my life out of all adversity, when one told me, saying, ‘Behold, Saul is dead,’ thinking to have brought good news, I took hold of him, and slew him in Ziklag, to give him the reward for his news. How much more, when wicked men have slain a righteous person in his own house upon his own bed, shall I not now require his blood from you and destroy you from the earth? Then David commanded his young men, and they slew them and cut off their hands and their feet, and hanged them up beside the pool in Hebron. But the head of Ishbaal they took and buried in the grave of Abner at Hebron. 17. David king of all Israel. Then all the tribes of Israel came to David to Hebron and said, See, we are your bone and your flesh. In times past when Saul was king over us, it was you who led out and brought in Israel, and Jehovah hath said to you, ‘Thou shalt be shepherd of my people Israel, and thou shalt be prince over Israel.’ And all the elders of Israel came to the king to Hebron, and King David made a covenant with them in Hebron before Jehovah, and they anointed David king over Israel. 18. Length of David’s reign. David was thirty years old when he became king, and he reigned forty years. In Hebron he reigned over Judah seven years and six months, and in Jerusalem he reigned thirty-three years over all Israel and Judah. I. David, King of Hebron. The overwhelming disaster on Mount Gilboa led the Hebrew and allied tribes of southern Palestine to look to David for leadership. As a vassal of the Philistines, he was in a position to deliver them from the danger which they most feared. They had evidently never been strongly loyal to the house of Saul. It was, therefore, easy for them to transfer their allegiance to a chieftain who came from their own ranks, and especially so, since David had proved his ability in many different crises. The message which David sent to the men of Jabesh suggests that he aspired at this time to the kingship of all Israel; but Saul’s able commander, Abner, still lived, and succeeded in saving certain fragments of the dismembered kingdom and in placing Saul’s son, Ishbaal, on the throne. By later generations Ishbaal was called Ishbosheth, the man of shame, because his name contained the hated word, Baal. II. Hostilities between the Two Kingdoms. Both David and Ishbaal appear to have ruled as vassals of the Philistines and to have paid yearly tribute to these powerful foes, whose authority was again reëstablished in central Canaan. The fact that they were subject to an outside power did not prevent the two rival kingdoms from making war upon each other. It was a war, however, inspired not by the desire for conquest but by the jealousy of the rival leaders, Abner and Joab. It is in this connection that Joab first comes into prominence. As a kinsman of David, he had evidently shared his leader’s outlaw experiences. He was a man without fear or conscientious scruple. Pity and forgiveness were also foreign to his nature. His one virtue and also his fault was his supreme devotion to David’s cause. Unfortunately for Abner, Joab soon became involved in a blood feud with this rival commander of the northern forces. III. Abner’s Negotiations with David. Of the two men, Abner appears to have been much the nobler character. His endeavor to avoid bloodshed and his loyalty to the unworthy son of Saul are virtues rare in this early age. When at last it became evident that the rule of the jealous and incompetent Ishbaal could no longer be maintained, Abner entered into negotiations with David with the aim of uniting the two kingdoms. A peaceful union seemed imminent, when Joab, prompted by the spirit of jealousy and blood-revenge, treacherously slew Abner. The act was prompted by such personal and unworthy motives that no palliation is possible. IV. David’s Election as King. On the eve of its realization David’s fondest ambition was endangered. The treacherous murder of the popular northern leader in David’s territory and by his own kinsman and commander-in-chief was a crime difficult to overlook. David’s supreme tact and that marvellous fortune, which followed him throughout his career, are well illustrated at this crisis, but the real explanation of his ability to escape this seemingly impossible dilemma lies deeper. His upright record and the personal confidence, which he had inspired even in his foes, alone enabled him to dispel suspicion. His lament over Abner might have been deemed mere hypocrisy, but it was evidently not so regarded by the people of Israel. His frank confession of his own weakness in the hands of Joab and his ruthless kinsmen perhaps also carried great weight before the bar of public opinion. The news, which quickly came of the assassination of Ishbaal, undoubtedly aided much in turning the tide in David’s favor. His prompt action in slaying the assassins, who came expecting reward, still further confirmed the people in their belief that David was sincere. Back of the action of the elders of Israel, as they came to Hebron to anoint David king over all Israel, was the fact that the only choice which remained for them was to endure the Philistine yoke or else to accept the leadership of the one man who was able to restore their freedom. Through perils at the hands of friend and foe, through many crises and temptations, David had passed unscathed. By his reserve and moderation, as well as by his courage and diplomacy, he had at last won the highest honor that his race could confer. Israel had also, in divine providence, at last found the man supremely fitted to lead it on to the realization of its highest material hopes. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 72: 072. XLIX. THE LIBERATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF ALL ISRAEL ======================================================================== § XLIX. THE LIBERATION AND CONSOLIDATION OF ALL ISRAEL 2 Samuel 5:17; 2 Samuel 23:13-17; 2 Samuel 5:18-25; 2 Samuel 5:6-12, 2 Samuel 6, 2 Samuel 8:16-18; 2 Samuel 20:24-25 1. The Philistine advance. Now when the Philistines heard that they had anointed David king over Israel, all the Philistines went up to seek David; and when David heard of this he went down to the stronghold. 2. Brave deed of the warriors at Bethlehem. And three of the Thirty went down, and came to the rock to David to the stronghold of Adullam, while a force of the Philistines was encamped in the valley of Rephaim. And David was then in the stronghold, and the garrison of the Philistines was in Bethlehem. And David longed and said, O that one would give me water to drink from the well of Bethlehem, which is by the gate! And the three famous warriors broke through the camp of the Philistines and drew water out of the well of Bethlehem, that was by the gate, and took and brought it to David; he would not drink of it, however, but poured it out to Jehovah. And he said, Jehovah forbid that I should do this. It is the blood of the men who went at the risk of their lives. Therefore he would not drink it. These things did the three mighty men. 3. The first victory in the valley of Rephaim. Now the Philistines had come and spread themselves out in the valley of Rephaim. And David inquired of Jehovah, saying, Shall I go up against the Philistines? Wilt thou deliver them into my hand? And Jehovah said to David, Go up; for I will certainly deliver the Philistines into thy hand. And David came to Baal-perazim, and David smote them there; and he said, Jehovah hath broken down mine enemies before me, like the breaking of waters. Therefore he called the name of that place Baal-perazim [Lord of the breakings through]. And they left their gods there, and David and his men carried them away. 4. The second victory. And the Philistines came up yet again and spread themselves out in the valley of Rephaim. And when David inquired of Jehovah, he said, Thou shalt not go up; go about to their rear and come upon them opposite the balsam trees. And when thou hearest the sound of marching in the tops of the balsam trees, make haste, for then Jehovah hath gone out before thee to smite the camp of the Philistines. And David did as Jehovah commanded him, and smote the Philistines from Gibeon as far as Gezer. 5. Advance against Jebus. Then the king and his men went to Jerusalem against the Jebusites, the inhabitants of the land, who spoke to David, saying, You shall not come in here, but the blind and the lame shall turn you away, thinking, David cannot come in here. 6. Its capture and fortification. Nevertheless David took the stronghold of Zion (that is the city of David). And David said on that day, Whoever smites the Jebusites, let him get up through the watercourse and smite the lame and the blind, whom David’s soul hates. Then David dwelt in the stronghold, and called it the City of David. And David constructed an encircling wall from Millo and inward. 7. David’s prestige. And David kept on growing greater, for Jehovah of hosts was with him. And Hiram king of Tyre sent messengers to David, and cedar trees and carpenters and masons and they built David a palace. Thus David perceived that Jehovah had established him king over Israel, for his kingdom had been exalted for the sake of his people Israel. 8. The first attempt to bring up the ark. Then David again assembled all the chosen men of Israel, thirty thousand. And David arose and went with all the people who were with him, to Baal-Judah, to bring up from there the ark of God which is called by the name of Jehovah of hosts who sits enthroned upon the cherubim. And they set the ark of God upon a new cart, and brought it out of the house of Abinadab, that was on the hill, with Uzzah and Ahio the sons of Abinadab guiding the cart: Uzzah went with the ark of God, while Ahio went before the ark. And David and all the house of Israel were dancing before Jehovah with all their might and with songs and harps and lyres and cymbals. 9. Death of Uzzah. And when they came to the threshing-floor of Nacon, Uzzah stretched out his hand to the ark of God to hold it, for the oxen slipped. Then the anger of Jehovah was aroused against Uzzah and God smote him there because he had stretched out his hand to the ark, so that he died there in the presence of God. And David was angry because he had broken forth upon Uzzah. Therefore that place is called Perez-uzzah [Breach of Uzzah] to this day. And David was afraid of Jehovah that day, so that he said, How can the ark of Jehovah come to me? And David was unwilling to remove the ark of Jehovah to the city of David, but carried it aside into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite. So the ark remained in the house of Obed-edom the Gittite three months. And Jehovah blessed Obed-edom and all his house. 10. Transfer of the ark to Jerusalem. And when the report came to King David: Jehovah hath blessed Obededom and all his house because of the ark of God, David went and brought up with joy the ark of God from the house of Obed-edom to the city of David. And when the bearers of the ark of Jehovah had gone six paces, he sacrificed an ox and a fatling. And David was dancing before Jehovah with all his might, and David was girded with a linen ephod. So David and all the house of Israel brought up the ark of Jehovah with shouting, and the sound of the trumpet. 11. Its reception. Now when the ark of Jehovah was coming into the city of David, Michal the daughter of Saul looked out of the window, and when she saw King David leaping and dancing before Jehovah, she despised him in her heart. And when they brought in the ark of Jehovah and set it in its place in the midst of the tent that David had pitched for it, David offered burnt-offerings and peace-offerings before Jehovah. 12. Gifts to the people. And when David had finished sacrificing the burnt-offerings and the peace-offerings, he blessed the people in the name of Jehovah of hosts. And he distributed to all the people, even among the whole multitude of Israel, both men and women, to each a cake of bread, a portion of meat, and a bunch of raisins. Then all the people departed each to his home. 13. David and Michal. But when David returned to greet his family, Michal the daughter of Saul came out to meet David and said, How glorious was the king of Israel as he exposed himself to the eyes of his servants’ maids, as one of the vain fellows shamelessly exposes himself! And David said to Michal, It was before Jehovah that I was dancing. Blessed be Jehovah, who chose me rather than your father and rather than any of his family to appoint me as prince over the people of Jehovah, over Israel. Therefore I will sport before Jehovah and I will be yet more lightly esteemed than this and I will be despised by you. But of the maids of whom you have spoken I shall indeed be held in honor. And Michal the daughter of Saul had no child to the day of her death. 14. David’s state official. And David was king over all Israel. And David administered justice and righteousness to all his people. And Joab the son of Zeruiah was in command of the army, and Jehoshaphat the son of Ahilud was chancellor, and Zadok and Abiathar the son of Ahimelech were priests, and Shousha was scribe, and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada was in command of the Cherethites and the Pelethites, and David’s sons were priests; Ira the Jairite was also a priest of David, and Adoniram was in charge of the forced labor. I. The Wars with the Philistines. The account of David’s wars with the Philistines is exceedingly brief. Apparently David’s acceptance of the kingship of all Israel was the signal for a general Philistine attack. The war seems to have continued for some years. The incidental references in the popular stories regarding the achievements of David’s warriors indicate that at first David was obliged to take refuge in his old stronghold at Adullam and to resort to the method of warfare of his outlaw days. His past experiences and the character of the battlefield gave him a great advantage over his foes. Gradually the people rallied about him, until he was able to meet the Philistines in open battle. In the valley of Rephaim, which led up from the Philistine plain to the west or southwest of Jerusalem, two decisive engagements were fought, and in both cases the Hebrews won a sweeping victory. After the final battle they drove the Philistines out upon the western plain, as far as the Canaanite city of Gezer. Henceforth the two rival nations settled down on peaceful terms, and for many years neither made an attempt to conquer the other. Ittai, David’s most honored friend and trusted counsellor, came from the Philistine town of Gath. The king’s body-guard of six hundred, which at a later crisis was effective in preserving the integrity of the empire, was enlisted from the ranks of his old friends and foes, the Philistines. II. The Capture of Jebus. The capture of the strong fortress of Jebus appears to have followed soon after David’s victory over the Philistines. In the famous el-Amarna letters, Urusalamu figures as one of the most important towns of southern Canaan. The letters written by its governor to the kings of Egypt are the most interesting documents in that ancient correspondence. This fortress was so strong that it had remained in the hands of the Canaanite tribe, known as the Jebusites, until David sought a capital midway between the rival Hebrew tribes of the north and the south. Jerusalem also possessed the important advantage of being a city which belonged originally to neither the tribes of the north nor the south, but had been conquered by their united forces. It was, therefore, common ground. Its retired position up among the hills of the central plateau protected it from foreign attack. Its natural strength also gave good ground for the note of defiance with which its ancient Jebusite inhabitants met the advance of David’s forces. According to the parallel account in I Chronicles the daring of Joab and his followers was alone equal to the task of taking the city. Crawling up through the water courses, a few of them found entrance into the otherwise impregnable citadel. With this capture of Jebus the conquest of the Canaanites was complete; in a generation or two the older native population was entirely absorbed by the Israelites. III. The Situation of Jebus. Recent excavations leave little doubt that the original city of David and the Jebusites was the hill of Ophel, on the eastern side of the present city. It was bounded on the east by the deep ravine of the Kidron, which met the valley of Hinnom on the south. Originally the valley of the Tyropoean bounded the hill of Ophel on the west, cutting through the centre of the present city just west of the temple area. Although the debris, which has come from the many sieges of Jerusalem, has filled this valley to a depth of from forty to ninety feet, its presence is still marked by a slight depression. The fortress of Jebus apparently stood on the southern slope of the hill. A slight cutting in the sloping rocky hillside furnished a practically impregnable defence on three sides. On its northern side the hill rises to the present temple area and further on broadens out into a level plateau. On the north, therefore, the fortress was doubtless protected by a strong wall. It was probably not until the days of Solomon or later that the western hill, which extends to the valley of Hinnom, was included in Jerusalem. IV. The Transfer of the Ark. Like Gideon before him, David evidently desired to make his new capital a religious centre. During the early part of the period of settlement, the ark had been kept at Shiloh, in the territory of the strong northern tribe of Ephraim. In bringing the ark to Jerusalem, therefore, David aimed to enlist still further the loyalty of these strong northern tribes. The ark stood for the presence of Jehovah among his people and recalled the military glories of their early history. In transferring it to Jerusalem, David attracted to his new capital not only the patriotism but the religious zeal of all his subjects. The act was far reaching in its consequences. Many other sanctuaries throughout the land of Israel enjoyed the homage and loyalty of the different tribes and clans, but Jerusalem came to be regarded more and more as the special abiding place of Jehovah. The account of the transfer of the ark to Jerusalem reveals the current beliefs of that early day. While it was being carried up the hill of Ophel, one of its attendants stretched out his hand to keep it from falling. The act was prompted by a worthy motive, and there was apparently nothing in the ceremonial usage of the day to condemn it. His sudden death, however, was interpreted as a clear signal of Jehovah’s displeasure, and the ark was left in the home of one of David’s Philistine body-guard. The prosperity which came to this Philistine soon influenced the Hebrews again to attempt to carry the ark to Jerusalem. Amidst song and oriental dancing, in which the king participated with great religious zeal, it was borne in triumph to the city of David. There it was deposited in a tent especially prepared for it. Rich offerings to Jehovah were also presented by David, and food was distributed from the royal bounty among the assembled people in commemoration of this event which symbolized the entrance of the God of Sinai and the wilderness into the capital of his united people. V. David’s Court. At his new capital David established his simple court. He himself stood as the supreme judge and court of appeal of the nation. To him, as to Moses, all difficult cases were referred. Joab, his loyal, fearless kinsman was in command of the army. The needs of the growing kingdom led to the establishment of the office of chancellor or grand vizier. Another official kept the state records and conducted the royal correspondence. Abiathar, the priest of the house of Eh, continued in charge of the oracle. His priestly duties, however, were shared by a certain Zadok of unknown origin, who in time became the head of the Jerusalem priesthood. Certain of David’s sons also acted as priests. All these officials were appointed by David and were probably supported from the royal exchequer. Benaiah, one of David’s valiant warriors, was at the head of the royal body-guard, whose presence reveals the well-founded fear with which David regarded the rivalry between the different factions in his nation. It is significant that, like the popes of to-day, he preferred to entrust the protection of his person to aliens, who were influenced by no personal or factional feeling, but were responsible only to himself and supported directly by him. David’s establishment on the throne of united Israel marks another important stage in Hebrew history. At last a king, who was able not only to lead but to organize, was at the head of the confederacy of tribes. It was during David’s reign that the foundations were firmly laid for Israel’s future growth and greatness. For the next four centuries the dynasty which he founded continued on the throne at Jerusalem. Israel had finally found its place in the assembly of nations. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 73: 073. L. THE INTERNAL EVENTS OF DAVID’S REIGN ======================================================================== § L. THE INTERNAL EVENTS OF DAVID’S REIGN 2 Samuel 21, 24 1. Demand of the Gibeonites. Now in the days of David there was a famine three years, year after year. And when David sought the face of Jehovah, Jehovah said, Upon Saul and upon his house there is blood-guilt, because he put to death the Gibeonites (now the Gibeonites were not of the Israelites, but of the remnant of the Amontes; nevertheless the Israelites had sworn to them; and Saul sought to slay them in his zeal for the Israelites and the Judahites). And David said to the Gibeonites, What shall I do for you? And wherewith shall I make the expiation, that you may bless the heritage of Jehovah? And the Gibeonites said to him, It is not a matter of silver and gold between us and Saul or his house; neither is it for us to put any man to death in Israel. And he said, What do you say that I shall do for you? And they said to the king, The man who consumed us, and who planned to destroy us that we should not remain in any of the borders of Israel—let seven men of his sons be given to us, and we will hang them up to Jehovah in Gibeon in the mount of Jehovah. And the king said, I will give them. 2. Execution of the sons of Saul and Rizpah. So the king took the two sons of Rizpah the daughter of Aiah, whom she bore to Saul, Armoni and Meribaal, and the five sons of Merab the daughter of Saul, whom she bore to Adriel the son of Barzillai the Meholathite. And he delivered them over to the Gibeonites, and they hung them in the mountain before Jehovah, so that the seven of them fell together; and they were put to death in the first days of harvest. 3. Rizpah’s devotion to the dead. Then Rizpah the daughter of Aiah took sackcloth, and spread it for her upon the rock, from the beginning of the barley harvest until water was poured upon them from heaven; and she did not permit the birds of the heavens to settle down upon them by day nor the wild beasts by night. And when it was reported to David what Rizpah the daughter of Aiah, the concubine of Saul, had done, David went and took the bones of Saul and the bones of Jonathan his son from the men of Jabesh in Gilead, who had stolen them from the citizens of Bethshan, where the Philistines had hanged them, on the day that the Philistines slew Saul in Gilboa. And he brought up from there the bones of Saul and the bones of Jonathan his son and they gathered the bones of those who were hanged. And they buried the bones of Saul and the bones of Jonathan his son in the territory of Benjamin in Zela in the sepulchre of Kish his father, and they did all that the king commanded. And after this God was propitiated toward the land. 4. Meribaal’s lameness. Now Jonathan, Saul’s son, had a son who was lame in his feet. He was five years old when the news came from Jezreel regarding Saul and Jonathan. And his nurse took him up and fled, and while she was hastily fleeing, he fell and became lame. And his name was Meribaal. 5. David’s search for descendants of Saul. And David said, Is there left of the house of Saul any to whom I may show kindness for Jonathan’s sake? Now there was of the house of Saul a servant whose name was Ziba; and they called him to David. And the king said to him, Are you Ziba? And he said, Your servant am I. The king said, is there no one else belonging to the house of Saul to whom I may show the kindness of God? And Ziba said to the king, Jonathan has still a son, who is lame in his feet. And the king said to him, Where is he? And Ziba said to the king, Behold he is in the house of Machir the son of Ammiel, in Lodebar. Then King David sent and brought him from the house of Machir the son of Ammiel, from Lodebar. And when Meribaal the son of Jonathan, the son of Saul, came to David, he fell on his face and did obeisance. David said, Meribaal! And he answered, Behold your servant! Then David said to him, Fear not, for I will surely show you kindness for the sake of Jonathan your father and will restore to you all the land of Saul your ancestor; and you shall eat at my table continually. And he did obeisance and said, What is your servant that you should look favorably upon such a dead dog as I am? 6. His provision for Meribaal. Then the king called to Ziba, Saul’s servant, and said to him, All that belongs to Saul and all his house have I given to your master’s son. And you shall cultivate the land for him, together with your sons and servants, and bring in the fruits that your master’s son may have food to eat; but Meribaal your master’s son shall always eat bread at my table. Now Ziba had fifteen sons and twenty servants. Then said Ziba to the king, Just as my lord the king commands his servant, so will your servant do. So Meribaal ate at David’s table like one of the sons of the king. And Meribaal had a young son, whose name was Mica. And all who dwelt in the house of Ziba were Meribaal’s servants. So Meribaal dwelt in Jerusalem, for he ate continually at the king’s table, being lame in both feet. 7. The taking of the census. Then Jehovah’s anger was again aroused against Israel, and he instigated David against them, saying, Go number Israel and Judah! So the king said to Joab and the commanders of the army who were with him, Go now about among all the tribes of Israel, from Dan even to Beersheba, and muster the people that I may know the number of the people. Then Joab answered the king, May Jehovah your God add to the people, a hundred times as many as they are, while the eyes of my lord the king are looking on! But why has my lord the king a desire for such a thing? But the king’s command prevailed against Joab and the commanders of the army. And Joab and the commanders of the army went out from the presence of the king to number the people of Israel. And they crossed the Jordan, and began from Aroer and from the city that is in the midst of the torrent valley, toward Gad and on to Jazer. Then they came to Gilead and to the land of the Hittites, toward Kadesh; and they came to Dan, and from Dan they went around to Sidon, and came to the fortress of Tyre and all the cities of the Hivites, and of the Canaanites; and they went out to the South Country of Judah at Beersheba. So when they had gone about through the land, they came to Jerusalem at the end of nine months and twenty days. And Joab gave to the king the number of the people who had been enrolled, and there were in Israel eight hundred thousand able-bodied, fighting men; and the men of Judah were five hundred thousand. 8. David’s remorse. Then David’s conscience smote him after he had numbered the people. And David said to Jehovah, I have sinned greatly in what I have done. But now, O Jehovah, pardon, I beseech thee, the iniquity of thy servant, for I have done very foolishly. 9. His choice. Then the word of Jehovah came to the prophet Gad, David’s seer, saying, Go and speak to David, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “Three things I offer thee; choose one of them, that I may do it to thee.”’ So when David rose up in the morning, Gad came to David and told him, and said to him, Shall three years of famine come over your land? Or will you flee three months before your foes, while they pursue you? Or shall there be three days’ pestilence in your land? Now take counsel and consider what answer I shall return to him who sent me. And David said to Gad, I am in a great strait. We would rather fall into the hand of Jehovah, for his mercy is great, but let me not fall into the hand of man. 10. The pestilence. So David chose the pestilence. And when it was the time of wheat harvest, the plague began among the people and slew of the people from Dan to Beersheba seventy thousand men. And when the Messenger stretched out his hand toward Jerusalem to destroy it, Jehovah repented of the evil, and said to the Messenger who was destroying the people, Enough, now stay thy hand! and the Messenger of Jehovah was by the threshing-floor of Araunah. 11. The altar on the threshing-floor of Araunah. And Gad came that day to David, and said to him, Go up, rear an altar to Jehovah on the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite. So David went up at the command of Gad, as Jehovah commanded. And when Araunah looked down and saw the king and his servants crossing over to him, Araunah went out and bowed before the king with his face to the ground. And Araunah said, Why has my lord the king come to his servant? And David said, To buy the threshing-floor of you, to build an altar to Jehovah, that the plague may be averted from the people. And Araunah said to David, Let my lord the king take and offer what he pleases, the oxen for the burnt-offering, and the threshing-sledges and the implements of the oxen for the wood. All this has your servant, my lord the king, given to the king. And Araunah said to the king, Jehovah your God accept you! And the king answered Araunah, No, but I will surely buy it of you at a price. I must not offer burnt-offerings to Jehovah my God which cost me nothing. So David bought the threshing-floor and the oxen for fifty shekels of silver. Then David built there an altar to Jehovah, and offered burnt-offerings and peace-offerings. So Jehovah was entreated for the land and the plague was averted from Israel. 1. The Ancient Doctrine of Evil. From earliest times the dogma that calamity was the sign of divine displeasure was widely accepted. It was one of the fundamental doctrines of ancient theology. Hence when Israel was afflicted with a severe famine, the one question raised by all was, In what has the nation sinned to be thus afflicted with the mark of Jehovah’s displeasure? The survivors of the old Canaanite town of Gibeon appeared with an explanation which was accepted not only by the Israelites but by David himself. It was that Jehovah was punishing the crime of Saul, who, disregarding the ancient covenant (§ XXXII), had put to death many of the Gibeonites. Their proposal that the two surviving sons of Saul and his five grandsons be hung up before Jehovah, as an expiation for the crime of their ancestor, was adopted. The relief from the famine which followed was interpreted as evidence that Jehovah had accepted the bloody sacrifice. The devotion of Rizpah, Saul’s wife, to her sons at last aroused the sympathy of the nation, and moved David honorably to inter the bones of Saul and his descendants in the family sepulchre in Benjamin. II. The False and the True Doctrine of Human Sacrifice. This ancient story reveals the imperfect belief of the age. The later prophetic teaching that Jehovah was a righteous God and that all his acts were prompted by justice and love had not yet dawned upon the popular consciousness. In common with their heathen neighbors, they still thought of their Deity as a God whose anger could be appeased by sacrifice of an innocent human being. Later and more enlightened prophets recognized the act, even though it was inspired by religious zeal, as simple murder. They also saw clearly that God’s attitude toward men was that of love, and that he was ever ready to forgive the nation or individual who came to him with true penitence. No bloody sacrifice was required to win God’s favor. Indeed they declared that he desired not sacrifice, but only “a broken and contrite heart.” The later theologies, therefore, which clung to the old heathen doctrine, were far removed from the nobler teachings of the early prophets. In the suffering, discordant life of humanity, human sacrifice plays its essential part. To be effective, however, the sacrifice must be voluntary, and it is effective, not in changing the attitude of God toward men, but of men toward God. The noble self-giving of parents for their children, of friend for friend, of patriot for his country, of reformer and philanthropist for the down-trodden and suffering, is absolutely essential for the salvation of humanity. III. David’s Treatment of Jonathan’s Son. Possibly as a reaction for the cruel penalty that was visited upon the descendants of Saul, David made earnest search, and succeeded in finding the crippled son of his beloved friend Jonathan. Upon him David bestowed Saul’s family estates and the honor of eating at the royal table. Thus Meribaal remained a pathetic reminder of David’s noblest passion and of the departed glories of the house of Saul. IV. The Census of All Israel. As a part of David’s policy and in order to ascertain upon how many warriors he could rely in his foreign campaigns, command was given to number all Israel. The royal order was carried out in the face of Joab’s earnest protestation. Nearly ten months were required for the task. The report revealed one million three hundred thousand warriors in all Israel. It is interesting to note that the population of Judah, which doubtless included the tribes of the south, at this time nearly equalled that of Northern Israel. V. The Pestilence. A vivid, picturesque, popular tradition tells of a pestilence which swept through Israel about this time, and connects the calamity with David’s numbering the Israelites. The old Semitic belief that a census was displeasing to the Deity was accepted, and the pestilence was interpreted as a direct punishment. At the direction of his prophetic adviser, Gad, David purchased from Araunah the Jebusite, a threshing-floor, which was probably on the northern extension of the hill of Ophel. There he reared an altar to Jehovah and sacrificed burnt-offerings. The ancient story was apparently preserved because it told of the acquisition of the sacred site on which Solomon later reared the temple. Possibly David’s sacrifice was offered on the same jagged native rock, which later figured as the great altar before Solomon’s temple, and is to-day covered by the quaint Mosque of Omar. VI Israel’s Faith in the Days of David. These popular stories lay bare the beliefs held by the Hebrews at this early period. Their faith, like their civilization, was a blending of the beliefs, which their ancestors brought from the wilderness, with the new and very different ideas which they found regnant in Canaan. It was inevitable that their theology should contain many heathen superstitions. Ceremonial correctness was evidently still regarded as more important than ethical righteousness. Man continued to bargain with his God in order to attain cherished ends, Jehovah was regarded more with fear than with love. He was the supreme King, who demanded the absolute loyalty and devotion of his subjects, very much as did their human king. David reigned as Je hovah’s viceroy, consulting his divine King through the priestly oracl before deciding any important question of state. The consolidation, of all the tribes under one ruler not only rendered their beliefs more uniform, but also fixed their faith on one God supreme throughout all the nation. Thus it was that the institution of the united Hebrew kingdom represents an important step forward in the development of Israel’s religion from the crude polytheism of the desert into the exalted [??] theism of the later prophets. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 74: 074. LI. DAVID’S FOREIGN WARS AND CONQUESTS ======================================================================== § LI. DAVID’S FOREIGN WARS AND CONQUESTS 2 Samuel 23:8-12; 2 Samuel 23:18-23, 2 Samuel 8:2, 2 Samuel 10, 2 Samuel 8:7-9; 2 Samuel 8:13-14, 2 Samuel 11:1, 2 Samuel 12:26-31 1. David’s warriors. These are the names of David’s mighty heroes: Ishbaal the Hachmonite, leader of the Three; he swung his spear over eight hundred slain at one time. 2. Eleazar. And next to him among the three mighty heroes was Eleazar the son of Dodo, the Ahohite. He was with David at Pasdammim when the Philistines gathered there for battle. But when the Israelites retreated, he stood up and smote the Philistines until his hand was weary and clave fast to the sword. Thus Jehovah brought about a great deliverance that day; and the people returned after him only to take spoil. 3. Sham mah. And next to him was Shammah the son of Agee, a Hararite. And the Philistines gathered together at Lehi. And there was a plot of ground full of lentils. But when the people fled from the Philistines, he stood in the middle of the plot and defended it and slew the Philistines. Thus Jehovah brought about a great deliverance. 4. Leader of the Thirty. And Abishai, the brother of Joab the son of Zeruiah, was leader of the Thirty. And he swung his spear over three hundred slain, so that he was renowned among the Thirty. He was honored more than the Thirty, so that he became their commander, but he did not attain to the Three. 5. Deeds of Benaiah. And Benaiah the son of Jehoiada was a valiant man of Kabzeel, who had done great deeds; he slew the two sons of Ariel of Moab. He also went down and slew a lion in the midst of a pit in time of snow. And he slew a tall Egyptian, who had a spear in his hand, but he went down to him with a club and snatched the spear out of the Egyptian’s hand and slew him with his own spear. These things did Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, and he was renowned among the thirty mighty heroes. He was honored more than the Thirty, but he did not attain to the Three. And David set him over his body-guard. 6. Conquest of Moab. Then David smote Moab and measured them off with a line, making them lie down on the ground; and he measured two lines: one full line to put to death and one full line to save alive. And thus the Moabites became subject to David, and brought a present. 7. Cause of the war with the Ammonites. Now it came to pass after this, that the king of the Ammonites died and Hanun his son became king in his place. And David said, I will show kindness to Hanun the son of Nahash as his father showed kindness to me. So David sent by his servants to condole with him concerning his father. But when David’s servants came to the land of the Ammonites, the princes of the Ammonites said to Hanun their lord, Do you suppose that David is honoring your father in sending comforters to you? Has not David sent his servants to you to search the city and to spy it out and to overthrow it? So Hanun took David’s servants, and shaved off the one half of their beards, cut their robes in two, even to their hips, and sent them away. When David was informed regarding the men, he sent to meet them, for the men were greatly ashamed. And the king said, Stay at Jericho until your beards are grown and then return. 8. First victory of the Israelites under Joab. Now when the Ammonites saw that they had become odious to David, the Ammonites sent and hired the Arameans of Beth-rehob, and the Arameans of Zobah, twenty thousand footmen, and the king of Maacah and of Ishtob with twelve thousand men. And when David heard of it, he sent Joab and all the army and the trained warriors. And the Ammonites came out, and drew up in battle-array at the entrance of the city. And the Arameans of Zobah and Rehob, and Ishtob and Maacah, were by themselves in the open country. But when Joab saw that he was being attacked both in front and in the rear, he selected the picked men of Israel, and put them in array against the Arameans. And the rest of the people he placed under the command of Abishai his brother; and he put them in array against the Ammonites. And he said, If the Arameans should be too strong for me, then you shall help me, but if the Ammonites should be too strong for you, then I will come to your aid. Be courageous and let us show ourselves men for the sake of our people and for the cities of our God; and may Jehovah do that which seems good to him. Now when Joab and the people who were with him drew near for battle against the Arameans, they fled before him. And when the Ammonites saw that the Arameans had fled, they likewise fled before Abishai, and entered into the city. Then Joab returned from the Ammonites, and came to Jerusalem. 9. The second campaign and victory over the Arameans. But when the Arameans saw that they had been defeated by the Israelites, they gathered themselves together, and Hadadezer sent, and brought out the Arameans who were beyond the River [Euphrates], and they came to Helam with Shobach, the commander of the army of Hadadezer, at their head. And when it was reported to David, he gathered all Israel together and crossed over the Jordan and came to Helam. And the Arameans set themselves in array against David and fought with him. And the Arameans fled before Israel; and David slew of the Arameans seven hundred horsemen and forty thousand footmen and smote Shobach the commander of their army, so that he died there. And when all the kings who were subject to Hadadezer saw that they were defeated by Israel, they made peace with Israel and were subject to them. Therefore the Arameans feared to help the Ammonites any more. 10. The spoil. And David took the shields of gold that were on the servants of Hadadezer, and brought them to Jerusalem. And from Tibhath and from Berothai, cities of Hadadezer, King David took a great amount of brass. 11. Gifts of Tou, king of Hamath. And when Tou king of Hamath heard that David had smitten all the army of Hadadezer, Tou sent Hadoram his son to King David, to greet him and to wish him good fortune, because he had fought against Hadadezer and smitten him, for Hadadezer was Tou’s military antagonist. And he brought with him vessels of silver, of gold, and of brass. Thus David made a reputation for himself. 12. Victorious conclusion of Ammonite war. Now, a year later, at the time when kings are accustomed to go forth, David sent Joab and his servants with him, even all Israel; and they destroyed the Ammonites, and besieged Rabbah. But David remained at Jerusalem. And Joab fought against Rabbah of the Ammonites and took the water city. Then Joab sent messengers to David, saying, I have fought against Rabbah; also I have taken the water city. Now therefore gather the rest of the people together, and encamp against the city, and take it, lest I take the city and it should be called by my name. So David gathered all the people together and went to Rabbah and fought against it and took it. And he took the crown of Milcom from his head; and its weight was about one hundred and forty pounds of gold, and in it was a precious stone; and it was set on David’s head. And he brought away the great amount of spoil that was in the city. And he brought away the people who were in it, and put them at the saws and picks and axes of iron and made them work at the brickmoulds. Even thus he did to all the cities of the Ammonites. Then David and all the people returned to Jerusalem. 13. Defeat of the Edomites. On his return, he smote of the Edomites in the Valley of Salt, eighteen thousand men. And he put garrisons in all Edom; and all the Edomites became subject to David. And Jehovah helped David wherever he went. I. David’s Warriors. During David’s outlaw period he gathered about him a trained and tested body of valiant knights. The relative honors which they enjoyed were measured simply by their bravery and achievement. It was an age when a powerful, brave, far-famed warrior could successfully meet and put to flight a company of ordinary soldiers. On many a hard-fought battle-field David had proved himself a brave and chivalrous knight, and his example was imitated by his followers. Three of these warriors stood preëminent above all others. There was also another group of thirty knights of the second class whose names have been preserved in the narratives of Samuel and Chronicles. The personality of these warriors and the accounts of their bold achievements undoubtedly did much to inspire courage and enterprise in the rank and file of David’s army. II. The Organization of David’s Army. David’s regular army seems to have consisted simply of his chosen knights and the Philistine body-guard, which numbered six hundred trained fighting men. These could be absolutely depended upon at every crisis. From their ranks were doubtless drawn commanders to lead the different divisions of the militia, which could be quickly called out in the event of a foreign in vasion or war. As in olden times, the Hebrew warriors rallied under their tribal and local leaders, who were thus able intelligently to direct and command the obedience of their followers. During the winter and spring time the rank and file of the army returned to their homes to attend to their private interests, to follow their flocks, or to till their fields. Foreign campaigns were not undertaken until the crops had been gathered in and the men were free to respond to the call of the camp and battlefield. The simple habits and diet of the early Hebrews called for few provisions beyond what each individual could himself furnish. In this way it was possible for David to rally at short notice most of the able-bodied men in his realm, and to carry on protracted wars without seriously draining the resources of his kingdom. III. The Ammonite Wars. There is a brief and apparently late reference to a campaign against the Moabites, according to which they were completely subjugated and two-thirds of their men were put to death. If the narrative is historical it was a strange requital of their hospitality toward David’s parents unless, perchance, the Moabites later did some violence to the refugees thus entrusted to their care. The first extensive foreign campaign to be undertaken by David appears to have been against the Ammonites, the old foes of the east-Jordan tribes. On his accession to the throne the son of Nahash treated David’s ambassadors shamefully and thereby took the initiative in declaring war. The Ammonites called in as their allies a large body of Arameans from the north and north-east of Israel. Joab was despatched against them with an army of picked warriors. To anticipate an attack in his rear, he divided his forces into two divisions, placing one under the command of his brother, Abishai. The battle was evidently fought in the open, and both divisions of the Hebrew army put to flight the opposing forces. Under the leadership of David a campaign was next conducted against the Arameans. At a certain east-Jordan point, not yet identified, he won a decisive victory. The Aramean princes, whose kingdoms lay nearest to Israel, hastened to make peace with David and to pay tribute. A year later Joab was sent out with a new army to besiege the Ammonite capital Rabbah. He first captured the water city, thus cutting off the water supply. David was then summoned to be present at the final conquest of the capital, and he soon returned laden with rich spoil. The crown of gold was taken from the head of the Ammonite god, Milcom (or Milk), and its chief jewel was added to David’s diadem. The Ammonites were enslaved and set at forced labor, and their territory was annexed to the rapidly growing Hebrew empire. IV. The Extent of David’s Kingdom. Another campaign, with a bloody victory, was carried on by David against his southern foes, the Edomites. Hebrew garrisons were established throughout the land and the people were completely subjugated. Thus apparently within a few years David built up a little empire which extended from the territory of the Phoenicians and Philistines on the west to the desert on the east, and from the eastern arm of the Red Sea in the south to the neighborhood of Damascus in the north. V. The Significance of David’s Conquests. Later prophets like Amos condemned, even in their heathen foes, the barbarous cruelty with which David treated the conquered peoples. It was a brutal age and the warfare between the kindred tribes of southwestern Asia had always been characterized by great cruelty and disregard of human life. Each petty nation fought in the name of its god and in the name of its god slaughtered its conquered foes. The cause was partially because the struggle for the limited territory in the ancient Semitic world was so intense, and partially because the ethical motives of justice and mercy had not as yet found a central place in the religions of the day. In the light of existing conditions it was clear that, if David’s kingdom was to enjoy peace and prosperity, he must subdue the persistent foes to the south and east, who were constantly pressing the Hebrews from behind, and who never lost a favorable opportunity for attack. David’s conquests not only gave him a unified empire, but also opened on every side the highways for foreign commerce. From Philistia, Phoenicia, Damascus and Arabia came those products and ideas which, in the days of Solomon, transformed the simple, rude Hebrew state into an opulent, ambitious monarchy. Under David the Israelites also ceased to be a race of struggling, hunted peasants and suddenly became the masters of the eastern Mediterranean. The Hebrews never forgot the proud achievements of David’s reign. Their fondest hopes for the future were moulded by the memories of the conquests and achievements of this early period, which represented the zenith of their national glory. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 75: 075. LII. DAVID’S CRIMES AND THEIR PUNISHMENT ======================================================================== § LII. DAVID’S CRIMES AND THEIR PUNISHMENT 2 Samuel 3:2-5, 2 Samuel 11:2 to 2 Samuel 12:25 1. David’s children born in Hebron. Now in Hebron sons were born to David: his eldest was Amnon the son of Ahinoam the Jezreelitess; and his second, Chileab the son of Abigail, the wife of Nabal the Carmelite; and the third, Absalom the son of Maacah, the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur; and the fourth, Adonijah the son of Haggith; and the fifth, Shephatiah the son of Abital; and the sixth, Ithream the son of Eglah, David’s wife. These were born to David in Hebron. 2. In Jerusalem. And in Jerusalem David took for himself more concubines and wives, after he came there from Hebron; and more sons and daughters were born to David. And these are the names of those who were born to him in Jerusalem: Shammua, Shobab, Nathan, Solomon, Ibhar, Elishua, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama, Baaliada, and Eliphelet. 3. David’s sin with Bathsheba. Now once at eventide, while Joab was besieging Rabbath-Ammon, David arose from his bed, and walked upon the roof of the king’s palace; and from the roof he saw a woman bathing. And the woman was very beautiful. And David sent to inquire concerning the woman. And one said, Is not this Bathsheba, the wife of Uriah the Hittite? Then David sent messengers to take her; and she came to him, and he lay with her—she having been purified from her uncleanness. Then she returned to her house. And the woman conceived; and she sent to tell David, saying, I am with child. 4. His attempt to conceal it. Then David said to Joab, Send me Uriah the Hittite. And Joab sent Uriah to David. And when Uriah had come to him, David asked him concerning the welfare of Joab and the people and the progress of the war. Then David said to Uriah, Go down to your house and wash your feet. And Uriah departed from the king’s house, and there followed him a portion from the king. But Uriah slept at the door of the king’s house with the servants of his lord and did not go down to his house. Now when it was told David, Uriah did not go down to his house, David said to Uriah, Have you not come from a journey? Why did you not go down to your house? But Uriah said to David, The ark and Israel and Judah are abiding in huts, and my master Joab, and the servants of my lord are camping in the open fields; shall I then go to my house to eat and drink and to lie with my wife! As Jehovah liveth and you live, I cannot do this. Then David said to Uriah, Stay here to-day also, and tomorrow I will let you go. So Uriah remained in Jerusalem that day. But on the next day David invited him and he ate and drank before him, so that he made him drunk. Then in the evening he went out to lie on his couch with the servants of his lord, but went not down to his house. 5. His murder of Uriah. And in the morning, David wrote a letter to Joab, and sent it by Uriah. And he wrote in the letter saying, Set Uriah in the face of the fiercest fighting, then retreat from behind him, that he may be smitten and die. So in keeping guard over the city, Joab assigned Uriah to the place where he knew valiant men were. And when the city went out to fight with Joab, there fell some of the soldiers of David, and Uriah the Hittite fell also. Then Joab sent to tell David all the facts concerning the war. And he instructed the messenger, saying, When you have finished telling all the facts concerning the war to the king, then if the king’s wrath is aroused, and he say to you,’ Why did you go so near to the city to fight? Did you not know that they would shoot from the wall? Who smote Abimelech the son of Jerubbaal? Did not a woman cast an upper millstone upon him from the wall, so that he died at Thebez? Why did you go near the wall?’ then shall you say, ‘Your servant Uriah the Hittite is dead also.’ 6. Joab’s report. So the messenger of Joab went to the king at Jerusalem and came and told David all that Joab commanded him concerning the war. Then the messenger said to David, The men boldly attacked us and came out to us in the open field, and so we drove them back even to the entrance of the gate. And the archers shot at your servants from the wall; and some of the king’s servants are dead. Then David was very angry with Joab, and he said to the messenger, Why did you go near the city to fight? Did you not know they would shoot you from the wall? Who smote Abimelech, the son of Jerubbaal? Did not a woman cast an upper millstone upon him from the wall, so that he died in Thebez? Why did you go near the wall? But the messenger said, Your servant Uriah the Hittite is dead also. Thereupon David said to the messenger, Thus shall you say to Joab,’ Let not this thing displease you, for the sword devours one as well as another; persist in your attack upon the city, and overthrow it,’ and encourage him. 7. David’s marriage with Bathsheba. Now when the wife of Uriah heard that Uriah her husband was dead, she made lamentation for her husband. But when the mourning was over, David sent and took her home to his house, and she became his wife and bore him a son. But the thing that David had done displeased Jehovah. 8. Nathan’s parable. Then Jehovah sent the prophet Nathan to David. And he came to him, and said to him, There were two men in one city, the one rich, the other poor. The rich man had very many flocks and herds. But the poor man had nothing, except one little ewe lamb, which he had bought. And he nourished it and it grew up with him and with his children. It used to eat of his own morsel, and drink out of his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was to him as a daughter. But there came a traveller to the rich man, and he spared his own flock and did not take from it nor from his own herd to make ready for the traveller who had come to him, but took the poor man’s lamb and prepared it for the man who had come to him. Then David’s anger was greatly aroused against the man, and he said to Nathan, As Jehovah liveth, the man who has done this is worthy of death, and he shall restore the lamb sevenfold, because he showed no pity. 9. Condemnation of David. Therefore Nathan said to David, You are the man! Thus saith Jehovah, the God of Israel,’ I anointed thee king over Israel and I delivered thee out of the hand of Saul, and I gave thee thy master’s house and thy master’s wives into thy bosom, and gave thee the house of Israel and of Judah, and if that were too little, I would add to you as much again.’ Why have you despised the word of Jehovah by doing that which is evil? You have smitten Uriah the Hittite with the sword, and have taken his wife to be your wife, and have slain him with the sword of the Ammonites. Now therefore the sword shall never depart from your house, because you have despised me and have taken the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be your wife. Thus saith Jehovah,’ Behold, I will raise up evil against thee out of thine own house, and I will take thy wives from before thine eyes and give them to thy neighbor, and he shall lie with thy wives in the sight of this sun, for thou didst it secretly; but I will do this thing before all Israel, and before the sun.’ Then David said to Nathan, I have sinned against Jehovah. And Nathan said to David, Jehovah also put away your sin; you shall not die. Yet, because by this deed you have scorned Jehovah, the child also that is born to you shall surely die. And Nathan departed to his house. 10. Death of David’s first son by Bathsheba. And Jehovah smote the child which Uriah’s wife bore to David, so that it fell sick. Then David besought God for the child, and fasted and went in and lay all night in sackcloth upon the earth. And the elders of his house stood over him in order to raise him up from the earth; but he would not arise, neither would he eat bread with them. But on the seventh day the child died. And the servants of David feared to tell him that the child was dead, for they said, Behold while the child was yet alive, we spoke to him, and he hearkened not to our voice; how can we say the child is dead, for he will do some harm! But when David saw that his servants were whispering together, David perceived that the child was dead, and David said to his servants, Is the child dead? And they said, He is dead. Then David arose from the earth, and washed and anointed himself, and changed his garments; and he came into the house of Jehovah and worshipped. Then he went to his own house; and he asked for bread and they set it before him and he ate. Then his servants said to him, What is this you have done? You fasted and wept for the child, while it was alive, but when the child died, you arose and ate bread. And he said, While the child was yet alive, I fasted and wept; for I said, ‘Who knows whether Jehovah will have mercy, so that the child will live?’ But now he is dead; why should I fast? Can I bring him back again? I am going to him, but he will not come back to me. 11. Birth of Solomon. Then David comforted Bathsheba his wife, and went in unto her and lay with her, and she conceived and bore a son whose name he called Solomon. And Jehovah loved him, and sent a message through Nathan the prophet; and he called his name Jedidiah [The Beloved of Jehovah], according to the command of Jehovah. I. David’s Family History. A mere historian would have dismissed David’s domestic experiences with a sentence or two. The author of the parallel history of Chronicles, who wrote from the point of view of the third century before Christ, entirely ignores this side of David’s character and reign. By him, as by later generations, David was simply regarded as a king after God’s own heart, who laid the foundations for the temple and sang Israel’s most deeply spiritual songs. It was only the prophetic historian who had the courage and desire to present in their hideous realism David’s odious crimes and their consequences. These stories constitute the major part of the book of II Samuel (chaps. 9–20). In a vivid, detailed narrative they present the pathetic tragedy of David’s closing years. The problems there treated are of universal and vital significance. Their importance amply justifies the frankness with which they are presented. Their message is supremely applicable to the present age in which the great social evil threatens to undermine our vaunted Christian civilization. II. David’s Household. The dark background of these stories is an oriental court, with its degrading institution of polygamy. Before he became king of united Israel, David had married seven wives. Later, still others were added to his harem. The subsequent history shows that his household was by no means free from the usual vices which flourish in an eastern harem: luxury, the pursuit of pleasure, petty jealousies and intrigues. The king, therefore, lived in an atmosphere in which it was almost impossible to develop strong moral fibre. III. David’s Double Crime. At the zenith of David’s popularity and success the fatal weakness in his character was disclosed. All ancient codes, including those of the Hebrews, were very strenuous in their punishment of adultery. The avenging of murder was left to the kinsmen of the murdered man. The adulterer, however, committed an unpardonable sin against society; therefore the Hebrew law enacted that he should be publicly stoned to death by the community (§ LIX 5). In thus condemning social immorality even more severely than the act of murder, primitive society was but following the example of Nature. No crime to-day involves more sudden and terrible consequences in the life of the individual; no crime is capable of exerting as malign an influence upon the innocent family and later descendants of the culprit; no crime leaves in its wake as many physical and moral ills. With true intuitions the ancient Hebrews punished adultery as they did blasphemy. In the ultimate analysis the two crimes are closely akin. No diviner function is given to man than that of becoming, like God himself, a creator. No human relation is more sacred than that of parenthood; no institution is more basal to the welfare of society than that of the family. Therefore, he who perverts this divine gift allies himself with the impious fool who tramples upon his noblest religious impulses and defies God himself. David must always be judged by the standards of his age, and yet his own generation did not hesitate to condemn his act, as is well illustrated by the story itself. Like many a culprit David tried to cover his act by a treacherous murder. Under the dominance of a misguided passion, the brave, the chivalrous, the magnanimous idol of his people suddenly fell to the level of an unprincipled oriental tyrant. IV. Nathan’s Parable. In the original David narratives, 10 was apparently the immediate sequel of 7. The story of Nathan’s parable bears the marks of a later prophetic age. The parable itself is one of the classics of the Old Testament. In simple, concise, highly poetical form, the prophet set forth the principles, which he forthwith called upon David not only to accept but to apply. The appeal was to David’s strong sense of justice and pity. The analogy between the crime of the rich man and the royal culprit was complete. David’s response was in harmony with his character as revealed, for example, when he listened in silence and humiliation to the revilings of the Benjamite, Shimei (§ LIV 8,9). V. David’s Punishment. If David confessed his sin in the presence of the prophet Nathan, as the later tradition affirms, his subsequent acts indicate that the repentance lacked many of the qualities demanded by the great ethical prophets of later generations. He was sorry for the act and its consequences, but there is no evidence that his repentance was deep enough to allow the diviner qualities within him to reassert themselves. His sorrow and petitions were that God might spare the child whom Uriah’s wife bore him. Henceforth, Bathsheba, with her malign influence, remained the dominant power in his heart and court. Upon Solomon, the later offspring of this unfortunate alliance, he centred his affection and hope for the future of his realm. Thus it was that David’s crime left its fatal influence not only upon his own character and family, but also upon the history of his race. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 76: 076. LIII. THE CRIMES OF DAVID’S SONS ======================================================================== § LIII. THE CRIMES OF DAVID’S SONS 2 Samuel 13-14 1. Amnon’s base passion for Tamar. Now afterwards it came to pass that Absalom the son of David had a beautiful sister, whose name was Tamar; and Amnon the son of David loved her. And Amnon was so distressed that he became sick because of his sister Tamar—for she was a virgin—and it seemed to Amnon impossible to do anything to her. But Amnon had a friend whose name was Jonadab the son of Shimeah, David’s brother; and Jonadab was a very shrewd man. And he said to him, Why are you, a king’s son, so ill every morning? Will you not tell me? And Ammon said to him, I love Tamar, my brother Absalom’s sister. And Jonadab said to him, Lie down on your bed, and pretend to be sick. Then when your father comes to see you, say to him, ‘Let my sister Tamar come and give me bread to eat, and prepare the food in my sight, that I may see it and eat from her hand.’ So Amnon lay down and pretended to be sick. And when the king came to see him, Amnon said to the king, Let my sister Tamar come and make a few heart-shaped cakes in my sight, that I may eat from her hand. 2. His treacherous assault. So David sent home to Tamar, saying, Go now to your brother Amnon’s house, and prepare food for him. So Tamar went to her brother Amnon’s house while he lay in bed. And she took dough and kneaded it and made cakes as he looked on, and baked the cakes. And she took the pan and poured them out before him, but he refused to eat. And Amnon said, Let all go out from me. And they all went out from him. And Amnon said to Tamar, Bring the food into the inner room, that I may take from your hand. And Tamar took the cakes which she had made, and brought them into the inner room to Amnon her brother. And when she had brought them to him to eat, he took hold of her and said to her, Come, lie with me, my sister. And she answered him, No, my brother, do not force me, for it is not so done in Israel; do not commit this impious act of folly. And as for me, whither could I carry my shame? and as for you, you would become one of the impious fools in Israel. Now therefore, I beg you, speak to the king, for he will not withhold me from you. But he would not hearken to her, but being stronger than she, he violated her and lay with her. 3. His refusal to make amends for his crime. Then Amnon hated her with great hatred, for the hatred with which he hated her was greater than the love with which he had loved her. And Amnon said to her, Arise, be gone! But she said to him, No, my brother; far greater is the second wrong in sending me away than the first that you did to me. And he would not listen to her, but called his servant who was standing in front of the house and said, Put this woman out from my presence, and bolt the door after her. And she wore a long-sleeved tunic, for thus the royal maidens were formerly wont to be clad. Then his servant put her out and bolted the door after her. And Tamar put ashes on her head, and rent her long-sleeved tunic which she wore; and she put her hand on her head, and went her way, crying aloud as she went. 4. David’s inaction. And Absalom her own brother said to her, Has Amnon your brother been with you? But now, my sister, be silent, for he is your brother; do not take this thing to heart. So Tamar dwelt desolate in her brother Absalom’s house. But when King David heard of all these things, he was very angry, but he did not discipline Amnon his son, for he loved him, because he was his eldest. And Absalom spoke to Amnon neither good nor bad; for Absalom hated Amnon, because he had violated his sister Tamar. 5. Absalom’s revenge. Now it happened after two years, that Absalom had sheepshearers in Baal Hazor near Ephraim, and Absalom invited all the king’s sons. And Absalom came to the king and said, See your servant has sheepshearers; let the king, 1 pray, and his servants go with your servant. But the king said to Absalom, No, my son, let us not all go, lest we be burdensome to you. And he pressed him; however, he would not go, but bade him farewell. Then Absalom said. If not, then let my brother Amnon go with us. And the king said, Why should he go with you? But when Absalom pressed him, he let Amnon and all the king’s sons go with him. Then Absalom commanded his servants, saying, See to it: when Amnon’s heart is merry with wine, and when I say to you, ‘Smite Amnon,’ then kill him. Fear not; have not I commanded you? Be brave and show yourselves valiant men! And the servants of Absalom did to Amnon as Absalom had commanded. Then all the king’s sons arose and each mounted his mule and fled. 6. David’s reception of the news. And while they were on the way, the news came to David: Absalom has slain all the king’s sons so that there is not one of them left. Then the king arose and tore his clothes and lay on the earth; and all his servants who were standing by him tore their clothes and stood with torn clothes. And Jonadab the son of Shimeah, David’s brother, answered and said, Let not my lord suppose that they have killed all the young men, the king’s sons, for Amnon only is dead, since by the statement of Absalom this was decided from the day of the violation of his sister Tamar. Now therefore let not my lord the king take this thing to heart, to think that all the king’s sons are dead; for Amnon only is dead. And when the watchman lifted up his eyes and looked, there were many people coming down the descent on the Bethhoron road. And the watchman came and told the king, saying, I have seen people coming down from the Bethhoron road by the side of the hill. And Jonadab said to the king, There the king’s sons are coming, as your servant said, so it has come to pass. As soon as he had finished speaking, the king’s sons came and lifted up their voices and wept; and the king also and all his servants wept loudly. 7. Absalom’s flight. And David mourned continually for his son. But Absalom fled and went to Talmai the son of Amihud, king of Geshur, and remained there three years. And the spirit of King David longed to go out to Absalom, for he was comforted for the death of Amnon. 8. Joab’s intrigue. Now when Joab the son of Zeruiah perceived that the king’s heart was favorable towards Absalom, Joab sent to Tekoa and brought from there a wise woman and said to her, Pretend to be a mourner and put on mourning garments, and do not anoint yourself with oil, but become like a woman who has been many days mourning for one dead, and go to the king and speak thus with him. So Joab put the words in her mouth. 9. Fictitious petition of the Tekoite woman. And the Tekoite woman came to the king, and prostrated herself upon the ground and did obeisance, crying, Help, O king, help! And the king said to her, What is wrong with you? And she said, Verily, I am a widow and my husband is dead. And your maid-servant had two sons, and these two quarrelled in the field when there was no one to part them, and one smote the other and killed him. And now the whole clan has risen up against your maid servant and they say, ‘Deliver up the slayer of his brother, that we may put him to death for the life of his brother whom he has killed, and we will destroy the heir.’ Thus they will quench my remaining coal, so as to leave to my husband neither name nor remnant on the face of the earth. 10. David’s decision. Then the king said to the woman, Go to your house and I will give orders regarding you. And the woman of Tekoa said to the king, My lord, O king, the guilt be on me and on my father’s house; and the king and his throne be innocent. And the king said, Whoever saith anything to you bring him to me and he shall not touch you again. Then she said, I pray, let the king swear by Jehovah thy God, not to let the avenger of blood destroy and not to let them exterminate my son. And he said, As Jehovah liveth, not one hair of your son shall fall to the ground. 11. Application of the principle to the royal judge. Then the woman said, Let your maid-servant, I pray you, speak a word to my lord the king. And he said, Speak. And the woman said, Why then do you devise such a thing against the people of God? For in rendering this decision the king is as one that is guilty, in that the king does not bring back his banished one. For we die and are as water spilt on the ground, which cannot be gathered up again; and God will not take away the life of him who devises means not to keep in banishment one who is banished. Now the reason why I have come to speak this word to my lord the king is because the people made me afraid, and your maid-servant said, ‘I will now speak to the king; it may be that the king will perform the request of his servant.’ For the king will hear, to deliver his servant out of the hand of the man who seeks to destroy me and my son from the heritage of Jehovah. Then your maid-servant said, ‘Let the word of my lord the king be a comfort, for like the Messenger of God is my lord the king to hear good and evil.’ And Jehovah thy God be with you. 12. His appreciation of Joab’s purpose. Then the king answered and said to the woman, Do not conceal from me, I pray, anything that I may ask you. And the woman said, Let my lord the king now speak. And the king said, Was the hand of Joab with you in all this? And the woman answered and said, As sure as you live, my lord the king, I cannot turn to the right hand or to the left from all that my lord the king has spoken, for your servant Joab bade me put all these words in the mouth of your maid-servant; in order to change the face of affairs has your servant done this thing. But my lord is wise, according to the wisdom of the Messenger of God, so that he knows all things that are in the earth. 13. Absalom’s return. And the king said to Joab, See now, I have granted this request; go, therefore, bring the young man Absalom back. Then Joab fell to the ground on his face and did obeisance and blessed the king. And Joab said, To-day your servant knows that I have found favor in your sight, my lord, O king, in that the king has granted the request of his servant. So Joab arose and went to Geshur, and brought Absalom back to Jerusalem. And the king said, Let him live apart in his own house, but my face he shall not see. So Absalom lived apart to his own house, but he did not see the king’s face. 14. His personal beauty. Now no man in Israel was so praiseworthy for his beauty as Absalom: from the sole of his foot even to the crown of his head there was no blemish in him. And when he shaved his head—at the end of every year he cut it, because it was heavy on him, therefore he cut it—he would weigh his hair, about six pounds according to the royal standard of weight. And to Absalom there were born three sons and one daughter, whose name was Tamar—she was a beautiful woman. 15. Restoration to royal favor. And Absalom dwelt two years in Jerusalem, without seeing the king’s face. Then Absalom sent for Joab to send him to the king; but he would not come to him. Then he sent again a second time, but he would not come. Therefore he said to his servants, See Joab’s field is near mine, where he has barley; go and set it on fire. Then Joab arose, and came to Absalom at his house and said to him, Why have your servants set my field on fire? And Absalom answered Joab, Behold, I sent to you, saying, ‘Come here that I may send you to the king, to say, “Why have I come from Geshur? It were better for me to be there still.”’ Now therefore let me see the king’s face, and if there be guilt in me, let him kill me. And when Joab went to the king and told him, he called Absalom. And he came to the king and bowed himself with his face to the ground before the king. Then the king kissed Absalom. I. Amnon’s Brutal Crime. The consequences of David’s crime appear in the character and deeds of his own children. Amnon, his oldest son, was one of the pitiable products of the oriental harem. He was ruled by the same ungovernable passions that overmastered his kingly father. An unprincipled friend was at hand to advise him how he could gratify his mad passion. Even David himself was made an agent in the ghastly tragedy. The hideous wrong to the victim of Amnon’s lust is brought out with a frankness and realism that everywhere characterizes the teaching of those early champions of righteousness, the Hebrew prophets. Amnon’s brutality, even after the lapse of centuries, arouses the hot indignation of the reader. One’s sympathy goes out to the desolate Tamar, and David’s paternal weakness in neglecting his duty as a father stands clearly revealed. Many of the world’s worst criminals are thus trained in a home where pure love is wanting, or else where the fond parents are too weak or selfish to teach by impartial justice, discipline and plain instruction those vital lessons which must be learned, if the children are to successfully resist the inevitable temptations of life. II. Absalom’s Revenge. As is so often the case in the tangled lives of men, the crime against social morality was quickly followed by murder. David’s weakness in not punishing his oldest son left Tamar’s brother, Absalom, with a real grievance. In the ancient East the responsibility of avenging a great crime was assumed by the nearest of kin. The fact that Amnon stood in the way of Absalom’s ambition doubtless also strengthened his murderous purpose. In the method which Absalom employed, he but imitated his father’s treachery in dealing with Uriah, and proved himself an apt pupil in the school of David and Joab. He also evidently counted upon his father’s weakness in punishing the crimes of his sons. III. The Wise Woman of Tekoa. Evidently Absalom’s act received Joab’s secret approval. At first the young prince won the support of that hardy warrior, even though he was unable at a later time to shake Joab’s loyalty to David. In connection with Absalom’s recall, a representative of that class in Israel, known as “the wise,” first emerged on the horizon of Hebrew history. It is interesting to note that it was a woman whom Joab summoned from the town of Tekoa, a little south-east of Bethlehem, on the borders of the wilderness looking toward the Dead Sea. At a later time from this same town came the sage prophet, Amos. The wise woman’s pathetic story appealed, like that of Nathan, to the sympathy of David, so that he again stood committed to a principle which he was asked to apply to his own case. The king at once recognized the strong hand of Joab, and yielded to the combined influence of his own heart and that of his trusted commander. Absalom’s pardon, however, was only partial, until he appealed, in a way well calculated to attain its end, for Joab’s further intercession. Then he was restored and found himself free to develop his heartless conspiracy. IV. The Shadow of David’s Crimes. In reading these stories one is reminded of certain of the old Greek tragedies; and yet there is no doubt that the historian is recounting actual facts. The stories are a supreme illustration of the scientific as well as biblical truth that in life and history the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children of succeeding generations. The close and fundamental relation between moral causes and effects can be traced at each stage. The faults of David reproduce themselves in even more glaring forms in the lives of his sons. The memory of his guilt and disgrace led the king to withdraw more and more from public life into the seclusion of the harem, and therefore to neglect his duty as judge and administrator. This gave Absalom a free field for the carrying out of his intrigues. The open secret that David intended to pass over his oldest son, Absalom, and to put Bathsheba’s son, Solomon, on the throne, perhaps also goaded the prince on to his desperate venture. In its ultimate consequences the sin of Israel’s beloved king involved his nation in bloody civil war. “The wages of sin are death,” but unfortunately the innocent share the wages. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 77: 077. LIV. ABSALOM’S REBELLION ======================================================================== § LIV. ABSALOM’S REBELLION 2 Samuel 15:1 to 2 Samuel 20:22 1. Absalom’s intrigues. Now later Absalom prepared a chariot and horses and fifty men to run before him. And Absalom used to rise early and stand beside the way which led to the gate, and every man, who had a suit to come before the king for judgment, Absalom would call to himself and say, Of what city are you? And when he replied, Your servant is of one of the tribes of Israel, Absalom said to him, Evidently your claims are good and right; but there is no man appointed by the king to hear you. Absalom said moreover, O that some one would make me judge in the land, that to me might come every man who has any suit or cause, and I would give him justice! And whenever a man came near to do obeisance, he would put out his hand and take hold of him and kiss him. And in this way Absalom did to all the Israelites who came to the king for judgment. So Absalom stole the hearts of the men of Israel. 2. The conspiracy. At the end of four years, Absalom said to the king, I would like to go and pay my vow, which I have vowed to Jehovah, in Hebron. For your servant vowed the following vow while I abode at Geshur in Aram: ‘If Jehovah shall indeed bring me back to Jerusalem, I will serve Jehovah in Hebron.’ Then the king said to him, Go in peace. So he arose and went to Hebron. But Absalom sent emissaries into all the tribes of Israel, saying, As soon as you hear the sound of the trumpet, then say, ‘Absalom has become king in Hebron.’ And with Absalom went two hundred men from Jerusalem, who were invited and went in their innocence and knew nothing at all. And Absalom sent and called Ahithophel the Gilonite, David’s counsellor, from his city Giloh, while he was offering the sacrifices. And the conspiracy was strong, for the people with Absalom kept increasing. 3. David’s flight from Jerusalem. And when a messenger came to David, saying, The heart of the men of Israel has gone after Absalom, David said to all his servants who were with him at Jerusalem, Up, let us flee; for otherwise there will be for us no escape from Absalom. Make haste to depart, lest he quickly overtake us and bring down evil upon us and put the city to the edge of the sword. Then the king’s servants said to the king, Just as our lord the king decides, we are your servants. So the king went out, and all his household with him. And the king left behind ten concubines to keep the palace. And the king and all the people who followed him went out and stood at the last house, while all his officers passed beside him, and all the Cherethites and all the Pelethites and all the men of Ittai the Gittite, six hundred who had followed him from Gath, passed on before the king. 4. Loyalty of Ittai the Gittite. Then said the king to Ittai the Gittite, Why will you also go with us? Return and stay with the king; for you are a foreigner and an exile from your own land. Yesterday you came, and to-day shall I make you wander with us, while I go whither I may? Return, and take your fellow countrymen back with you; and Jehovah will show you kindness and faithfulness. But Ittai answered the king, and said, As Jehovah liveth and as my lord the king liveth, wherever my lord the king shall be—whether for death or for life—there will your servant be. And David said to Ittai, Well then, go, and pass on. So Ittai, the Gittite, passed on with all his men and all the little ones that were with him. 5. David’s directions to the priests. And all the inhabitants of the land were weeping loudly as all the people passed on. While the king stood in the Kidron valley, the people were passing by before him toward the olive tree in the wilderness. And there was Zadok and Abiathar with him, bearing the ark of God, until all the people had all passed out of the city. And the king said to Zadok and Abiathar, Carry back the ark of God into the city. If I shall find favor in the eyes of Jehovah, he will bring me back, and show me both it and his dwelling. But if he say, ‘I have no delight in thee’; then here am I, let him do to me as seemeth good to him. The king also said to Zadok and Abiathar the priests, Behold, return to the city in peace and your two sons with you, Ahimaaz your son and Jonathan the son of Abiathar. See, I am going to delay at the fords of the wilderness, until word comes from you to inform me. Therefore Zadok and Abiathar carried the ark of God again to Jerusalem, and they remained there. 6. To his friend Husha. But David went up the ascent to the Mount of Olives, weeping as he went, and with his head covered and his feet bare. All the people who were with him also covered each his head, and also went up, weeping as they went. And when David was told, Ahithophel is among the conspirators with Absalom, David said, O Jehovah, I pray, turn the counsel of Ahithophel to foolishness. And when David came to the summit, where one worships God, there came to meet him Hushai the Archite with his garment rent and earth upon his head. And David said to him, If you go on with me you will be a burden to me. But if you return to the city, and say to Absalom, ‘Your brothers have gone away and the king your father has gone away after them, I will be thy servant, O king; I have been your father’s servant in the past, so now I will be your servant,’ thus you can defeat for me the counsel of Ahithophel. And have you not there with you Zadok and Abiathar the priests? Everything that you hear from the king’s palace tell it to Zadok and Abiathar the priests. See, they have there with them their two sons, Ahimaaz, Zadok’s son, and Jonathan, Abiathar’s son; and by them you shall send to me everything that you shall hear. So Hushai, David’s friend, came into the city, when Absalom came to Jerusalem. 7. Ziba’s protestations of loyalty. And David was a little past the summit, when Ziba the servant of Meribaal met him with a pair of asses saddled, and on them two hundred loaves of bread, and a hundred bunches of raisins, and a hundred cakes of preserved fruits, and a skin of wine. And the king said to Ziba, Why do you have these? And Ziba answered, The asses are for the king’s household to ride on, and the bread and the preserved fruit for the young men to eat, and the wine, that those who are faint in the wilderness may drink. And the king said, And where is thy master’s son? And Ziba answered the king, He remains there at Jerusalem, for he thinks, ‘To-day will the house of Israel give me back my father’s kingdom.’ Then said the king to Ziba, All is now yours that belongs to Meribaal. And Ziba said, I do obeisance. Let me find further favor in your sight, my lord, the king. 8. Shimei’s curses. And when King David came to Bahurim, there came out from there a man of the family of the house of Saul, whose name was Shimei the son of Gera, constantly cursing as he came. And he cast stones at David and all the officers of King David and at all the people and all the mighty warriors at his right hand and at his left. And thus Shimei said as he cursed, Begone, begone, bloody and vile scoundrel! Jehovah has brought back upon you all the blood of the house of Saul, in whose place you have reigned; and Jehovah hath delivered the kingdom into the hand of Absalom your son; and behold now you are in your misfortune, for you are a bloody man! 9. David’s humility. Then Abishai the son of Zeruiah said to the king, Why should this dead dog curse my lord the king? Let me go over now and take off his head. But the king said, What have I in common with you, you sons of Zeruiah? If he curses when Jehovah hath said to him, ‘Curse David!’ then who shall say, ‘Why have you done so?’ And David said to Abishai and to all his officers, See, my son who came from my bowels seeks my life; how much more this Benjamite! Let him curse, for Jehovah hath bidden him. Perhaps Jehovah will look on my affliction and repay me good instead of this cursing that he hath sent to-day. So David and his men went along the way; but Shimei went along on the hillside parallel with him, cursing as he went, and threw stones and continually cast dust at him. Then the king and all the people who were with him, arrived weary at the Jordan and he refreshed himself there. 10. Hushai’s protestations of loyalty to Absalom. And Absalom with all the men of Israel, came to Jerusalem, and Ahithophel was with him. Now when Hushai the Archite, David’s friend, came to Absalom, Hushai said to Absalom, May the king live, may the king live! But Absalom said to Hushai, Is this your love for your friend? Why did you not go with your friend? Then Hushai answered Absalom, No! for whom Jehovah and his people and all the men of Israel have chosen, to him will I belong, and with him will I remain. And in the second place, whom should I serve? Should it not be his son? As I have served your father, so will I serve you. 11. Absalom’s formal usurpation of his father’s rights. Then Absalom said to Ahithophel, Give your counsel as to what we shall do. And Ahithophel said to Absalom, Go in unto your father’s concubines whom he has left to keep the palace; and all Israel will hear that you have made yourself abhorrent to your father, and the hands of all who are on your side will be strengthened. So they pitched for Absalom the tent on the top of the house; and Absalom went in unto his father’s concubines in the sight of all Israel. And the counsel of Ahithophel, which he gave in those days, was regarded as if one inquired of the word of God—so was all the counsel of Ahithophel regarded by David and Absalom. 12. Ahithephel’s advice. Moreover Ahithophel said to Absalom, Let me now choose out twelve thousand men, and I will arise and pursue after David to-night; thus I will come upon him when he is tired and weak and will storm him into a panic, and all the people who are with him will flee; and I will smite the king alone, and I will bring back all the people to you as the bride returns to her husband. You seek only the life of one man, and all the people shall be at peace. And the advice pleased Absalom, and all the elders of Israel. 13. Hu shai advice. Then Absalom said, Call now Hushai the Archite also, and let us hear likewise what he has to say. And when Hushai came to Absalom, Absalom spoke to him, saying, Thus Ahithophel has spoken; shall we act upon his advice? If not, you give advice. Then Hushai said to Absalom, The counsel that Ahithophel has given this time is not good. Hushai said moreover, You know your father and his men, that they are mighty warriors and of angry temper, like a bear robbed of her cubs in the field. Furthermore your father is a man of war and will not remain at night with the people. Even now he has hidden himself in one of the caves or in some other place. And in case some of the people fall at the first, whoever hears it will say, ‘There is a slaughter among the people who follow Absalom.’ Then even he that is valiant, whose heart is like the heart of a lion, will completely lose courage; for all Israel knows that your father is a mighty warrior, and they who are with him are valiant men. But I counsel, Let all Israel be gathered to you, from Dan to Beersheba, as many as the sand that is by the sea, with you yourself marching in the midst of them. So shall we come upon him in some place where he has been discovered, and we will light upon him as the dew falls on the ground; and of him and of all the men who are with him there shall not be left even one. But if he has withdrawn into a city, then all Israel will bring ropes to that city, and we will draw it to the valley, until not even a small stone is found there. And Absalom and all the men of Israel said, The counsel of Hushai the Archite is better than the counsel of Ahithophel. For Jehovah had ordained to defeat the good counsel of Ahithophel, in order that Jehovah might bring evil upon Absalom. 14. His secret message to David. Then Hushai said to Zadok and to Abiathar the priests, Thus and thus did Ahithophel counsel Absalom and the elders of Israel; and thus and thus have I counselled. Now therefore send quickly and tell David, saying, Do not spend this night at the fords of the wilderness, but by all means cross over, lest the king and all the people with him be swallowed up. Now Jonathan and Ahimaaz were staying at Enrogel; and a maid-servant was to go and bring them news, and they were to go and tell King David, for they must not be seen to come into the city. But a lad saw them, and told Absalom. Then they both went away quickly and entered into the house of a man in Bahurim, who had a well in his court into which they descended. And the woman took and spread the covering over the mouth of the well, and strewed dried fruit upon it, so that nothing was known. And when Absalom’s servants came to the woman to the house and said, Where are Ahimaaz and Jonathan? the woman answered them, They are gone over the water brook. And when they had sought and could find nothing, they returned to Jerusalem. But as soon as they had gone away, Ahimaaz and Jonathan came up out of the well, and went and told King David and said to David, Arise, cross quickly over the water, for thus has Ahithophel counselled in regard to you. Then David and all the people who were with him arose and they crossed over the Jordan. By daybreak there was not one left behind who had not gone over the Jordan. 15. Suicide of Ahithophel. But when Ahithophel saw that his counsel had not been carried out, he saddled his ass and arose, and went to his house, to his city. And when he had given command concerning his house, he strangled himself, and he died and was buried in his father’s sepulchre. 16. David’s reception at Mahanaim. Then David came to Mahanaim. And Absalom passed over the Jordan, together with all the men of Israel. And Absalom set Amasa over the army in the place of Joab. Now Amasa was the son of an Ishmaelite by the name of Jether, who had come in marriage to Jesse’s daughter Abigail, the sister of Zeruiah, Joab’s mother. And Israel and Absalom encamped in the land of Gilead. But when David came to Mahanaim, Shobi the son of Nahash of the Ammonite Rabbah, and Machir the son of Ammiel of Lodebar, and Barzillai the Gileadite of Rogelim, brought couches, rugs, bowls, and earthen vessels, and wheat, barley, meal, parched grain, beans, lentils, honey, curds, sheep, and calves for David, and for the people who were with him, to eat; for they thought, The people are hungry and weary and thirsty in the wilderness. 17. The battle. Then David mustered the people who were with him, and appointed over them commanders of thousands and of hundreds. And David divided the people into three divisions, one third was under the command of Joab, another third under Abishai the son of Zeruiah, Joab’s brother, and another third under the command of Ittai the Gittite. And the king said to the people, I also will surely go out with you. But the people said, You shall not go out; for if we flee away, no one will care for us, or if half of us die, no one will care for us, for you are equal to ten thousand of us. Also it is now better for you to be ready to help us from the city. And the king said to them, I will do what you think best! So the king stood by the side of the gate, while all the people went out by hundreds and by thousands. And the king commanded Joab, and Abishai, and Ittai, saying, Deal gently for my sake with the young man, with Absalom! And all the people heard when the king gave all the commanders the order regarding Absalom. So the people went out into the field against Israel. And the battle was in the forest of Ephraim. And the people of Israel were smitten there before the servants of David, so that the slaughter on that day was great—twenty thousand men. And the battle was spread out over the whole country; and the forest devoured more that day than the sword. 18. Absalom’s death. And Absalom happened to meet the servants of David. And Absalom was riding upon his mule, and the mule went under the thick boughs of a great oak and his head caught fast in the oak, and he was hung between heaven and earth, while the mule that was under him went on. And when a certain man saw it, he told Joab and said, Behold, I saw Absalom hanging in an oak. Then Joab said to the man who told him, So you saw him! Why did you not smite him there to the ground? And my part would have been to give you ten shekels of silver and a girdle. But the man said to Joab, If I were to feel the weight of a thousand shekels of silver in my hand, I would not put forth my hand against the king’s son, for in our hearing the king charged you and Abishai and Ittai, saying, ‘Take care of the young man Absalom.’ Or if I had treacherously taken his life, nothing would have been hidden from the king, and you yourself would have stood aloof. Then Joab answered, I will not tarry thus with you. And he took three spears in his hand, and thrust them into Absalom’s heart, while he was still alive in the midst of the oak. And ten young men who bore Joab’s armor gathered about and smote Absalom and put him to death. 19. Burial of Absalom. Then Joab blew the trumpet, and the people returned from pursuing Israel; for Joab held back the people. And they took Absalom and cast him into the great pit in the forest, and raised over him a heap of stones. And all Israel fled each to his home. But Absalom had already in his lifetime taken and reared up for himself the pillar which is in the King’s Dale; for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance; and he named the pillar after his own name. Therefore it is called ‘Absalom’s Monument,’ to this day. 20. Ahimaaz’s eagerness to bear the news. But when Ahimaaz the son of Zadok said, Let me now run and bring the news to the king that Jehovah hath pronounced judgment for him against his enemies, Joab said to him, You are not the man to bring news to-day. On another day you may bring news, but not to-day, for the king’s son is dead. Then said Joab to the Cushite, Go, tell the king what you have seen. And the Cushite bowed before Joab and ran off. But Ahimaaz the son of Zadok said yet again to Joab, However it may be, I would like also to run after the Cushite. And Joab said, Why is it that you would run, my son, seeing that no reward will be paid out? And he said, However it may be, I would like to run. So he said to him, Run. Then Ahimaaz ran by the way of the plain of the Jordan and outran the Cushite. 21. David’s reception of the news. Now David was sitting between the two gates; and the watchman had gone up to the roof of the gate by the wall. And when he lifted up his eyes and looked, he saw there a man running alone. Then the watchman cried and told the king. And the king said, If he be alone, good news are in his mouth. And he kept coming and was drawing near, when the watchman saw another man running; and the watchman called toward the gate, and said, See, another man running alone! And the king said, He also is bringing good news. And the watchman said, I see that the running of the first is like the running of Ahimaaz the son of Zadok. And the king said, He is a good man and comes with good news. Then Ahimaaz drew near and said to the king, All is well. And he bowed before the king with his face to the earth, and said, Blessed be Jehovah your God, who hath delivered up the men who lifted up their hand against my lord the king. And the king said, Is it well with the young man Absalom? And Ahimaaz answered, When Joab sent your servant, I saw a great tumult, but I did not learn what it was. And the king said, Turn aside and stand here, and he turned aside and stood still. And, just then, the Cushite said, Let my lord the king receive the good news that Jehovah hath pronounced judgment for you this day upon all those who rose up against you. And the king said to the Cushite, Is it well with the young man Absalom? And the Cushite answered, may the enemies of my lord the king and all who rise up against you for evil be as that young man! 22. David’s sorrow for Absalom. Then the king was greatly moved and went up to the chamber over the gate and wept. And thus he said, as he kept on weeping, My son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! O that I had died instead of you, Absalom, my son, my son! And it was told Joab, The king is weeping and lamenting for Absalom. So for all the people the victory that day was turned to mourning, since the people heard that day, The king is grieving for his son. Therefore the people stole away into the city, as people who are ashamed when they have fled in battle steal away. But the king covered his face, and cried aloud, My son Absalom, Absalom, my son, my son! 23. Joab’s rebuke. Then Joab came to the king in the palace and said, You have to-day shamed the face of all your servants, who have saved your life and the lives of your sons, your daughters, your wives, and your concubines, by loving them who hate you and hating them who love you. For you declared today that princes and brave officers are nothing to you, for now I know if Absalom had lived and all of us had died to-day, then you would be pleased. Now therefore come, go forth, and reassure your followers; for I swear by Jehovah, if you do not go forth, not a man will remain to you, and that will be worse for you than all the evil that has befallen you from your youth until now. Then the king arose, and sat in the gate. And the rumor spread among all the people, See the king is sitting in the gate; and all the people came before the king. 24. Uncertainty of the people. Now Israel had fled every man to his tent. And all the people were at strife throughout all the tribes of Israel, saying, The king delivered us out of the hand of our enemies, he saved us out of the hand of the Philistines, but now he has fled out of the land from Absalom. And Absalom, whom we anointed over us, has fallen in battle. Now therefore why do you say nothing about bringing the king back? And the word of all Israel came to the king. 25. David’s liberal overtures to the elders of Judah. Then King David commanded Zadok and Abiathar the priests, Speak to the elders of Judah, saying, ‘Why are you the last to bring the king back to his palace? You are my bone and my flesh; why then are you the last to bring back the king?’ Say to Amasa, ‘Are you not my bone and my flesh? God do to me whatever he will if you shall not henceforth be commander of the army before me in the place of Joab.’ And he turned the heart of all the men of Judah as one man, so that they sent to the king saying, Return with all your servants. So the king returned, and arrived at the Jordan. And Judah came to Gilgal to meet the king and bring him across the Jordan. 26. His pardon of Shimei. And Shimei the son of Gera the Benjamite, who was of Bahurim, hastened down with the men of Judah to meet King David, with a thousand men of Benjamin; and with him was Ziba the servant of the house of Saul, with his fifteen sons and his twenty servants; and they dashed into the Jordan before the king. And they kept crossing the ford to bring over the king’s household and to do what would please him. Meanwhile Shimei the son of Gera prostrated himself before the king, when he was about to cross the Jordan. And he said to the king, Let not my lord consider me guilty nor remember what your servant did perversely the day that my lord the king went out of Jerusalem, that the king should take it to heart. For your servant knows that I have sinned; therefore, see, I have come down first of all the house of Joseph to meet my lord the king. But Abishai the son of Zeruiah spoke and said, Should not Shimei be put to death for this, because he cursed Jehovah’s anointed? But David said, What have I to do with you, you sons of Zeruiah, that you should this day oppose me? Should anyone be put to death to-day in Israel? And the king said to Shimei, You shall not die. And the king swore it to him. 27. Concessions to Meribaal. And Meribaal the son of Saul came down to meet the king; and he had neither dressed his feet nor trimmed his beard nor washed his clothes from the day the king departed until the day he came home safe and sound. And so when he came to Jerusalem to meet the king, the king said to him, Why did you not go out with me, Meribaal? And he answered, My lord, O king, my servant deceived me: for your servant said, ‘Saddle me an ass, on which I may ride and accompany the king, because your servant is lame.’ But he has slandered your servant to my lord the king. My lord the king is as a Messenger of God; do therefore what seems good to you. For though all my father’s house were only deserving of death before my lord, the king set your servant among those who eat at your table. What right have I now, that I should continue to cry to the king? And the king said to him, Why do you continue to speak? I say, You and Ziba divide the land. And Meribaal said to the king, Rather let him take all, inasmuch as my lord the king has come home safe and sound. 28. Parting with the aged Barzillai. Then Barzillai the Gileadite came down from Rogelim, and he went over the Jordan with the king to bid him good-by at the Jordan. Now Barzillai was a very aged man, eighty years old, and he had provided the king with food while he remained at Mahanaim; for he was a very great man. And the king had said to Barzillai, Come over with me, and I will support you during your old age with me in Jerusalem. But Barzillai said to the king, How many years have I still to live, that I should go up with the king to Jerusalem? I am now eighty years old. Can I distinguish good from evil? Can your servant taste what I eat or what I drink? Can I hear any more the voice of singing men and singing women? Why then should your servant be a burden to my lord the king? Your servant would merely go over the Jordan with the king, and why should the king give me this recompense? Only let your servant return, I pray you, that I may die in my own city, by the grave of my father and my mother. But there is your servant Chimham; let him go over with my lord the king; and treat him as shall seem good to you. And the king answered, Chimham shall go over with me, and I will do to him as you would desire; and whatever you shall request of me, that will I do for you. Then all the people went over the Jordan. The king also went over after he had kissed Barzillai, and blessed him; so he returned to his home. 29. Strife between Israel and Judah. And the king passed by Gilgal, Chimham being with him; and all the people of Judah were escorting the king, and also half the people of Israel. Therefore all the men of Israel came to the king, and said to the king, Why have our clansmen, the men of Judah, stolen you away, and brought the king and his household over the Jordan, when all of David’s men are his people? Then all the men of Judah answered the men of Israel, Because the king is near of kin to us. Why are you angry at this thing? Have we eaten anything at the king’s cost? or has he been carried away by us? And the men of Israel answered the men of Judah, and said, I have ten shares in the king, furthermore I am the first-born rather than you; why then did you despise me? And was not our advice first to bring back the king? But the words of the men of Judah were fiercer than the words of the men of Israel. 30. Rebellion of the northern tribes. Now there chanced to be there a vile scoundrel, whose name was Sheba, the son of Bichri, a Benjamite. He blew on a trumpet and cried, We have no share in David, And we have no claim in the son of Jesse! Each to his tents, O Israel! So all the men of Israel ceased to follow David, and followed Sheba the son of Bichri; but the men of Judah remained loyal to their king, from the Jordan even to Jerusalem. 31. Fate of David’s concubines. And when David came to his palace at Jerusalem, he took care of his ten concubines, whom he had left to take charge of the palace, and put them in a guarded house and supported them, but went not in unto them. So they were shut in until the day of their death, living as widows. 32. Reinstatement of Joab. Then the king said to Amasa, Summon in my name the men of Judah within three days, and also be present yourself. So Amasa went to summon Judah. But when he delayed longer than the time which David had appointed him, David said to Abishai, Now will Sheba the son of Bichri do us more harm than did Absalom; take your lord’s servants, and pursue after him, lest he find for himself fortified cities and escape out of our sight. So there went out after Abishai, Joab and the Cherethites and the Pelethites, and all the mighty heroes. They set out from Jerusalem to pursue Sheba the son of Bichri. 33. The death of Amasa. And while they were at a great stone which is in Gibeon, Amasa came to meet them. And Joab was girt with a sword under his warrior’s cloak, and also over it was a girdle with a sword fastened upon his loins in its sheath; and as he went forth it fell out. And Joab said to Amasa, Is it well with you, my brother? And Joab took Amasa by the beard with his right hand to kiss him. But Amasa did not notice the sword that was in Joab’s hand; so he smote him with it in the body, and shed his bowels to the ground, and he did not strike a second blow; but he died. And Joab and Abishai his brother pursued Sheba the son of Bichri. And one of Joab’s young men stood by him and said, Whoever favors Joab and is for David, let him follow Joab. But Amasa lay wallowing in his blood in the middle of the highway. And when the man saw that all the people stood still, he carried Amasa out of the highway into the field, and cast a garment over him, inasmuch as he saw that every one who came to him stood still. When he was removed out of the highway, all the people went on after Joab, to pursue Sheba the son of Bichri. 34. Pursuit of Sheba. But he passed through all the tribes of Israel to Abel-beth-maacah. And all the Bichrites gathered together, and entered also after him. And they came and besieged him in Abel-beth-maacah, and they cast up a mound against the city, and it stood even with the wall; and all the people with Joab were devising how to throw down the wall. 35. Counsel of the wise woman of Abel. Then a wise woman out of the city, cried, Hear, hear! Say, I pray, to Joab, ‘Come near that I may speak with you.’ And he came near her; and the woman said, are you Joab? and he answered, I am. Then she said to him, Hear the words of your maid-servant. And he said, I am listening. Then she spoke, saying, They used to say formerly, ‘Let them ask in Abel and Dan whether what the faithful in Israel have established has ceased to be.’ I am of those who are peaceful and faithful in Israel. You seek to destroy a city and a mother in Israel; why will you consume the inheritance of Jehovah? 36. Death of Sheba and the end of the rebellion. And Joab answered and said, Far be it, far be it from me, that I should consume or destroy. That is not at all our errand. But a man of the hill-country of Ephraim, Sheba the son of Bichri by name, has lifted up his hand against the king, even against David; only deliver him, and I will leave the city. And the woman said to Joab, Behold his head shall be thrown to you over the wall. Then the woman went and advised all the people in her wisdom. And they cut off the head of Sheba the son of Bichri and threw it out to Joab. So he blew the trumpet, and they were dispersed from the city, each to his home. And Joab returned to the king at Jerusalem. I. Absalom’s Intrigues. In his endeavor to place himself on the throne of Israel, Absalom showed himself an adept in the use of the methods of a demagogue. His appeal was to selfish individual interests. David’s astonishing ignorance of the trend of events indicates how completely he had withdrawn from public life and cut himself off even from his faithful advisers. Later events, however, show that the hearts of the great majority of the nation were still loyal to David. By a crafty deception Absalom succeeded in implicating the majority of the royal court in his conspiracy. In raising the standard of rebellion at the old capital of Hebron he bid strongly for the support of the Judahites. Strangely enough, most of his supporters appear to have come from David’s own tribe; while the king’s support came from his body-guard and immediate followers, and the militia of the northern and eastern tribes. II. David’s Flight. Absalom’s rebellion had gained such headway before it was discovered by David that the king was obliged to flee from Jerusalem before he had time to arouse the loyal elements in his kingdom. The prominent men in his court remained faithful: Joab, the priests Zadok and Abiathar, Hushai, his able adviser, and his Philistine friend Ittai. In the face of the great danger David’s early energy and skill as a leader reasserted themselves. His piety forbade him, even at this great crisis, to carry away with him in his flight the sacred ark of Jehovah, He wisely provided for a method of communication whereby he might learn of Absalom’s movements. With that shrewd diplomacy which had ever characterized him, he sent back Hushai to undermine the counsel of the acute Ahithophel, who for the time had the ear of Absalom. Through Hushai’s diplomacy, the danger that the rebel would strike an immediate blow before David could rally his forces was averted. The sullen resentment and hatred of the Benjamites, who still remained loyal to the house of Saul, found expression in the revilings of a certain Shimei. David’s characteristic moderation was again revealed. He seemed to have also hoped that the magnitude of his misery would influence Jehovah to interpose in his behalf. At the Jordan, however, his friends rallied about him and brought ample provisions for the rapidly increasing body of his followers. III. The Decisive Battle. The decisive battle was fought east of the Jordan. David divided his forces into three divisions, placing them under the command of Abishai, Joab and Ittai. With the trained body guard, the experienced commanders and a large army on David’s side, it was not surprising that the rebels, inspired by no exalted patriotism, were quickly put to flight. Joab, as often before, disregarded David’s personal wishes and acted in accordance with his own personal conviction. In his eyes Absalom was a rebel and a menace to the integrity of the empire; therefore he was put to death. David’s sorrow and lamentations over the death of his rebellious son are indeed pathetic, but they are doubly sad because the great calamity was but one of the many indirect fruits of the king’s own sin and weakness. IV. David’s Return to Jerusalem. David’s failure to recognize the loyalty of his subjects, who appear to have sympathized with the act of Joab, nearly led to a disruption of his kingdom at the moment of victory. The words of the people reveal their appreciation of the fact that the David of the later years was very different from the valiant champion who had successfully led them in their early struggles for freedom. His appeal, however, to the dissatisfied men of Judah quickly won their support. A universal amnesty was granted to all the rebels. Even Shimei the Benjamite was spared. The tribes of the north and the south vied with each other in their zeal to escort the king back to his capital. V. Sheba’s Rebellion. David’s personal feelings again overruled his kingly sense of justice. In his desire to free himself from the iron hand of Joab, he made the serious mistake of appointing Amasa, an Ishmaelite, who had led Absalom’s rebellious army, commander-in-chief of the forces of Israel. It was inevitable that this rebel leader should make no headway in suppressing the remnants of Absalom’s rebellion in the north. A certain Benjamite by the name of Sheba, with his clansmen, had fled to the town of Abel-beth-maacah. Joab, as David might well have anticipated, improved the first opportunity to put his rival out of the way. Then rallying the forces of Israel, he marched against the rebels. Through the intercession of a wise woman the city was saved and the rebellion quickly suppressed. Having put down two rebellions, Joab returned to Jerusalem, to continue the grim, invincible power behind the throne, These rebellions reveal the deep-seated jealousy between the tribes of the north and south, and show how weak were the bonds which bound the Hebrews together. The old danger of Philistine attack had passed away. Even the prestige of David was dimmed. The ancient tribal and sectional interests were beginning to assert themselves. Only the sense of common race and religion, and the iron hand of Joab, kept the empire intact. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 78: 078. LV. SOLOMON’S ELECTION AS KING ======================================================================== § LV. SOLOMON’S ELECTION AS KING 1 Kings 1, 1 Kings 2:10-11 1. The aged king. Now King David was advanced in years, and although they covered him with clothes, he was not warm. Therefore his servants said to him, Let there be sought for my lord the king a young virgin and let her attend the king and constantly take care of him; and let her lie in your bosom, that my lord, the king, may be warm. So they sought for a beautiful maiden throughout all the territory of Israel, and found Abishag the Shunammite and brought her to the king. And the maiden was surpassingly beautiful; and she took care of the king and ministered to him; but the king knew her not. 2. Adonijah’s conspiracy. Then Adonijah the son of Haggith exalted himself, saying, I will be king. Therefore he prepared for himself chariots and horsemen and fifty men to run before him as runners. And his father had never in his life troubled him by saying, Why have you done so? And he was also an exceedingly good-looking man, and he was by birth next after Absalom. And he entered into negotiations with Joab the son of Zeruiah and with Abiathar the priest, so that they espoused Adonijah’s cause. But Zadok the priest and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada and Nathan the prophet and Shimei and Rei and David’s famous heroes were not with Adonijah. And Adonijah slew sheep and oxen and fatlings by the Serpent’s Stone, which is beside the Fuller’s Spring, and he invited all his brothers, the king’s sons, together with all the royal officials of Judah; but the prophet Nathan and Benaiah and the famous heroes and Solomon his brother, he did not invite. 3. Nathan’s plan to insure Solomon’s succession. Then Nathan said to Bathsheba the mother of Solomon, Have you not heard that Adonijah the son of Haggith has been made king without David our lord knowing it? Now therefore come, let me counsel you that you may save your own life and the life of your son Solomon. Go at once to King David and say to him, ‘Did you not, my lord, the king, swear to your maid-servant, saying, “Solomon your son shall be king after me, and he shall sit on my throne? Why then has Adonijah been made king?”’ Just as you are talking with the king, I also will come in after you, and confirm your words. 4. Bathsheba’a message to David. And Bathsheba went in to the king into his apartment; and the king was very old, and Abishag the Shunammite was ministering to the king. And Bathsheba bowed and did obeisance to the king. And the king said, What do you wish? And she said to him, My lord, you swore to your maid-servant by Jehovah God, ‘Solomon your son shall be king after me and he shall sit upon my throne.’ And now, see, Adonijah has been made king, without my lord, the king, knowing it. And he has slain oxen and fatlings and sheep in abundance, and has invited all the sons of the king and Abiathar the priest and Joab the commander of the army; but Solomon your servant he has not invited. And now, my lord, the king, the eyes of all Israel are on you, that you should tell them who shall sit on the throne of my lord the king after him. Otherwise, the result will be, when my lord the king shall sleep with his fathers, that I and my son Solomon will be regarded as criminals. 5. Nathan’s confirmatory words. And, while she was still talking with the king, Nathan the prophet came in. And they told the king, saying, Nathan the prophet is here. And he came in before the king and did obeisance before the king with his face to the ground. And Nathan said, My lord the king, have you said, ‘Adonijah shall be king after me and shall sit on my throne?’ For he has gone down this day and slain oxen and fatlings and sheep in abundance, and has called all the king’s sons and the commanders of the army and Abiathar the priest; and there they are eating and drinking before him, and saying, ‘May King Adonijah live!’ But me, even me, your servant, and Zadok the priest, Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, and your servant Solomon, has he not invited. Has this been brought about by my lord the king, and have you not showed your servants who should sit on the throne of my lord the king after him? 6. David’s declaration that Solomon should be king. Then King David answered and said, Call Bathsheba to me. And she came into the king’s presence and stood before the king. Then the king took an oath and said, As Jehovah liveth, who hath redeemed me out of all adversity, as I have sworn to you by Jehovah, the God of Israel, saying, ‘Solomon your son shall be king after me and he shall sit on my throne in my place;’ verily so will I do to-day. Then Bathsheba bowed her face to the earth, and did obeisance to the king and said, May my lord King David live forever. 7. Command to proclaim him king. Then King David said, Call to me Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada. And when they came before the king, the king said to them, Take with you the servants of your lord, let Solomon my son ride upon my own mule, bring him down to Gihon, and there let Zadok the priest and Nathan the prophet anoint him king over Israel; and blow the trumpet, and say, ‘May King Solomon live!’ Then you shall go up after him, and he shall enter in and sit upon my throne, for he shall be king in my place; and I have appointed him to be leader over Israel and Judah. And Benaiah the son of Jehoiada answered the king and said, So may it be! thus may Jehovah establish the words of my lord the king. As Jehovah hath been with my lord the king, even so may he be with Solomon, and make his throne greater than the throne of my lord King David! 8. Public anointing and acceptance of Solomon. Then Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, together with the Cherethites and the Pelethites, went down and set Solomon on King David’s mule, and brought him to Gihon. And Zadok the priest took the horn of oil out of the tent and anointed Solomon. Thereupon they blew the trumpet; and all the people said, May King Solomon live! Then all the people went up after him and the people played on flutes and rejoiced so loudly that the earth seemed to be rent with their voice. 9. Announcement to the conspirators. Now Adonijah and all the guests who were with him heard it just as they had finished eating. And when Joab heard the sound of the trumpet, he said, Why is there the noise of the city in an uproar? While he was still speaking, Jonathan the son of Abiathar the priest came. And Adonijah said, Come in, for you are a valiant man and bring good news. And Jonathan answered and said to Adonijah, Nay, but our lord King David has made Solomon king. And the king has sent with him Zadok the priest, Nathan the prophet, and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, together with the Cherethites and the Pelethites, and they have set him on the king’s mule, and Zadok the priest and Nathan the prophet have anointed him king in Gihon, and they have come up from there rejoicing, so that the city is thrown into an uproar. That is the noise which you heard. And Solomon also has taken his seat on the royal throne! And moreover the king’s servants have already come to congratulate our lord King David, saying, ‘May God make the name of Solomon better than your name, and his throne greater than your throne!’ and the king bowed himself on his bed. And furthermore thus said the king, ‘Blessed be Jehovah the God of Israel, who hath given one of my descendants to sit on my throne this day, my eyes even seeing it.’ 10. Pardon of the conspirators. Then all the guests of Adonijah were seized with terror and rose up and each went his way. But Adonijah in his fear of Solomon arose, and went and caught hold of the horns of the altar. And it was reported to Solomon, See, Adonijah fears King Solomon, for behold he has caught hold of the horns of the altar, saying, Let King Solomon swear to me first that he will not slay his servant with the sword. Solomon said, If he shall show himself a worthy man, not a hair of him shall fall to the earth, but if wickedness be found in him, he must die. So King Solomon sent to bring him away from the altar. And he came and did obeisance to King Solomon. And Solomon said to him, Go to your house. 11. David’s death. Then David slept with his fathers and was buried in the city of David. And the period that David reigned over Israel was forty years: seven years in Hebron, and thirty-three years he reigned in Jerusalem. I. The Law of Succession in Israel. Inasmuch as David was but the second king to rule over all Israel, the law of succession had not yet been firmly established. The traditions of the Hebrew kingship went back to the old tribal life. Israel’s earliest rulers were but local chieftains or sheiks, with no authority that extended beyond their own tribe and lifetime. In the tribal life of the desert, the oldest son of the sheik succeeded his father, provided he had the requisite qualifications. If, however, a younger son revealed superior ability, the law of primo geniture was frequently set aside. Only the ablest man was called to rule. The two decisive elements in determining the succession were the nomination by the dying chief of the one who was to follow him, and the acceptance of this choice by the people. The same usage apparently continued in force in the days of David, so that Solomon’s succession was entirely legitimate. II. Adonijah’s Attempted Usurpation. After his return to Jerusalem, David does not appear to have left the seclusion of his harem. While the spark of life still flickered in the body of the aged warrior-king, his court was the scene of constant intrigue. The royal promise to Bathsheba that her son should succeed the throne was probably known to the members of the court. Joab and the priest Abiathar evidently did not view the proposed succession with approval. With their sup port, Adonijah, the oldest surviving son of David, made a desperate attempt to secure the kingship. Like all the sons of David, he was of attractive appearance, ambitious and fond of display. He accordingly called an assembly of the nobles at the Serpent’s Stone, probably not far from the Pool of Siloam, to the south of Jerusalem where the valleys of the Kidron and Hinnom unite. He made the fatal mistake of not inviting to this assembly—the object of which was to proclaim him king—Nathan the prophet, Zadok the priest, Benaiah the commander of the body-guard and other famous warriors. Possibly this oversight was because he was aware that they were loyal not to himself, but to the son of David’s choice. III. The Counter Conspiracy. Adonijah’s plans failed because of the prompt action of Nathan. Communicating the news to Bathsheba, the prophet arranged that they should go in to David and win his consent to have Solomon at once proclaimed king. Their plot was successful. Solomon was nominated by David as his successor, placed upon the royal mule and led by Zadok and Nathan to the spring of Gihon on the side of the Kidron valley east of the Hill of Ophel. There, a few hundred yards above the spot where the assembled banqueters were crying, “May King Adonijah live!” Solomon was anointed king by Zadok, the priest. The trumpet was then blown, and Solomon was presented to the people and formally accepted as their king. The conspirators about Adonijah were rudely awakened from their dream by the shouts of the people. Adonijah took advantage of the ancient right of altar asylum, thus putting himself under the protection of Jehovah. Solomon, however, in the hour of his triumph granted full pardon to his rival and to those who had opposed his succession. IV. David’s Dying Injunctions. The original David stories apparently ended with the account of Solomon’s accession. In the subsequent context the author of the books of Kings has given a brief reference to David’s death and the duration of his reign. The popular Solomon traditions, which have been quoted in the earlier part of I Kings, attribute to David certain dying injunctions which were apparently intended to palliate Solomon’s action in putting to death Shimei and Joab. It is, of course, possible that these grim commands were I laid upon Solomon by his dying father. If so, they but reveal the vindictiveness of an old man in his dotage. They are certainly not in harmony with the character of David as portrayed in the earlier narratives. Although a man of war, he had ever showed himself averse to the unnecessary shedding of blood. Loyalty to his supporters and readiness to pardon those who had wronged him were among his most marked characteristics. V. The Character of David. No character in all the Old Testament is as fully portrayed as that of David. Almost contemporary traditions throw light upon his life at every important stage from boyhood to the grave. His faults are pictured as faithfully as his virtues. They are the faults peculiar to a versatile genius: a lack of absolute truthfulness, a failure in the face of sudden and powerful temptation to control his passions, a selfish fondness for his children, which made him a weak father; these are the glaring faults which overshadow the brilliant virtues of David’s earlier days. Like many another man in the world’s history, he developed rapidly and nobly in the face of hardship and opposition, and fell in the moment of prosperity and success. His life history, therefore, is a tragedy because it failed to realize the promise of his earlier years. That David was truly religious is amply illustrated at every stage in his history. No important act was undertaken without consulting the Deity. His dominant aim was to rule over the people as Jehovah’s representative. His religion, however, was of a conventional and superficial, rather than a profound, type. His conceptions of Jehovah and of his obligations to him were those of his age. Through the priestly oracle he sought to know the will of God. To win his approval, he transferred the ark to Jerusalem and danced before it as an expression of his religious zeal. By the sacrifice of animals, and even by the sacrifice of innocent human beings, he sought to win and retain the approval of the God whom his age worshipped; but for traces of the profound faith of the later prophets and psalmist one seeks in vain. David’s virtues are many. He was brave, chivalrous, magnanimous and patriotic. He genuinely loved his friends and followers and was passionately loved by them. Tact, insight, excellent organizing ability, made him a successful king, as well as an able leader. He was ambitious for personal glory, but he was also equally ambitious for his race and nation. As poet, patriot, warrior and devout worshipper of Jehovah, he embodied the highest ideals of his age. It is, therefore, not strange that he was idolized by his own and idealized by succeeding generations. His love for Jehovah and his people left little place in his heart for pride and tyranny. He kept always before him the noble Hebrew ideal of the kingship. Except on the one memorable occasion, when he yielded to his own base passion, he ever showed himself the loyal servant of the people. Thus, as a king, he proved, as did no other ruler in early Hebrew history, “a man after God’s own heart.” VI. David’s Work. In the perspective of history, Saul figures as the great pioneer; but David built well on the foundations which Saul had laid. Under his leadership united Israel became a fixed reality. By closer organization, by sharing together a common capital, by uniting in successful wars against their common foes, rival tribes were led to forget their jealousies and to recognize the bond of common race, ideals and religion. By his foreign conquests David gave to his people peace and prestige, and prepared the way for that development of the resources of the empire and of commerce which quickly followed in the days of Solomon. David also inspired those ideals of kingly justice, as well as of world-wide dominion, which were ever after cherished by the Hebrews and which find frequent echoes in the Messianic predictions of later prophets. In uniting all Israel under one king he also impressed upon his subjects the conception of Jehovah as the one Supreme Ruler over all the different tribes. In conquering the neighboring nations and building up a great empire he laid the foundations of that later monotheism which was proclaimed by the great prophets of the Assyrian period. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 79: 079. THE SPLENDORS OF SOLOMON’S REIGN ======================================================================== THE SPLENDORS OF SOLOMON’S REIGN ======================================================================== CHAPTER 80: 080. LVI. SOLOMON’S POLICY AND FAME ======================================================================== § LVI. SOLOMON’S POLICY AND FAME 1 Kings 2:12-46; 1 Kings 4:1-23; 1 Kings 3:1; 1 Kings 9:16-17; 1 Kings 3:4-23; 1 Kings 10:1-13 1. Adonijah’s solicitations for Abishag. Now Solomon sat upon the throne of David his father and his kingdom was firmly established. Then Adonijah the son of Haggith came to Bathsheba the mother of Solomon and bowed before her. And she said, Do you come in a friendly manner? And he replied, Yes, and added, I have something to say to you. And she said, Speak. And he said, You know that the kingdom was mine and that all Israel looked upon me as the coming king, but now the kingdom has been taken away from me and has become my brother’s, for it was his from Jehovah. Now, however, I would ask one thing of you; do not refuse me. And she said to him, Speak. And he said, Then request Solomon the king—he will not refuse you—to give me Abishag the Shunammite as wife. And Bathsheba said, Good, I will speak for you to the king. 2. Solomon’s indignation. Bathsheba went therefore to King Solomon to speak to him for Adonijah. And the king rose up to meet her and bowed before her, and sat down on his throne, and a seat was placed for the king’s mother, and she sat on his right. Then she said, I would make a small request of you; do not refuse me. And the king said to her, Make your request, my mother, for I will not refuse you. And she said, Let Abishag the Shunammite be given to Adonijah your brother as wife. Then King Solomon answered and said I to his mother, Why then do you ask Abishag the Shunammite for Adonijah? Ask for him the kingdom also! for he is my elder brother, and on his side are Abiathar the priest and Joab the son of Zeruiah. 3. Execution of Adonijah. Thereupon King Solomon swore by Jehovah, saying, God do to me whatever he pleaseth, if Adonijah has not spoken this word against his own life. Now therefore as Jehovah liveth, who hath established me and caused me to mount the throne of David my father, and who hath, as he promised, given me posterity, Adonijah shall surely be put to death this day. Then King Solomon sent Benaiah the son of Jehoiada; and he struck him down, so that he died. 4. Banishment of Abiathar. And to Abiathar the priest the king said, Go to Anathoth to your estate; for you are to-day condemned to die, but I will not put you to death, because you bore the ark of Jehovah before David my father and because you shared all I the afflictions which my father experienced. Thus Solomon sent away Abiathar, so that he was no longer Jehovah’s priest. 5. Joab’s bloody end. But when the report came to Joab—for Joab had upheld Adonijah, and had not upheld Absalom—Joab fled to the tent of Jehovah, and caught hold of the horns of the altar. And it was told King Solomon, Joab has fled to the tent of Jehovah and is there beside the altar. Thereupon Solomon sent to Joab, saying, How comes it that you have fled to the altar? Joab replied, Because I was afraid of you and so I fled to Jehovah. Then Solomon sent Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, saying, Go, strike him down. And Benaiah went to the tent of Jehovah and said to him, The king commands, ‘Come forth.’ But he said, No; I will rather die here. And Benaiah brought the king word again, saying, Thus said Joab and thus he answered me. And the king said to him, Do as he has said: strike him down and bury him, that you may take away the innocent blood which Joab shed from me and from my father’s clan. And Jehovah will requite his bloody act upon his own head, because he struck down two men more honorable and better than he, and slew them with the sword without the knowledge of my father David: Abner the son of Ner, commander of the army of Israel, and Amasa the son of Jether, commander of the army of Judah. So shall their blood come back upon the head of Joab and the head of his descendants forever; but to David, and to his descendants, and to his house, and to his throne may there be peace forever from Jehovah. Then Benaiah the son of Jehoiada went up and struck him down and slew him; and he was buried in his own house in the wilderness. And the king put Benaiah the son of Jehoiada in his place over the army, and the king put Zadok the priest in the place of Abiathar. 6. Shimei’s sentence. Then the king summoned Shimei and said to him, Build a house in Jerusalem, there you may live, but you shall not go forth from there to any place whatever. For as soon as you go away and cross the Brook Kidron, know for certain that you shall surely die; your blood shall be upon your own head. And Shimei said to the king, The statement is fair; Your servant will do as my lord the king has said. And Shimei lived in Jerusalem a long time. 7. Shimei’s fate. But at the end of three years, two of Shimei’s slaves ran away to Achish son of Maacah king of Gath. And when it was reported to Shimei, Your slaves are in Gath, Shimei rose and saddled his ass and went to Gath to Achish to seek his slaves. And Shimei went and brought his slaves from Gath. And it was told Solomon that Shimei had gone from Jerusalem to Gath and had come back again. Then the king summoned Shimei, and said to him, Did I not cause you to take an oath by Jehovah and solemnly admonish you, saying, ‘Know for certain that as soon as you go away to any place whatever, you shall surely die’? And you said to me, ‘The statement is fair.’ Why then have you not kept the oath of Jehovah and the command that I laid upon you? The king also said to Shimei, You are aware of all the wickedness which you yourself alone know, that you did to David my father; now Jehovah hath brought your wickedness upon your own head. But King Solomon shall be blessed and the throne of David shall be established before Jehovah forever. So the king gave command to Benaiah the son of Jehoiada, and he went out and struck him down, and thus he died. So the kingdom was brought completely under the control of Solomon. 8. Solomon’s court officials. Now Solomon was king over all Israel. And these were the princes whom he had: Azariah the son of Zadok was priest; Elihoreph and Ahijah, the sons of Shisha, were scribes; Jehoshaphat the son of Ahilud was chancellor; and Benaiah the son of Jehoiada was the head of the army; and Azariah the son of Nathan was at the head of the officers; and Zabud the son of Nathan was a priest and the king’s friend; and Ahishar was prefect of the palace; and Adoniram the son of Abda was in charge of the forced levy. 9. Commissary officers. And Solomon had twelve officers over all Israel, who provided food for the king and his household: each man had to make provision for a month in the year. And these are their names: Ben-hur, in the hill-country of Ephraim; Ben-deker, in Makaz, Shaalbim, Bethshemesh, and Elonbeth-hanan; Ben-hesed, in Arubboth; to him belonged Socoh and all the land of Hepher; Ben-abinadab, in all the highland of Dor (he had Tapath the daughter of Solomon as wife); Baana the son of Ahilud, in Taanach and Megiddo and all Bethshean, which is beside Zarethan, beneath Jezreel, from Bethshean to Abel-meholah, as far as the other side of Jokneam; Ben-geber in Ramoth in Gilead; to him belonged the region of Argob, which is in Bashan, sixty great cities with walls and brazen bars; Ahinadab the son of Iddo in Mahanaim; Ahimaaz, in Naphtali (he also took Basemath the daughter of Solomon as wife); Baana the son of Hushai, in Asher and Bealoth; Jehoshaphat the son of Paruah, in Issachar; Shimei the son of Ela, in Benjamin; Geber the son of Uri, in the land of Gad, the country of Sihon king of the Amorites and of Og king of Bashan; and one officer was over all the officials who were in the land. 10. Amount of the provisions. And these officers provided food for King Solomon and for all who came to King Solomon’s table, each in his month. They let nothing be lacking. Barley also and straw for the horses and swift steeds they brought to the proper place—each according to his individual charge. And Solomon’s provision for one day was about six hundred bushels of fine flour, and about one thousand, two hundred bushels of meal, ten fat, and twenty meadow-fed oxen, and a hundred sheep, besides harts, gazelles, roebucks, and fatted fowls. 11. Alliance with Egypt. And Solomon allied himself by marriage with Pharaoh, king of Egypt, and took Pharaoh’s daughter, and brought her into the city of David, until he had completed the building of his own palace and the temple of Jehovah and the wall around Jerusalem. 12. Capture of Gezer. Then Pharaoh king of Egypt went up, captured Gezer, and burnt it with fire, slew the Canaanites who dwelt in the city, and gave it as a portion to his daughter, Solomon’s wife. And Solomon rebuilt Gezer. 13. Solomon’s sacrifice. And the king went to Gibeon to sacrifice there; for that was the great high place; a thousand burnt-offerings did Solomon offer upon that altar. 14. His request for wisdom to rule justly. In Gibeon Jehovah appeared to Solomon in a dream by night. And God said, Ask what I shall give thee. And Solomon said, Thou hast showed to thy servant David my father great kindness. And now, O Jehovah my God, thou hast made thy servant king in the place of David my father, although I am but a child, not knowing how to go out or come in. Give thy servant therefore an understanding mind to judge thy people, that I may discern between good and evil; for who is able to judge this thy great people ? 15. Jehovah’s promise. And it pleased Jehovah that Solomon had asked this thing. And God said to him, Because thou hast asked this thing and hast not asked for thyself long life nor riches nor the life of thy enemies, but hast asked for thyself insight to discern justice; behold, I have done according to thy request: I have given thee a wise and discerning mind. And I have also given thee that which thou hast not asked: both riches and honor. And when Solomon awoke, behold it was a dream. Then he returned to Jerusalem. 16. An example of Solomon’s wisdom. Then two harlots came to the king and stood before him. And the one woman said, O, my lord, this woman and I dwell in the same house; and I was delivered of a child in her presence within the house. Now on the third day after I was delivered, this woman was also delivered and we were together, there being no one else with us in the house: we two being alone in the house. And this woman’s child died in the night, because she lay upon it. And she arose at midnight and took my son from beside me, while your maid-servant slept, and laid it in her bosom and laid her dead child in my bosom. And when I rose in the morning to nurse my child, there it was dead; but when I looked at it in the morning, behold, it was not my son whom I had borne. Then the other woman said, No; but the living is my son, and the dead child is your son. And the first woman was saying, No; but the dead is your son and the living child is my son. Thus they contended before the king. 17. His sagacious decision. Then the king said, This one says, ‘This is my son, the living, and your son is the dead.’ And the other says, ‘No; but your son is the dead, and my son is the living!’ Thereupon the king said, Bring me a sword. And they brought a sword before the king. And the king said, Divide the living child in two and give half to the one and half to the other. Then the woman to whom the living child belonged, spoke to the king—for her heart yearned over her son—and she said, O, my lord, give her the living child and on no account put it to death. But the other said, It shall be neither mine nor yours! Divide it! Then the king answered and said, Give her the living child, and on no account put it to death; she is his mother. And when all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had rendered, they revered the king, for they saw that divine wisdom to execute justice was in him. 18. Impression made upon the queen of Sheba. Now when the queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon through the name of Jehovah, she came to test him with riddles. So she came to Jerusalem with a very great retinue, with camels that bore spices and very much gold and precious stones. And as soon as she came to Solomon, she told him all that was on her mind. And Solomon answered all her questions; there was nothing hid from the king which he could not answer her. And when the queen of Sheba had seen all the wisdom of Solomon, the house that he had built, the food of his table, the seating of his courtiers, the attendance of his waiters, their clothing, his cupbearers, and his burnt-offering which he used to offer at the temple of Jehovah, there was no more spirit in her. And she said to the king, True was the report that I heard in my own land of your acts and of your wisdom. But I would not believe the words until I came and saw with my own eyes; the half was not told me; you exceed in wisdom and prosperity the report which I heard. Happy are your wives! Happy are these your courtiers who stand continually before you and hear your wisdom! Blessed be Jehovah your God who delighted in you and hath set you on the throne of Israel! Because Jehovah loved Israel forever, he hath made you king that you may do justice and righteousness. Then she gave the king a hundred and twenty talents of gold and a very great store of spices and precious stones; never again came so many spices as these which the queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon. 19. His gifts to her. And King Solomon gave to the queen all that she wished and asked, aside from that which she had brought to Solomon, according to his royal bounty. So she returned and went to her own land, together with her servants. I. The Removal of Solomon’s Foes. Solomon’s policy was clearly revealed at the beginning of his reign. The occasion was the request of Adonijah that he be allowed to marry Abishag, the Shunammite, who had attended David in his old age. Bathsheba, to whom he appealed, evidently regarded it as an innocent request, for she at once presented it to her son Solomon. According to the custom of the East, a new monarch on his accession entered into the possession of the harem of his predecessor. Marriage with the wife of a deceased king was regarded as a step toward the throne. Thus Abner’s marriage with Rizpah, Saul’s concubine, was considered an act of treason by Ishbaal. A similar in terpretation was placed on Adonijah’s request. At Solomon’s command, Adonijah was forthwith put to death. Adonijah’s supporters next became the victims of Solomon’s policy of absolutism. Abiathar, the descendant of Eli, who had shared David’s outlaw life, was deposed from the priesthood and banished from Jerusalem. Zadok and his family were established in that position at the head of the royal priesthood which they continued to hold for the next seven or eight hundred years. Even the right of altar asylum was denied the aged Joab. Beside the altar of Jehovah this aged warrior, who had been so blindly loyal to the interests of David and who had contributed more than any other to the building up of Israel’s prestige, was cut down as a common criminal, and Benaiah, the captain of the body-guard, was placed at the head of the army. Shemei the Benjamite was brought to Jerusalem under pledge that he would remain within the precincts of the city. When, in his eagerness to recover two runaway slaves, he broke his oath, Solomon showed no mercy, but caused to be slain by the sword the last of the foes of his house. II. The Organization of Solomon’s Kingdom. The readiness with which Solomon, on the least pretext, put to death his foes indicates that he was determined to tolerate no rival. The methods which he employed to establish his absolute authority were those of the ordinary oriental despot. The same policy is apparent in the organization of his court. Few of the officials who had served under his father retained their office. The sons of Nathan, the prophet, who had been so active in securing Solomon’s accession, were assigned to high positions of trust. A prefect of the palace appears now for the first time among the court officials. Elaborate provisions were also made for the collection of the king’s tribute. In that minute description of Solomon’s policy which is placed by the later prophetic narrator of 1 Samuel 8:10-18 in the mouth of Samuel, it is stated that this tribute amounted to one-tenth of the entire product of the fields and vineyards and of the offspring of the flocks. Twelve officials, each charged with the task of collecting sufficient food to supply the royal court for one month, were placed in charge of the different districts of Northern Israel. The old tribal divisions were apparently disregarded. The absence of any reference to the territory of Judah suggests that perhaps this southern tribe, from which came the reigning dynasty, was exempted from taxation. The elaborate provisions, which were thus collected from his subjects, were required for the large and magnificent court which Solomon gathered about him. All this was in striking contrast to the simplicity of Saul, who lived quietly on his own family estates. Solomon also allied himself by marriage with an Egyptian princess, who received as her marriage dowry the Canaanite town of Gezer, west of Jerusalem on the borders of the Philistine plain. Thus from the first it was evident that Solomon’s ambition was to take his place side by side with the other oriental rulers of southwestern Asia and to rival in magnificence the splendor of their courts. Doubtless, he also desired to open wide the doors of commerce to the civilization of that ancient world and to raise his subjects to a level with the surrounding peoples. In striving to accomplish these ends within the narrow limits of a generation he broke rudely with the traditions of the past, and disregarded those democratic instincts which the Hebrews had brought with them from the desert. In the pursuit of material splendor and power, he also neglected the simpler and nobler Hebrew ideals of the kingship. The result was that he who was called to be the servant of the people became their despotic master. III. Solomon’s Wisdom. The magnificence of Solomon’s court in part blinded the eyes of his own and succeeding generations. Tradition has preserved the memory of the nobler aspirations of his earlier years. Keenness of observation and insight were regarded as the most desirable qualities that could be possessed by an ancient oriental monarch. A picturesque story has been handed down which illustrates this much-prized gift. To determine who was the actual mother of the child who was brought before him, he appealed to the universal mother instinct. Later oriental tradition has preserved many similar stories regarding Solomon. His reputation for wit and brilliance was in harmony with the magnificence and splendor of his court. IV. The Wisdom of the Ancient East. The ancient Semitic East always paid a high tribute to native shrewdness and insight. Each town and tribe appears to have had its group of wise men or sages who were keen students of human nature and life. They were the repositories of the accumulative experience of their own and preceding generations. They were the counsellors of tribal chieftains and kings, the advisors of the people in deciding the various questions of life, and the teachers of the youths. Certain cities, and especially those like Teman, bordering on the Arabian desert, which appears to have been the native home of wisdom-teaching, were famous for their sages. The teaching of these ancient sages was ordinarily transmitted in the form of short, picturesque, often epigrammatic, proverbs. Sometimes like the wise woman of Tekoa, they employed the parable or fable. It is probable that they entertained the people at the wedding-feasts and festivals with riddles similar to those found in the thirtieth chapter of Proverbs. V. Solomon’s Relation to the Hebrew Wisdom Literature. The book of Proverbs is the characteristic literary product of the wise men. A late Hebrew tradition asserts that Solomon was not only wiser than the wisest sages of Arabia and Egypt, but that he also uttered three thousand proverbs and five thousand songs. It is also stated that, not only did the queen of Sheba come from southern Arabia with rich gifts to admire the magnificence and wit of Solomon, but that representatives of many other nations came to hear his wisdom. Closely related to this late tradition is the statement in the superscription to the book of Proverbs which assigns the entire collection to him. Certain older superscriptions within the book of Proverbs—as, for example, Proverbs 22:17 and Proverbs 24:23—plainly indicate that the individual proverbs come from many different sages. The book of Proverbs is in fact a collection of collections. Many of them, such as those which commend monogamy and condemn the tyranny of a ruler, cannot come from Solomon. Most of them are written from the point of view of an ordinary citizen, rather than that of a ruler. It is probable, however, that Solomon did embody certain of the results of his keen observation in the form of proverbs. It is possible that some of these have been preserved to find a place in the Old Testament book of Proverbs. It was also natural that, as Solomon’s reputation for wisdom increased in succeeding generations, he should be regarded as the father of wisdom literature, even as Moses was of the law. In the same way the late Jewish book of Ecclesiastes is attributed to him, and a still later work, coming from not earlier than the first century before Christ, bears the title, Wisdom of Solomon. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 81: 081. LVII. SOLOMON’S TEMPLE ======================================================================== § LVII. SOLOMON’S TEMPLE 1 Kings 5:1-18; 1 Kings 6:1-38; 1 Kings 7:13-51; 1 Kings 8:1-13; 1 Kings 9:25 1. Solomon’s request of Hiram. And Hiram king of Tyre sent his servants to Solomon because he had heard that they had anointed him king in the place of his father; for Hiram had loved David. And Solomon sent to Hiram, saying, Now I purpose to build a temple for the name of Jehovah my God. Therefore command that they cut for me cedar timber from Lebanon; and my servants will go with your servants, and I will give you wages for your servants just as you shall say; for you know that there is no one among us who knows how to cut timber as the Sidonians. 2. Hiram’s reply and conditions. So Hiram sent to Solomon, saying, I have heard your message to me; I, on my part, will fulfil all your wishes in regard to cedar and cypress timber. My servants shall bring them down from Lebanon to the sea, and I will make them into rafts to go by sea to the place that you shall appoint, and will have them broken up there, and you shall receive them. You also shall fulfil my wish by providing food for my household. So Hiram furnished Solomon cypress timber, as much as he wished. And Solomon gave Hiram four hundred thousand bushels of wheat for food for his household, and one hundred and sixty thousand gallons of oil from the beaten olives. This much Solomon gave to Hiram year by year. And there was peace between Hiram and Solomon, and they made an alliance with each other. 3. Solomon’s forced levy of workmen. And King Solomon raised a forced levy out of all Israel; and the levy consisted of thirty thousand men. And he sent them to Lebanon, ten thousand a month in relays; a month they were in Lebanon, and two months at home; and Adoniram was in charge of the forced levy. And Solomon had seventy thousand burden-bearers and eighty thousand hewers of stone in the mountains; besides Solomon’s chief officers who were in charge of the work, three thousand, three hundred, who superintended the people who did the work. And the king commanded that they should hew out great, costly stones, to lay the foundation of the temple with cut stone. And Solomon’s builders and Hiram’s builders and especially the Gebalites shaped them and prepared the timber and the stones to build the temple. 4. Dimensions of the temple. In the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel, he built the temple of Jehovah. And the length of the temple which King Solomon built for Jehovah was sixty and its breadth twenty cubits, and its height thirty cubits. And the porch before the large room of the temple was twenty cubits wide, corresponding to the breadth of the temple, ten cubits deep before the temple. And for the temple he made windows with narrowed frames. 5. The side-chambers. And around against the wall of the temple he built wings, both around the larger room and the inner room, and made side-chambers round about. The lower side-chamber was five cubits broad, and the middle six cubits broad, and the third seven cubits broad; for on the outside he made offsets around about the temple in order not to make an inset into the walls of the temple. The entrance into the lower side-chambers was on the south side of the temple. And one could go up by winding stairs into the middle story, and from the middle into the third. And he built the wings against all the temple, each story five cubits high; and they rested on the temple with timbers of cedar. So he built the temple and finished it; and he covered the temple with cedar. 6. The interior decorations. And he built the walls of the temple within with boards of cedar: from the floor of the temple to the rafters of the ceiling, overlaying them on the inside with wood; and he covered the floor of the temple with boards of cypress. And he built off the back twenty cubits from the innermost part of the temple with boards of cedar from the floor to the rafters: he built it within for an inner room, even for the most holy place. And the temple, that is the large room before the inner room, was forty cubits long. And there was cedar in the interior of the temple, carving in the form of gourds and open flowers; all was cedar, no stone was seen. And he prepared an inner room in the interior of the temple in order to place there the ark of the covenant of Jehovah. And the inner room was twenty cubits long and twenty cubits broad and twenty cubits high. And he overlaid it with pure gold. And he made an altar of cedar wood. And he carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubim and palm trees and opening flowers, both in the inner and outer rooms. 7. The cherubim. And in the inner room he made two cherubim of olive wood. The height of the one cherub was ten cubits, and so was that of the other—each ten cubits high. And one wing of the cherub measured five cubits, and the other wing of the cherub also five cubits—ten cubits from the extremity of one wing to the extremity of the other. And the other cherub also measured ten cubits: both the cherubim were of the same measurement and form. And he set up the cherubim in the inner room of the temple, and the wings of the cherubim were stretched forth, so that the wing of the one touched the one wall, while the wing of the other cherub touched the other wall, and their wings touched each other in the middle of the temple; and he overlaid the cherubim with gold. 8. Door of the inner room. And the door of the inner room he made with folding doors of olive wood: the pilasters formed a pentagonal. And on the two doors of olive wood he carved carvings of cherubim and palm trees and opening flowers, and he spread the gold over the cherubim and the palm trees. 9. Door of the large room. So also he made for the door of the large room posts of olive wood, four square, and two folding leaves of cypress wood: the two leaves of the one door were folding, and the two leaves of the other door were folding. And he carved cherubim and palm trees and opening flowers, and overlaid them with gold applied evenly to the carving. And he built the inner court with three courses of hewn stone and a course of cedar beams. 10. Completion of the temple. In the fourth year was the foundation of the temple of Jehovah laid, in the month Ziv [April-May]. And in the eleventh year, in the month Bul [October-November], was the temple completed in all its parts. Thus he was seven years in building it. 11. The pillars at the entrance. Then King Solomon sent and brought Hiram-abi an Aramean worker in brass; and he was gifted with skill, understanding, and knowledge to carry on all kinds of work in brass. And he came to King Solomon and did all his work. For he cast the two pillars of brass for the porch of the temple. Eighteen cubits was the height of one pillar, and its circumference measured twelve cubits; the thickness of the pillar was four fingers—it was hollow. And the second pillar was similar. And he made two capitals of molten brass, to set upon the tops of the pillars: the height of the one capital was five cubits, and the height of the other capital was five cubits. And he made two nets for the capitals which were on the top of the pillars; a net for the one capital, and a net for the other capital. And he made the pomegranates; and two rows of pomegranates in brass were upon the one network, and there were two hundred pomegranates—two rows round about the one capital. And he did the same to the other capital. And the capitals that were upon the top of the pillars in the porch were of lily-work—four cubits. And there were capitals above also upon the two pillars, in connection with the bowl-shaped part of the pillar which was beside the network. And he set up the pillars at the porch of the temple; and he set up the pillar at the right and called it Jachin; and he set up the pillar at the left and called it Boaz. And upon the top of the pillars was lily-work. So was the work of the pillars finished. 12. Molten sea. And he made the molten sea ten cubits in diameter from brim to brim, and five cubits high, and its circumference measured thirty cubits. And under its brim on the outside were gourds which encircled it, for thirty cubits, encircling the sea on the outside; the gourds were in two rows, cast when it was cast. And it was a handbreadth thick; and its brim was wrought like the brim of a cup, similar to the flower of a lily. It held about sixteen thousand gallons. It stood upon twelve oxen, three looking toward the north, and three looking toward the west, and three looking toward the south, and three looking toward the east; and the sea was set down upon them, and all were turned inward back to back. 13. Movable brazen stands. And he made the ten stands of brass: each stand was four cubits long, four cubits broad, and three cubits high. And the stands were made as follows: they had border-frames, and the border-frames were between the upright supports; and on the border-frames that were between the upright supports were lions, oxen and cherubim; and upon the upright supports likewise; and above and beneath the lions and oxen and cherubim was bevelled work. And every stand had four wheels of brass and axles of brass. And the four wheels were underneath the border-frames; and the axles and the wheels were cast as a part of the stand. And the height of each wheel was a cubit and a half. And the construction of the wheels was like that of a chariot wheel: their axles, their felloes, their spokes, and their hubs, were all cast. And at the four corners of each stand were four shoulder-pieces; the shoulder-pieces were cast as part of the stand. And in the top of the stand was a round opening, half a cubit high, and on the top of the stand were its stays and its border-frames. And on the flat surface of the stays and border-frames, he engraved cherubim, lions, and palm trees, according to the space on each, with wreaths round about. And the four corners had shoulder-pieces: beneath the bowl the shoulder-pieces were cast, with wreaths at the side of each. And its opening within the shoulder-pieces was a cubit and more; and its opening was round after the form of a pedestal (a cubit and a half), and also upon its opening were gravings, and its border-frames were square, not round. Thus he made the ten stands: all of them had one casting, and were of the same measure and form. 14. Position of the stands with their lavers. And he made ten lavers of brass: one laver contained three hundred and twenty gallons, and each laver measured four cubits; and on each one of the ten stands was a laver. And he set the stands, five on the right side of the temple and five on the left side of the temple: and he set the sea on the right side of the temple eastward toward the south. 15. Completion of the work. And Hiram made the lavers and the shovels, and the bowls, So Hiram completed all the work that he wrought for King Solomon in the temple of Jehovah: the two pillars and the two bowl-shaped capitals that were on the top of the pillars, and the four hundred pomegranates for the two networks to cover the two bowl-shaped capitals that were on the top of the pillars, and the ten stands and the ten lavers on the stands, and the one sea, with the twelve oxen under the sea. 16. Vast amount of brass required. And the pots, the shovels, and the bowls, and all these vessels which Hiram made for King Solomon in the temple of Jehovah, were of burnished brass. There was no weighing the brass from which he made all these vessels, because it was so very much that the weight of the brass could not be determined. In the plain of the Jordan he cast them, in the clay ground between Succoth and Zarethan. 17. Arrangement of the vessels. And Solomon placed all the vessels which he had made in the temple of Jehovah. Thus all the work that King Solomon wrought in the temple of Jehovah was finished. And Solomon brought in the things which David his father had dedicated, even the silver and the gold and the vessels, placing them in the treasuries of the temple of Jehovah. 18. Dedication of the temple. Then Solomon assembled the elders of Israel in Jerusalem to bring up the ark of Jehovah out of the city of David. And all the men of Israel assembled about King Solomon at the feast, in the month of Ethanim, which is the seventh month. And all the elders of Israel came, and the priests took up the ark, and the tent of meeting, and all the holy vessels that were in the tent. Then King Solomon and all Israel were with him before the ark sacrificing so many sheep and oxen, that they could neither be counted nor numbered. So the priests brought in the ark of Jehovah to its place in the inner room of the temple under the wings of the cherubim. For the cherubim spread forth their wings over the place of the ark, so that the cherubim formed a covering above the ark and its staves. And the staves were so long that the ends of the staves were seen from the place before the inner room; but further out they could not be seen. And there they are to this day. There was nothing in the ark except the two tables of stone which Moses put there at Horeb. And when the priests had come from the sanctuary, the cloud filled the temple of Jehovah, so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud, for the glory of Jehovah filled the temple of Jehovah. 19. Solomon’s hymn of dedication. Then Solomon said, Jehovah hath set the sun in the heavens, But he hath himself determined to dwell in thick darkness. So I have built thee a temple as a place of abode, A dwelling for thee to abide in forever. Is it not written in the Book of Jashar? 20. Institution of the regular service of the temple. And three times in the year Solomon used to offer burnt-offerings and peace-offerings upon the altar which he built to Jehovah, and he used to cause the savor of the sacrifice to rise before Jehovah. So he finished the temple. I. Solomon’s Motive in Building the Temple. The temple which Solomon built was but one of the many expressions of his ambition as a builder. The examples of the Egyptians, and especially that of the Phoenicians under the leadership of his contemporary Hiram, were clearly before him. Originally Solomon’s temple was but a royal chapel connected with his palace and court. There is no evidence that he intended that it should supersede the many other high places scattered throughout his realm. These long continued to flourish and to receive the homage of their devotees. The temple at Jerusalem at first performed a double function; it was the court sanctuary, where henceforth the king and the growing army of public officials worshipped Jehovah. Occupying the highest point on the hill of Ophel, it probably stood on or near the site of an old Jebusite high place. It quickly became the chief shrine of Jerusalem. Under the shadow of the throne and supported by the royal bounty, the temple 1 inevitably gained in prestige and importance with each succeeding generation. Its geographical position and magnificence also from the first exalted it above all the other sanctuaries in the land. Its preëminence likewise gave added strength and prestige to the house of David. As it attracted more and more all members of the nation, it silently but powerfully emphasized the fact that one God, Jehovah, ruled supreme in Israel. II. Preparations for the Temple. From earliest times the cedars, which grew on the summits of the Lebanons, had been especially prized for building purposes. The Egyptian kings frequently sent to secure supplies of this precious timber. Its attractive color and sweet odor made it especially appropriate for interior temple decoration. It was natural that a close commercial alliance should spring up between the Hebrews, who possessed abundant grain fields, and the Phoenicians, whose productive territory was limited, but whose artisans were skilled in producing those works of art which the Hebrews most needed. Permission, therefore, was readily granted to cut down the needed supply of cedar and cypress timber, and a small army of Hebrew workmen was detailed for the task. Phoenician artisans directed all the details in the construction of the temple. Its position facing east, with two great pillars at its entrance, the decorative motives, the palm tree and cherubim, and the general plan are perhaps all traceable to Phoenician influence. The stones for the walls of the temple were probably hewn from the limestone hill on which the sanctuary was reared. Even with the large army of men enlisted, the building of the temple required seven and a half years. III. Plan and Dimensions. With the aid of a restored text and the later descriptions of Ezekiel (chapters 40–48), it is possible to gain a very definite idea of the general plan and dimensions of Solomon’s temple. Compared with many of the public structures of to-day, it was small, but compared with the diminutive houses and hovels in which the Hebrews at this period lived, it seemed huge and magnificent. The central feature of the temple was the oracle, a perfect cube between thirty and thirty-five feet square, and lighted only through the door which led into the larger audience chamber. This outer room or audience chamber was between ninety and one hundred feet long, and was apparently lighted on both sides by small windows, protected by the overhanging roofs. The outer room was entered through an imposing porch, rising higher than the rest of the temple. The walls of the temple were exceedingly thick; wider on the outside at the bottom, they grew narrower by successive steps toward the top. The interior walls were covered with cedar work, which appears in turn to have been adorned with figures of palm trees and cherubim. Later tradition has also overlaid its walls and floors with gold and elaborate carving. The original temple, however, was stately in its simplicity and adaptation to its purpose. About the two sides and rear of the temple were built a series of chambers, three stories in height, in which the garments of the priests, the vessels used in the sacrifice, and possibly public and private treasures, were kept. These chambers were entered only from the outside. From this general plan it is evident that the temple was literally thought of as Jehovah’s house in which he dwelt and where he received, like an earthly king, the homage of his subjects. IV. The Equipment of the Temple. In front of the temple, cut out of the native rock, stood the great altar on which the sacrifices in behalf of the king, the court and the nation were offered. Near by was the great molten sea, about fifty feet in circumference and eight feet in height, holding sixteen thousand gallons of water. This water was for purification in connection with the sacrificial ritual. Ten lavers, on highly decorated, movable, brazen stands, were provided to transport the water. In the outer room of the temple was found the table of showbread. This ancient form of sacrifice goes back to the beginnings of Hebrew history, and was shared in common with the Babylonians and Egyptians, who placed similar loaves of bread as food before their gods. A seven-branched candlestick also lighted this outer room by night. Within the inner room or oracle stood two huge cherubim, about sixteen feet in height, with outstretched wings extending about sixteen feet from tip to tip. These probably resembled the great colossi, with the body of a bull and the wings of an eagle, which guarded the old Assyrian palaces. Between the cherubim was placed the ark of Jehovah, the symbol of the abiding presence of the God who had ever led and cared for his people. V. Dedication of the Temple. The completion of the temple was celebrated by the king and the assembled representatives of the nation, first by the formal transfer of the ark to the place prepared for it within the oracle, and second, by elaborate sacrifices. With the aid of the Greek text, it is possible to restore the song of dedication which was sung by Solomon on this occasion. Later prophets have also added an address and a noble dedicatory prayer, which are appropriate to the occasion, but which embody the nobler ethical and religious ideals of a later prophetic period. In keeping with the earlier usage, Solomon himself, as the religious head of his kingdom, directed the offering of the sacrifices. The king also offered the various offerings in behalf of the nation at the three great annual festivals. In the earliest record, the primary duty of the priests was to care for the ark and doubtless to take charge of the divine oracle. They probably also assisted Solomon in offering the public sacrifices. Because of their close connection with the temple, it was natural that in time the entire charge of the ritual should be turned over to the descendants of Zadok. Although its importance was not appreciated at the time, it is clear in the light of later history that in many ways the most important event in the period of the united monarchy was the building of the temple. Its priesthood and institutions soon became the most powerful support of the Davidic dynasty. As the prestige of the temple increased, it became the centre about which the thought and religious life of the Hebrew race revolved. The people ceased to look back to Mount Sinai, and came to regard Jerusalem as the special dwelling place of Jehovah. In the sacred precincts of the temple, later prophets, like Jeremiah, proclaimed their immortal messages. Here the ritual slowly developed to meet new conditions and to incorporate the principles set forth by succeeding prophets. Under the direction of prophets, priests and reformers, the inherited heathen elements in Israel’s religion were gradually eliminated, until at last, by Josiah and his supporters, the temple was declared to be the only legitimate temple, and Solomon’s royal chapel became the one recognized sanctuary of the Hebrew race. PLAN OF SOLOMON’S PALACE (ACCORDING TO STADE) ======================================================================== CHAPTER 82: 082. LVIII. THE SPLENDOR AND WEAKNESS OF SOLOMON’S REIGN ======================================================================== § LVIII. THE SPLENDOR AND WEAKNESS OF SOLOMON’S REIGN 1 Kings 7:1-3, 1 Kings 9:24, 1 Kings 7:9-12, 1 Kings 9:11-28, 1 Kings 11:1-43 1. House of Lebanon and Hall of Judgment. And Solomon was building his palace thirteen years, until he had completely finished his palace. There also he built the House of the Forest of Lebanon; its length was a hundred cubits, and its breadth fifty cubits, and its height thirty cubits, upon three rows of cedar pillars, with cedar beams upon the pillars. And it was covered with cedar above over the forty-five beams, that were upon the pillars; and there were fifteen pillars in each row. And there were window-frames in three rows, and window was over against window in three tiers. And all the doors and windows were made with square frames; and door was over against door in three tiers. And the hall of pillars he made fifty cubits long and thirty cubits broad; and a porch before them and pillars and a threshold before them. And he made the throne-hall where he was to judge, even the Hall of Judgment; and it was covered with cedar from floor to ceiling. 2. Solomon’s private palace. And his palace, where he was to dwell, in another court farther in from the hall of Judgment, was of the same workmanship. He also made a palace for Pharaoh’s daughter (whom Solomon had taken as wife), similar to his hall. And Pharaoh’s daughter came up out of the city of David to her palace which Solomon had built for her. 3. Materials used in the palace. All these were of costly stones, hewn according to measurements, sawed with saws, both on the interior and on the exterior, even from the foundation to the coping, and from the exterior to the great court. And the foundation was of costly great stones—stones of ten cubits and stones of eight cubits. And above were costly stones, hewn according to measurements, and cedar wood. And the great encircling court had three courses of hewn stone and a course of cedar beams; even so it was round about the inner court of the temple of Jehovah and the court of the porch of the palace. 4. Hiram’s compensation. King Solomon gave Hiram twenty cities in the land of Galilee. But when Hiram came from Tyre to see the cities which Solomon had given him, he was displeased with them. And he said, What sort of cities are these which you have given me, my brother? So they are called the land of Cabul [Good for nothing] even to the present day. But Hiram sent to the king one hundred and twenty talents of gold. 5. Solomon’s additional buildings and forced levies. And this is the way it was with the levy which King Solomon raised to build the temple of Jehovah, his own palace, Millo, the wall of Jerusalem, Hazor, Megiddo, Gezer, lower Bethhoron, Baalath, and Tamar in the wilderness in the land of Judah, and all the store-cities that Solomon had, and the cities for his chariots, and the cities for his horsemen, and that which Solomon was pleased to build for his pleasure in Jerusalem, in Lebanon, and in all the land over which he ruled. All the people who were left of the Amorites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites, who were not of the Israelites, their children who were left after them in the land, whom the Israelites were not able utterly to destroy, of them did Solomon raise a forced levy of bondmen, even to this day. But of the Israelites Solomon made no bondmen, for they were the warriors and his servants, his generals, his captains, his officers over his chariots, and his horsemen. 6. Officers. These were the chief officers who were over Solomon’s work, five hundred and fifty, who directed the people who did the work. 7. His Red Sea fleet. And King Solomon made a fleet of ships in Ezion-geber, which is near Elath on the shore of the Red Sea in the land of Edom. And Hiram sent with the fleet his subjects—seamen, who had knowledge of the sea, together with the servants of Solomon. And they went to Ophir, and took from there gold, four hundred and twenty talents, and brought it to King Solomon. 8. Products brought by Hiram’s fleet. And Hiram’s fleet of ships, that bore gold from Ophir, also brought a great amount of red sandal wood and precious stones. And the king made of the sandal wood from Ophir pilasters for the temple of Jehovah, and for the royal palace, and lyres and harps for the singers. There came no other such sandal wood nor has the like been seen to the present day. 9. Solomon’s income in gold. Now the weight of gold that came to Solomon in one year was six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold, besides what came from the traffic of the merchants and from all the kings of the Arabians and from the governors of the country. 10. His bucklers. And King Solomon made two hundred bucklers of beaten gold—six hundred shekels (about eleven and one-half pounds) of gold went on one buckler—and three hundred shields of beaten gold—three minahs (about three and one-half pounds) of gold went on one shield—and the king put them in the House of the Forest of Lebanon. 11. His throne. The king also made a great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with the finest gold. The throne had six steps and behind the throne were heads of calves, and on both sides of the seat were arms, and beside the arms stood two lions, on the six steps stood twelve lions on each side. The like was not made in any kingdom. 12. His royal income. And all King Solomon’s drinking vessels were of gold: none were of silver; it was accounted of no value in the days of Solomon. For the king had at sea a fleet of Tarshish ships with the fleet of Hiram. Once every three years the fleet of Tarshish ships came bringing gold, silver, ivory, apes and peacocks. So King Solomon exceeded all the kings of the earth in riches and in wisdom. And all the earth sought the presence of Solomon, to hear his wisdom, with which God had endowed his mind. And they brought each a present: vessels of silver and gold, clothing, weapons, spices, horses, and mules, year by year. 13. His chariots and trade in horses. And Solomon gathered together chariots and horsemen; and he had one thousand, four hundred chariots and twelve thousand horsemen that he stationed in the chariot cities and with the king at Jerusalem. Solomon’s import of horses was from Mucri and Kuë; the king’s traders received them from Kuë at a price, so that a chariot could be imported from Mucri for six hundred shekels of silver and a horse for a hundred and fifty. Even so through their agency these were exported to all the kings of the Hittites and the Arameans. 14. His foreign wives. Now King Solomon was a lover of women; and he took many foreign wives—Moabites, Canaanites, Edomites, Sidonians, Hittites, and Ammonites. And he had seven hundred wives, princesses, and three hundred concubines. 15. His apostasy. Now when Solomon was old, his heart was not perfect with Jehovah his God, as was the heart of David his father. And Solomon built a high place for Chemosh the god of Moab, in the mount that is before Jerusalem, and for Milcom the god of the Ammonites, and also for Ashtarte the goddess of the Sidonians. And so he did for all his foreign wives, burning incense and sacrificing to their gods. 16. Hadad, the Edomite. Then Jehovah raised up against Solomon an adversary, the Edomite Hadad, of the race of Edomite kings; for when David smote the Edomites, he smote every male in Edom. But Hadad being a child, one of his father’s servants brought him to Egypt. And he found great favor in the eyes of Pharaoh, so that he gave him to his chief wife, and she brought him up in Pharaoh’s palace among the sons of Pharaoh. But when Hadad heard in Egypt that David slept with his fathers, he said to Pharaoh, Let me depart that I may go to my own country. Then Pharaoh said to him, What do you lack with me that you are now seeking to go to your own country? And he said to him, Nevertheless you must let me go. . . . This is the evil that Hadad did; and he abhorred Israel and ruled in Edom. 17. Adad, the Midianite. Also when Joab the commander of the army went up to bury the slain—for Joab and all Israel remained there six months—Adad fled and certain Edomites with him. And they set out from Midian and came to Paran and took men with them out of Paran and came to Egypt to Pharaoh king of Egypt, who gave him a house and land. He also gave him as wife the sister of Tahpenes. And the sister of Tahpenes bore to him Genubath his son, and Genubath lived in Pharaoh’s house.But when he heard that David slept with his fathers, he returned to his land and likewise became an adversary to Solomon. 18. Rezon the Aramean. God also raised up as an adversary to him, Rezon the son of Eliada, who had fled from his master, Hadadezer king of Zobah. And he gathered men about him and became commander of a marauding band, and they went to Damascus, and dwelt there and reigned in Damascus. And he was an adversary to Israel as long as Solomon lived. 19. Jeroboam’s early history. And Jeroboam the son of Nebat, an Ephraimite of Zeredah, an official of Solomon, whose mother’s name was Zeruah, a widow, also lifted up his hand against the king. And this was the reason why he lifted up his hand against the king: Solomon built Millo and closed up the exposed place in the city of David his father. And Jeroboam was a man of great ability. And when Solomon saw that the young man was industrious, he placed him over all the forced levy of the house of Joseph. 20. Ahijah’s prediction. Now it came to pass at that time, when Jeroboam went away from Jerusalem, that the prophet Ahijah of Shiloh found him in the way and turned him aside from the way. Now Ahijah had clad himself with a new garment; and they two were alone in the field. Then Ahijah took hold of the new garment that was on him, and rent it in twelve pieces. And he said to Jeroboam, Take for yourself ten pieces; for thus saith Jehovah, the God of Israel, ‘Behold, I will rend the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon and will give ten tribes to thee, but he shall have one tribe. 21. Jeroboam’s flight. Solomon sought therefore to kill Jeroboam. Then Jeroboam arose and fled to Egypt, to Shishak [Sheshonk I] king of Egypt, and was in Egypt until the death of Solomon. 22. Solomon’s reign. And the length of Solomon’s reign over all Israel was forty years. Then he slept with his fathers and was buried in the city of David his father; and Rehoboam his son became king in his stead. I. Solomon’s Palace. In size and magnificence and in the time taken in their construction, the other buildings of Solomon’s palace surpassed even the temple itself. They were placed further down the hill of Ophel, probably on the northern outskirts of the original city of the Jebusites. The largest and southernmost structure was the Forest of Lebanon. It appears to have been so called because it contained forty-five large pillars, made out of the cedars of Lebanon and arranged in three tiers of fifteen pillars each. To the Hebrew peasants, still under the spell of the barren wilderness, this building, about one hundred and sixty feet long and eighty feet wide, must have seemed one of the wonders of the world. It was enclosed, but provided with windows and doors on each side. Here Solomon’s famous golden bucklers and shields were stored. From this fact it may be inferred that the building was used as an arsenal, and possibly as the quarters for the royal body-guard. A little to the north was the Hall of Pillars, about eighty feet long and fifty feet wide. The Hall of Judgment, of which the dimensions are not given, was possibly identical with the Hall of Pillars. As its name suggests, it was probably the place where the king, seated on his throne of gold and ivory (11), held court to decide the various questions which were referred to him. Further to the northwest, and under the shadow of the temple, was the private residence of the king and of his Egyptian queen. The palace and the temple were surrounded by a great court, shut in by a high wall of hewn stone surmounted by a course of cedar beams. II. His Additional Building Activity. Solomon’s policy and his zeal for building led him to select certain cities outside Jerusalem which he strengthened and made royal arsenals. Hazor in the far north; Megiddo east of Mount Carmel, which guarded the highway along the coast plains and across the plain of Esdraelon; the old Canaanite town of Gezer, which stood sentinel before the passes which led up from the Philistine plain to central Canaan; lower Bethhoron, Baalath and Tamar, which probably guarded the southern approaches to the kingdom, were thus fortified. Solomon’s object in building these store cities was to provide garrisons and military equipment at important strategic points. It is probable that they served, not merely to keep out foreign invaders, but also to hold his own subjects in submission. III. Solomon’s Commercial Enterprises. In developing the material resources of his empire, Solomon found an able adviser and ally in Hiram, king of Tyre. Already Phoenician sailors had skirted the shores of the Mediterranean, and even defied the waves of the Indian Ocean. From the port of Ezion-geber at the eastern end of the Red Sea, Solomon sent forth a fleet of Phoenician ships manned by Hiram’s subjects. The larger craft appear to have been called Tarshish ships, since they were of the type employed by the Phoenicians in making the long journey to distant Tarshish in southern Spain. The combined fleets of Solomon and Hiram came back laden with gold, sandal wood, precious stones, ivory, apes and peacocks. These products point either to eastern Africa or to India as the so-called “land of Ophir” from which they were imported. The fact that some of these articles of commerce bear Indian names favors the conclusion that Ophir was either the Abhira at the mouth of the Indus, or else a seaport of eastern Arabia through which the products of India reached the western world. All these strange and beautiful products of distant lands and civilizations were used to beautify Solomon’s palace and court. It is not surprising that later generations regarded the Grand Monarch as a wonder-worker who reared his palaces with the aid of the jinns. Solomon also added to his royal revenue by importing horses from certain nations in northern Syria and by reselling them to his neighbors on the north and east, and possibly also to the Egyptians. From this time on horsemen and chariots constituted an important part of every Hebrew army. With horsemen at his command, Solomon was also able to control his subjects much more easily and effectively. IV. The Mistakes of Solomon. Solomon certainly succeeded in introducing his people to the brilliant material civilization then regnant in southwestern Asia. Under task-masters and foreign artisans he taught them how to rear palaces, temples and fortifications. Undoubtedly the common people gloried in the splendors of Solomon’s capital and court; but it is clear that they resented the forcing process to which they were subjected. It was impossible in one generation to transform a nation of peasants into a cultured, commercial race. There is no evidence that Solomon sought to improve the material conditions of his individual subjects. Instead, he so completely absorbed their wealth and energies in his own building enterprises that little time was left for the development of their personal and private interests. Jerusalem completely overshadowed the other cities of his realm; and the contrast between his palace and the humble houses of mud and stone in which his subjects continued to live inevitably bred popular discontent. V. His Many Marriages. Solomon’s unworthy ambition to rival in splendor the neighboring kings also led him to make many foreign alliances. In accordance with the custom of his day, these alliances were sealed by marriage between the reigning families. Consequently, he added to his harem princesses from Moab, Ammon, Edom and Sidon. He also intermarried with the older Hittite and Canaanite peoples. These alliances compelled him to recognize the gods of the allied peoples. For diplomatic reasons he reared altars, probably within Jerusalem, and possibly within the temple precincts, to the gods of these allied peoples, and joined with his foreign wives in paying homage to their gods. In the pursuit of his false ambition, Solomon trampled upon the democratic ideals and upon those time-honored and sacred traditions of his race which required absolute loyalty to Jehovah, the God of his nation. The statement that he had seven hundred wives is perhaps a product of later tradition. In the Song of Songs (Song of Solomon 6:7) it is implied that Solomon had but sixty wives and eighty concubines. In any case it is clear, as the biblical writer clearly states, that another fatal source of weakness in Solomon’s character was the degrading sensuality which he inherited from his parents and which flourished unchecked in the unnatural atmosphere of the harem. Gifted with great possibilities and the heir of a mighty empire, Solomon, in the light of later events, proved a glittering failure both as a man and as a ruler. VI. Consequences of Solomon’s Policy. The biblical writers only suggest the darker side of Solomon’s reign. While his rule was peaceful, it was the calm that breeds the coming storm. The peace which he enjoyed was purchased by the loss of a part of his empire. The brief narrative in Kings indicates that in four different parts of his kingdom the standard of rebellion was raised, even before his death. In the southeast, a certain Edomite by the name of Hadad, who had found refuge during the days of David at the court of Egypt, succeeded in throwing off the Hebrew yoke and ruled independently over at least a part of Edom. Another rebel in the south, by the name of Adad, influenced his fellow Midianites to defy Solomon’s authority. In the northeast, Rezon, an Aramean, laid the foundations of the important kingdom which later grew up about Damascus as its capital. The most significant rebellion during the days of Solomon was led by Jeroboam, an Ephraimite. This leader from the ranks had been placed by Solomon in charge of those Israelites from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh who had been drafted to build the royal palace at Jerusalem. The uprising was unsuccessful; but the incident is profoundly significant, for it indicates that, even in Jerusalem itself, the growing popular discontent found open expression. It is also noteworthy that Jeroboam was encouraged in his rebellion against the authority and policy of Solomon by Ahijah, the prophet of Shiloh. Evidently the more enlightened prophets, at least of the north, saw in that policy a deadly menace to the liberties of the Hebrews and to the true religion of Jehovah. Confronted by an oriental despotism, which threatened to make the free-born citizens but the slaves of the king, and which meant to their minds open disloyalty to the God who demanded the entire allegiance of his people, the prophets were ready to preserve Israel’s liberties and faith, even at the cost of disunion. In the light of these facts, it is evident that the disintegration of the Hebrew empire began even before the death of Solomon. By his magnificent but criminally selfish policy, he undid what David and the other patriots of early Israel had accomplished only by great sacrifice and toil. He who was counted by later tradition the wisest proved to be in many respects the most foolish king who ever sat on Israel’s throne. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 83: 083. LIX. LAW AND SOCIETY IN EARLY ISRAEL ======================================================================== § LIX. LAW AND SOCIETY IN EARLY ISRAEL Exodus 21:2-26; Exodus 22:1-15, Deuteronomy 22:13-26, Exodus 22:16-29 1. The rights of slaves (a) males. I. If a man buy a Hebrew slave, the slave shall serve six years; but in the seventh he shall go free without having to pay any ransom. II. If he come in single, he shall go free unmarried. III. If he be married, then his wife shall go out with him. IV. If his master give him a wife and she bear him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master’s, but the man shall go out by himself. V. If, however, the slave shall definitely say, I love my master, my wife, and my children; I will not go free, then his master shall bring him before God, and shall lead him to the door, or the door-post, and his master shall bore through his ear with an awl; and the man shall be his slave as long as he liveth. (b) Females. VI. If a man sell his daughter to be a slave, she shall not go free as do the male slaves. VII. If she do not please her master, who hath espoused her to himself, then he may let her be redeemed; only he shall have no power to sell her to a foreign people, seeing he hath dealt deceitfully with her. VIII. If he espouse her to his son, he shall deal with her as with a daughter. IX. If he marry another wife, her food, her raiment, and her duty of marriage shall he not diminish. X. If he do not these three things to her, then she may go out without having to pay any money. 2. Assaults (a) capital offences. I. If a man strike another so that he die, the manslayer shall be put to death. II. If a man lie not in wait, but God deliver him into his hand, then I will appoint thee a place to which he may flee. III. If a man attack another maliciously to slay him by treachery, thou shalt take him from mine altar, that he may be put to death. IV. He who striketh his father or his mother shall be put to death. V. He who stealeth a man, and selleth him, or if he still be found in his hand, shall surely be put to death. (b) Minor offences. VI. If men contend and one strike the other with a stone or a club, and he die not, but is confined to his bed, then if he rise again, and can walk out supported on his staff, the one who struck him shall be acquitted; only he must pay for the loss of the other man’s time until he is thoroughly healed. VII. If a man strike his male or female slave with a stick so that he die at once, the master must be punished. VIII. If, however, the slave survive a day or two, the master shall not be punished, for it is his own loss. IX. If a man smite the eye of his male or female slave, so that it is destroyed, he shall let him go free for his eye’s sake. X. If he knock out a tooth of his male or female slave, he shall let him go free for his tooth’s sake. 3. Domestic animals (a) injuries by them. I. If an ox fatally gore a man or a woman, the ox shall be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten, but the owner of the ox shall be acquitted. II. But if the ox was already in the habit of goring, and it hath been reported to its owner, and he hath not kept it in, with the result that it hath killed a man or a woman, the ox shall be stoned, and its owner shall also be put to death. III. If a ransom is fixed for him, he shall give for the redemption of his life whatever amount is determined. IV. Whether the ox hath gored a boy or a girl, this law shall be executed. V. If an ox gore a male or female slave, thirty shekels of silver shall be given to their master, and the ox shall be stoned. (b) Injuries to them. VI. If a man open a cistern or dig a cistern but doth not cover it, and an ox or an ass fall into it, the owner of the cistern shall make it good; he shall give money to its owner and the carcass shall be his. VII. If one man’s ox hurt another’s, so that it dieth, then they shall sell the live ox, and divide the money received from it; they shall also divide the carcass between them. VIII. If it be known that the ox was already in the habit of goring and its owner hath not kept it in, he must pay ox for ox, and the carcass shall belong to him. IX. If a man steal an ox, or a sheep, and kill it, or sell it, he shall restore five oxen for one ox, and four sheep for a sheep. If he have nothing, then he shall be sold to pay for what he hath stolen. X. If the theft be found in his hand alive, whether it be ox, or ass, or sheep, he must pay twice its value. 4. Responsibility for property (a) in general. I. If a man burn over a field or vineyard and let the fire spread so that it devoureth a neighbor’s field, out of the best of his own field, and the best of his own vineyard shall he make restitution. II. If fire break out, and catch in thorns, so that the shocks of grain, or the standing grain, or the field are consumed, he that kindled the fire must make restitution. III. If a man deliver to his neighbor money or personal property to keep, and if it be stolen out of the man’s house, if the thief be found, the man shall make double restitution. IV. If the thief be not found, then the master of the house shall come before God to prove whether or not he hath taken his neighbor’s goods. V. In every case of breach of trust, whether it concern an ox, or ass, or sheep, or clothing, or any kind of lost thing of which one saith, This is it, the case of both parties shall come before God; he whom God shall condemn shall make double restitution to his neighbor. (b) In cattle. VI. If a man deliver to his neighbor an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast, to keep; and it die or be hurt or be driven away without any one’s having seen it, an oath sworn by Jehovah shall be between both of them to decide whether or not the one hath taken his neighbor’s property; the owner shall accept it, and the other need not make restitution. VII. If it be stolen from him, he shall make restitution to its owner. VIII. If the animal be torn in pieces, let him bring it as evidence; he need not make good that which was torn. IX. If a man borrow an animal from his neighbor and it be hurt or die, while its owner is not with it, the man must make restitution. X. If its owner be with it, the man need not make it good: being a hired animal, it came for its hire. 5. Social impurity (a) adultery. I. If, after a man hath married a wife and entered into marital relations with her, he turn against her, and frame against her shameful charges, . . . then the father of the young woman and her mother shall take and bring evidences of the young woman’s virginity to the elders of the city at the gate; . . . And the elders of that city shall take the man and punish him; and they shall fine him a hundred shekels of silver, and give them to the young woman’s father be cause the man hath given an evil name to a virgin of Israel; and she shall be his wife; he may not divorce her as long as he liveth. II. But if it prove to be true that the evidences that the young woman was a virgin were not found, then they shall bring out the young woman to the door of her father’s house, and the men of her city shall stone her to death because she hath committed a shameful act in Israel, in that she hath been a harlot in her father’s house. III. If a man be found lying with a married woman, they shall both of them die, the man who lay with the woman and the woman. IV. If a man find in the city a young woman who is a virgin betrothed to a husband, and lie with her, then ye shall bring them both out to the gate of that city and stone them to death, the damsel because she did not cry out, although she was in the city, and the man because he hath seduced his neighbor’s wife. V. If the man find a young woman, who is betrothed in the field, and force her and lie with her, then simply the man who lay with her shall die; but thou shalt do nothing to the young woman; she hath committed no sin worthy of death. (b) Fornication and apostasy. VI. If a man entice a young girl who is not betrothed, and lie with her, he must make her his wife by paying a dowry for her. VII. If her father utterly refuse to give her to him, he shall pay money equivalent to the dowry of young girls. VIII. A sorceress shall not be allowed to live. IX. Whoever lieth with a beast shall surely be put to death. X. He who sacrificeth to other gods, except to Jehovah, shall be placed under the ban. I. Form and Date of the Primitive Decalogues inExodus 21:1toExodus 23:19. In Exodus 21:1 to Exodus 23:1 a is found a group of decalogues which throws remarkably clear light upon social and economic conditions in early Israel. The setting and literary form of these decalogues indicate that they were incorporated in the historical record by the Northern Israelite prophetic historian who wrote about 750 B.C. Their carefully developed decalogue and pentad form suggests, however, that they had been handed down orally for generations before they were committed to writing and given their present setting. Most of the customs assumed in these laws, and many of the principles which underlie them, are found in the old Babylonian code of Hammurabi (about 1900 B.C.). Many of the laws in the primitive decalogues of Exodus reflect the early nomadic and agricultural life of the Hebrews. Some, as for example, those which refer to fields and houses, indicate that, when the laws were formulated, the Israelites were firmly established in Canaan. There are no references, however, to the temple of Solomon, or to the institutions which characterize the united kingdom. It is highly probable that most, if not all, of these early Hebrew laws were in existence in their present or slightly different form in the days of David and Solomon. They may, therefore, be studied as a faithful contemporary record of the social, moral and religious standards and customs of the Hebrews in the days of the united kingdom. II. The Rights and Position of Slaves in Early Israel. The old Semitic institution of slavery existed in Israel from the earliest times. The man who was unable to pay his debts, or support himself or his family, was forced either to become a slave to his creditor, or else to give his own son or daughter to meet the obligation. The aim of the early Hebrew lawgiver was primarily to protect the rights of slaves, to guard against possible abuses and to provide for the ultimate liberation of the native-born Hebrews. There is no evidence that other Semitic peoples made any similar provision for the manumission of slaves. The Hebrew law, therefore, marks a great advance over existing oriental usage. It recognizes the fact that slavery was usually incurred through debt, and that, when the debt was discharged, the slave was entitled to his freedom. The narrative in Jeremiah 34 indicates that, in the later days at least, this law was enforced only under the pressure of a great national danger, and that when the danger was passed the masters shamelessly compelled their slaves to resume the old relation. Even though the law of release at the end of six years was not accepted by the people as a whole, it is significant that it finds a place in these early decalogues. The fact that definite provision is made for cases in which the slaves voluntarily assumed permanent slavery suggests that the institution was very different from what it became in the later days of Rome or in more recent times. For those who were poverty-stricken, or lacking in physical or mental vigor, slavery offered a welcome refuge. It gave them the assurance of a permanent home, food and protection. Their treatment in most cases appears to have been considerate. It is easy, therefore, to understand why many Hebrew slaves preferred to remain in the homes of their masters, especially when freedom meant parting with their wives and children. The rite of piercing the ear was probably performed at the door post, originally in the presence of the household god, or else at the local sanctuary. The laws regarding a female slave were necessarily different, for she appears in almost every case to have intermarried into the family of her master. After she had become a member of the household, she could be divorced at the pleasure of the master, but not sold, as other slaves, to foreigners. Her rights as wife or daughter were also carefully guarded by the Hebrew law. III. Punishment of Crimes. The laws regarding assaults further reveal the noble purpose of the early Hebrew lawgivers to correct the abuses inherent in existing customs and to protect the innocent as well as to punish the guilty. In contrast to the earlier Semitic laws, as for example, those of Hammurabi, they reveal a remarkably high regard for the sanctity of human life. The ancient law of blood revenge was still in force. To save the innocent manslayer Hebrew law and custom provided that, if he succeeded in escaping and found refuge at an altar, he should be under Jehovah’s protection. There the hand of the avenger could not touch him; but, if the man were guilty of murder, the community was under obligation to drag him from the altar and put him to death. The strong emphasis which the Hebrews placed upon the duty of children to parents is illustrated by the fact that they inflicted the death penalty upon the son who struck either his father or his mother. The law of Hammurabi is rigorous but not quite so severe; “If a man has Struck his father, his hand shall be cut off” (§ 195). In punishing by death the heinous crime of kidnapping, the Hebrew lawgivers simply reiterated the ancient law of Hammurabi, “If a man has stolen a child, he shall be put to death” (§ 14). Hammurabi’s enactment in the case of personal injury incurred in a quarrel anticipates, in principle at least, the corresponding Hebrew law. It directs that, “If a man has struck another in a quarrel and cause him a permanent injury, that man shall swear, ‘I struck him without malice,’ and shall pay the physician” (§ 206). In providing that the master should be punished for killing his slave, the Hebrew law is far in advance of the standards maintained by other Semitic peoples, and even more modern codes. The nature of the penalty, however, is left to the decision of the judges. In case the blow was not immediately fatal, the early Hebrew lawgivers accepted the prevailing standards and freed the master, in view of the loss of his slave, from all personal responsibility. Their eagerness to correct possible wrongs is again shown by the regulation that for minor injuries, such as the loss of an eye or a tooth at the hand of the master, the slave should in every case have his freedom. IV. Laws Regarding Domestic Animals. The regulations regarding injuries to and by animals also illustrate the aim of the Hebrew lawgivers to guard against the loss of human life, and to place the responsibility for the injury where it belonged. A corresponding law of Hammurabi enacts, “If a man’s ox be a gorer and has revealed its evil propensity as a gorer, and the man has not blunted its horns or shut up the ox, and then that ox has gored a free man and caused his death, the owner shall pay half a mina of silver. If it has been a slave that has been killed, he shall pay one-third of a mina of silver” (§§ 251, 252). The comparatively small fine thus imposed for criminal carelessness is in striking contrast to the corresponding Hebrew law which makes the punishment death. Possibly under the influence of the older custom, the Hebrew code also allows for the substitution of a ransom in case the judges shall so decide. The moderation of the Hebrew laws in punishing theft is in favorable contrast to the rigorous regulations of even such a benign ruler as Hammurabi, who decreed that, “If a patrician has stolen ox, sheep, ass, pig or ship, whether from a temple or a house, he shall pay thirty-fold. If he be a plebeian he shall return tenfold. If the thief cannot pay, he shall be put to death” (§ 8). While the Hebrew law is very similar in form to the older enactment, the later lawgivers have in each case reduced the penalty. Apparently they also aimed to punish the thief in proportion to the value of the stolen animal. In case the thief had nothing, slavery was substituted for the death penalty. If the animal stolen was alive and could be returned, the penalty was still further reduced. V. Responsibility for Property. The Hebrew laws were clearly intended to place the responsibility for injury or loss of property where it rightly belonged. In case of doubt as to the guilt of the parties involved, the matter was referred to the priest, who probably decided it on the basis of a personal investigation, or else by the use of the sacred lot. If property held in trust was lost through death or injury or theft, and no witnesses could be produced, the owner was obliged to accept the solemn oath of the trustee. Otherwise the trustee was responsible for the loss. The code of Hammurabi is much more explicit. It enacts: “If a man has hired an ox or an ass, and a lion has killed it in an open field, the loss falls on its owner. If a man has hired an ox and has caused its death by carelessness or blows, he shall restore ox for ox to the owner. If a man has hired an ox and God has struck it and it has died, the man who hired the ox shall make affidavit and go free” (§§ 244, 245, 249). VI. Personal Responsibility to Society. The Hebrew lawgivers regarded social immorality and all forms of apostasy as crimes against society and therefore against the state. The zeal with which they guarded the sacred rights of the community is shown by the fact that the penalty imposed for these crimes was in almost every case death. This punishment was inflicted by the injured community itself. The code of Hammurabi was equally strenuous: adultery was punished by strangling or burning. In contrast with the laxness of public opinion and of modern laws in dealing with this most hideous of crimes, the strenuousness of the ancient lawgivers is profoundly significant. They endeavored at any cost to preserve the purity of the family and community, and to save the innocent and tempted from lives of unspeakable pain and ignominy. In general these Hebrew laws reflect a very simple social and economic organization. They anticipate only the more common and typical cases, and establish precedents for the guidance of the judges in deciding the more difficult and complicated questions which might be referred to them. The influences of existing Semitic customs and institutions are always apparent; but the dominant motives are those of justice, mercy, and humanity. In their present form many of these laws have long since become obsolete; but the divine principles which they illustrate, are eternal, and therefore equally applicable to the changing conditions of every age. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 84: 084. LX. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS STANDARDS IN EARLY ISRAEL ======================================================================== § LX. MORAL AND RELIGIOUS STANDARDS IN EARLY ISRAEL Exodus 22:21-27; Exodus 23:4, Deuteronomy 22:1-4 (Exodus 23:5), Deuteronomy 22:6-7, Exodus 23:1-8, Exodus 20; Exodus 23-25, Exodus 22:28-31, Exodus 23:10-19 1. The duty of kindness (a) toward men. I. Thou shalt not wrong nor oppress a resident alien, for ye were resident aliens in the land of Egypt. II. Ye shall not afflict any widow or fatherless child. III. If thou lend money to any one of my people with thee who is poor, thou shalt not be to him as a creditor. IV. Neither shall ye demand interest of him. V. If thou at all take thy neighbor’s garment for a pledge, thou shalt restore it to him before the sun goeth down; for that is his only covering, it is his garment for his skin. (b) Toward animals. VI. If thou meet thine enemy’s ox or ass going astray, thou shalt surely bring it back to him again. VII. And if he do not live near thee, then thou shalt bring it home to thine house and it shall be with thee until he seek after it; then thou shalt restore it to him again. VIII. Thus shalt thou do with his ass, and with his garment, and with every lost thing which belongeth to him, which he hath lost and thou hast found; thou mayest not withhold thy help. IX. If thou see the ass of him who hateth thee lying prostrate under its burden, thou shalt in no case leave it in its plight, rather thou shalt, together with him, help it out. X. If a bird’s nest chance to be before thee in the way, in any tree or on the ground, with young ones or eggs, and with the mother sitting upon the young or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the mother with the young; thou shalt surely let the mother go (but the young thou mayest take for thyself), that it may be well with thee, and that thou mayest live long. 2. The duty of justice (a) as a witness. I. Thou shalt not spread abroad a false report. II. Do not enter into a conspiracy with a wicked man to be an unrighteous witness. III. Thou shalt not follow the majority in doing what is wrong. IV. Thou shalt not bear testimony in a case so as to pervert justice. V. Thou shalt not show partiality to a poor man in his case. (b) As a judge. VI. Thou shalt not prevent justice being done to thy poor in his cause. VII. Keep aloof from every false matter. VIII. Do not condemn the innocent nor him who hath a just cause. IX. Do not vindicate the wicked. X. Thou shalt take no bribe, for a bribe blindeth the eyes of those who see and perverteth the cause of the righteous. 3. Duties to God: (a) worship. I. Thou shalt not make other gods with me. II. Gods of silver and gods of gold thou shalt not make for thyself. III. An altar of earth thou shalt make to me, and shalt sacrifice on it thy burnt-offerings and thy peace-offerings, thy sheep and thine oxen; in every place where I record my name I will come to thee and will bless thee. IV. But if thou make me an altar of stone, thou shalt not build it of hewn stones; for if thou swing an iron tool over it, thou hast polluted it. V. Thou shalt not ascend by steps to mine altar, that thy nakedness may not be uncovered before it. (b) Loyalty. VI. Thou shalt not revile God, nor shalt thou curse the ruler of thy people. VII. Thou shalt not delay to offer of thy harvest and of the out-flow of thy presses. VIII. The first-born of thy sons shalt thou give to me. IX. Thou shalt give to me the first-born of thine oxen and thy sheep; seven days shall it be with its dam; on the eighth day thou shalt give it me. X. Holy men shall ye be to me; therefore ye shall not eat any flesh that is torn by beasts in the field; ye shall cast it to the dogs. 4. Ceremonial duties: (a) observing the sacred seasons. I. Six years thou shalt sow thy land, and shalt gather in its increase. The seventh year thou shalt let the land rest and lie fallow, that the poor of thy people may eat; and what they leave the wild beasts shall eat. In like manner thou shalt do with thy vineyard and thine oliveyard. II. Six days thou shalt do thy work, but on the seventh thou shalt rest, that thine ox and thine ass may have rest, and that the son of thy female slave and the resident alien may be refreshed. III. The feast of unleavened bread shalt thou keep: seven days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, as I commanded thee. IV. Thou shalt observe the feast of harvest, [the feast of] the firstfruits of thy labors, which thou hast sown in the field. V. Thou shalt observe the feast of ingathering at the end of the year. (b) Method of observing them. VI. Three times in the year all thy males shall appear before Jehovah. VII. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread. VIII. The fat of my feasts shall not remain all night until the morning. IX. The first of the firstfruits of thy ground thou shalt bring into the house of Jehovah thy God. X. Thou shalt not boil a kid in its mother’s milk. I. Obligations to Dependent Classes. These remarkable regulations stand almost alone among the many laws which have come from the early Semitic past, and in striking contrast to the cruelty and brutality of their age. They reveal the spirit of God working in the life of the Hebrew nation. They are the fore-gleams of that unique ethical religion proclaimed by the great prophets of the later period. In the epilogue to his remarkable code, Hammurabi first voices the motives which are here formulated in definite laws. He declares that his object in publishing his code was to succor the injured, to counsel the widow and orphan, to prevent the great from oppressing the weak, and to enable the oppressed, who had a suit to prosecute, to read his inscription and thus be aided in elucidating their case. This same lofty spirit may be recognized in many of Hammurabi’s detailed enactments; but nowhere in earlier or contemporary literature can be found such a noble, humane and philanthropic spirit as breathes through many of these early Hebrew decalogues. As a rule no penalties are imposed, but the appeal is simply to the individual conscience or to the national sense of gratitude to Jehovah for his services to his people and especially for the great deliverance from Egypt. In the early days many sojourners or resident aliens were found in Israel. These were foreigners who had taken up their permanent abode in Canaan, and who had therefore severed their connection with their native tribe or people. Ancient Semitic custom accorded them no legal rights. The Hebrews, however, in the early days welcomed all additions to their number, and treated these resident aliens as wards of the community. That they were often wronged and oppressed is implied by the laws which aim to correct these evils. With the resident aliens were also classed the widows and fatherless children, who had no protector to plead their cause. In the simple days of the united kingdom, loans were probably rarely solicited for commercial purposes, but simply to save a poor man or his family from starvation or slavery. The third command, therefore, appeals to the sympathy and mercy of the creditor, who, according to existing Semitic usage, could legally force the debtor or members of his family into slavery. To demand interest was equally cruel, especially in view of the exorbitant rates of interest which prevailed in the East. In Assyria it was often as high as 25 per cent. per annum, and in Egypt the legal rate was 30, or, in case the loan was in grain, 33 1/3 per cent. In the East to-day, as in the past, a poor man’s outer garment is also his bed. To retain it as a pledge over night was therefore an act of cruelty against which the Hebrew lawgivers sought to guard. II. Kindness toward Animals. Most primitive people are brutal in their treatment of animals. The early Hebrew lawgivers, however, protested strongly against the prevailing tendency, and in so doing laid the foundation for the similar philanthropic movements of to-day. The fuller version of the pentad regarding duties to animals is found in Deuteronomy 22:1-4. Strangely enough, ‘fellow Israelites’ has been substituted for ‘enemy,’ which is found in the older version of Exodus 23:4-5. This older and stronger form of the law has been restored in the text adopted above. In its original form the command requires that each man shall overcome his revengeful impulses and restore or relieve from its distress any animal which he shall chance to find, even though it belong to his sworn foe. III. Justice in the Law Courts. Among the early Semitic peoples there was no distinct class of judges, but judicial duties were performed by the civil and religious heads of the community and state. Even during the days of the united kingdom, Israel’s judicial system remained exceedingly simple. In the villages and smaller towns, cases of dispute were referred to the village elders, or else were laid before the priests at the local sanctuary. More important and difficult cases were carried before some royal official or the king himself. In many cases the contending parties probably decided between themselves the tribunal before which their case should be laid. The court was usually held in the broad place beside the city gate, which was the common gathering place of the people and the public officials. Probably, as in Babylonia, each disputant pleaded his own case and summoned his own witnesses. One of the laws of Hammurabi enacts that, “If a man has not his witnesses at hand the judge shall set him a fixed time not exceeding six months, and if within six months he has not produced his witnesses, the man has lied. He shall bear the penalty of the suit” (§ 13). The decision, therefore, turned largely upon the testimony of the witnesses. With judges drawn directly from the community, public opinion must also have carried great weight. In view of these conditions the purport and object of the brief, practical commands in the decalogue regarding the duties of witnesses can be fully appreciated. To spread abroad a false report was to exert a malign, yet powerful influence. A later law, which was probably in vogue at this time, enacted that the death penalty should be pronounced only on the basis of the united testimony of two witnesses. By collusion, two false witnesses were thus capable of doing a great injustice. To guard against this evil the later law in Deuteronomy 19:16-21 provides that such false witnesses, when detected, should themselves suffer the penalty which they had sought to bring upon an innocent man. The law: “Thou shalt not follow the majority in doing what is wrong,” like most of the laws in these decalogues has a wide and universal application. The impartial justice of the ancient lawgivers is forcibly illustrated by the surprising command: “Thou shalt not show partiality to a poor man in his case.” Their object is evidently to guard against injustice in cases where the sympathy of the witnesses would naturally be with the poorer members of the community. With marvellous brevity and simplicity these five laws define the duties and moral responsibilities of witnesses, and furnish a fitting basis for any and every judicial system. The next five commands define with equal brevity and comprehensiveness the duties of judges. Inasmuch as the judges were drawn from the ruling classes, their sympathies were naturally with the rich. Hence the need of the command not to prevent justice being done to the poor. The judges are also urged not to be influenced by misleading public opinion to join in a conspiracy to thwart justice. Above all they are commanded to have nothing to do with that most treacherous and insinuating foe of justice—the bribe, “which blindeth the eyes of those who see and perverteth the cause of the righteous.” IV. Israel’s Obligations to Jehovah. The foundation of Israel’s religion, as laid down by Moses, was undivided loyalty to Jehovah. After the Hebrews entered Canaan, the temptation to worship local gods became so strong that each succeeding generation of lawgivers found it necessary to repeat the command to worship no other gods beside Jehovah, and to bow down before none of the molten gods which were found at the old Canaanite sanctuaries. The old earthen altars, however, scattered throughout the land of Israel, were regarded as legitimate. Thither the people brought their offerings of sheep and oxen. Some of these were presented to Jehovah as “whole burnt-offerings,” and were therefore entirely consumed by fire. Some were presented as “peace-offerings”; the victims were slain by the offerers themselves, and the flesh was eaten by them and by the members of their families. In the sacrificial meal which they thus shared with their divine king, Jehovah’s part, the fat and the blood, was poured out and burnt upon the altar. The sense of Jehovah’s presence, the renewal of the covenant with their God, the feasting and song made these sacrificial meals at the local shrines memorable and joyous occasions in the life of the early Hebrews. The command not to hew or pollute the rock altar by a blow with an iron tool reflects unconsciously the old belief that the spirit of the deity resided in the sacred rock on which the sacrifice was offered. It is significant that the Hebrew lawgivers combined in the same command the warning not to revile the Divine King or curse a human ruler. The commands that follow, define the offerings which Jehovah’s subjects were to bring to him, even as they brought tribute to their human king. The first-born—which was believed to be the best—of every family and herd and flock belonged to Jehovah. The first-born was thus set aside not merely because he was believed to be the best, but also that Jehovah might never fail to receive his due. In the pentad which defines loyalty to Jehovah, the idea of a holy nation, especially consecrated to Jehovah and therefore under obligations to abstain from eating anything unclean or defiling, is formulated for the first time. It is an idea which was later developed by the priests into the elaborate ceremonial law, and by prophets, like Isaiah, into the noble doctrine of ethical righteousness. Obligations of the Israelites to Jehovah also involved the observation of certain sacred days and feasts. From the first, these sacred seasons occupied a prominent place in Semitic religion. Practically all of these laws had already been included in the ceremonial decalogue which was the basis of the covenant at Sinai (§ XXIV), but in the later version the seventh year of rest is introduced for the first time. This sabbatical year represented an ideal which the Hebrews probably never realized in practice. It is noteworthy, however, that the sabbatical year is here brought into close connection with the institution of the sabbath, and that both are interpreted in their social and humane rather than their ceremonial aspects. The seventh year of rest was established that the poor of the land and even the wild beasts might enjoy abundant food, for then all classes in the community shared in common the natural products of the soil. The sabbath was intended to give the laboring ox and ass and slave, and even the resident alien, their needed rest. V. Israel’s Conception of Jehovah. In the light of these laws and the earliest historical records of the period, it is evident that the popular conception of Jehovah underwent a fundamental transformation during the days of the united kingdom. Instead of conceiving of him as a storm god who dwelt at Mount Sinai, and who, like a warrior, fought in behalf of his people and was pleased with the wholesale slaughter of innocent captives, as well as hostile foes, the Hebrews came to think of Jehovah as a majestic King, who dwelt in the midst of his people and ruled, in accordance with the principles of justice, both the Israelites and the people subject to them. After the Hebrews had conquered Canaan, Jehovah naturally became the supreme baal or lord of the land. This change in popular belief is illustrated by the fact that the divine name, Baal, appears frequently during this period in the names of members of the Hebrew royal family. Thus one of Saul’s sons is called Ishbaal, and the son of Jonathan is called Meribaal. One of David’s sons is also called Baaliada. No attempt appears to have been made to represent Jehovah by an image. In the thought of his followers, the God whom they had enthroned in the royal temple at Jerusalem dwelt in thick darkness, invisible except to the eye of faith. VI. The Victory of the Jehovah Religion over the Canaanite Cults. When the Hebrews conquered the Canaanites, they entered into possession of the native sanctuaries. At these high places the old rites and ceremonies and traditions and, in many cases doubtless, the original priestly families continued to exercise their potent sway. Many of the old institutions and especially the sacred festivals were also bound up with that agricultural civilization of Canaan which the Hebrews adopted when they became masters of the land. In the great conflict which raged through the centuries between the religion of Jehovah and the Canaanite cults, the latter possessed many advantages. In contrast with the attractive, highly developed ceremonial institutions of the Canaanites, the simple worship of the desert must have seemed crude and unattractive. The alluring, seductive cults of Canaan also appealed powerfully to elemental human passions; while the austere religion of Jehovah demanded self-restraint and the entire loyalty of the worshipper. The marvelous and significant fact of this early period of Hebrew history is that the religion of Jehovah survived in the face of all these odds. It was inevitable, however, that the prolonged and close contact with the highly developed religions of Canaan should make a profound impression upon Israel’s faith and forms of worship. Just as the Hebrews, in conquering the Canaanites, assimilated them, together with their arts and civilization, so also the religion of Jehovah to a great extent adopted the rites and institutions already firmly established in Palestine. Although this process was not without its grave dangers, it greatly enriched Israel’s religion, especially in its ceremonial forms. In the victorious conflict with the Canaanite cults, two powerful forces may be distinguished: the one was the influence of the prophets, those valiant champions of Jehovah who jealously guarded the faith imparted by Moses, and held the people loyal to the God of their fathers. The other was the strong tendency toward racial and political unity, which characterized the age. The trend was from the old tribal divisions toward a united monarchy, and from polytheism toward the worship of one national god, and then toward the recognition of but one supreme God in all the universe. “One kingdom, one king, one race, and one God,” was the watchword of the patriots and prophets of Israel. Having once caught the vision of a united Hebrew kingdom, ruling over Israelite and foreigner alike, the later Hebrews, especially in the hours of their greatest distress, never ceased to dream of a greater Messianic kingdom and one Divine King, ruling not only over his people, but over all the races of mankind. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 85: 085. APPENDIX I: A PRACTICAL BIBLICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY ======================================================================== APPENDIX I A PRACTICAL BIBLICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY Books for Constant Reference. The biblical sources for the days of the united kingdom are so complete and the extra-biblical contemporary records are so few that the need for books of reference is not as great as in other periods of Israel’s history. The first volume of the Student’s Old Testament, entitled, The Beginnings of Hebrew History, gives a detailed introduction to the books of Joshua and Judges, and the reasons which have led to the separation of the older from the later narratives. The second volume, entitled, Israel’s Historical and Biographical Narratives, furnishes the corresponding data regarding the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon, and an introduction to the books of Samuel and Kings. Variant versions of the important events of this period are printed in parallel columns, and interpretative and textual notes are found at the foot of each page. At many different points the valuable articles in Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible throw clear light upon the events and characters of this period of Israel’s history. In addition, the student should have at hand a standard history of the Hebrew people, such as Smith’s Old Testament History, or else a more compact and popular history, such as Wade, Old Testament History, or Kent, A History of the Hebrew People: United Kingdom. George Adam Smith’s Historical Geography of the Holy Land is also especially useful for the study of this age, in which a clear knowledge of the geographical background is essential for the understanding of its stirring events. Additional Books of Reference: Introductions. In addition to the books for constant reference, the teacher and student should be able to refer readily to certain of the most important books in English which throw light upon the background of the period. The Old Testament introductions by Professors McFadyen and Cornill are clear and useful for the general reader. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, is more technical and detailed. The articles on Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings in the Bible dictionaries are concise and illuminating. Contemporary History and Religion. Breasted, History of the Ancient Egyptians, and Goodspeed, History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, give clear pictures of events in the contemporary life of the two great nations of the ancient Semitic world. Maspero’s Struggle of the Nations furnishes much valuable data regarding the broad historical background of Israel’s history. Regarding the heritage of religious institutions which the Hebrews received from their Semitic ancestors, Smith’s Religion of the Semites remains a great mine of information. Briefer and more popular are the little handbooks by Marti on the Religion of the Old Testament, and Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile. The latest and in many ways the most satisfactory treatment of the subject is found in the article by Kautzsch on The Religion of Israel in the extra volume of Hastings’ Dictionary of the Bible. Hebrew History. In addition to the volumes on Hebrew History already mentioned, many students will find the brief, popular histories of Cornill and Ottley useful in gaining a clear view of Israel’s history as a whole. Kittel’s History of the Hebrews, in two volumes, contains a detailed discussion of the sources from a moderately progressive point of view, and presents an attractive reconstruction of the history. Volumes I and II of McCurdy’s History, Prophecy and the Monuments, deal especially with the political and social life of the Hebrews during the periods of settlement and empire building. Commentaries. There is no good commentary in English on the book of Joshua. The admirable commentaries on Judges by Professor Moore and on the books of Samuel by Professor Smith in the International Critical Commentary leave little to be desired. Kirkpatrick’s more popular commentary on Samuel in the Cambridge Bible is also useful. Critical students will find Driver’s Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel and Burney’s Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Kings both thorough and suggestive. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 86: 086. APPENDIX II: GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH ======================================================================== II GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH The GENERAL QUESTIONS, as in Volume I, follow the main divisions of the book and are intended to guide the student in collecting and coordinating the more important facts contained in the biblical text of each section or in the accompanying notes. The SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH are intended to point the way to further study in related lines, and, by means of detailed references, to introduce the reader to the most helpful passages in the best books of reference. In classroom work many of these topics may be profitably assigned for personal research and report. The references are to pages, unless otherwise indicated. Ordinarily, several parallel references are given that the student may be able to utilize the book at hand. More detailed classified bibliographies will be found in the appendices of volumes I and II of the Student’s Old Testament. § XXXI. The Crossing of the Jordan. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the contents of (1) the book of Joshua and (2) Judges 2. The Canaanite civilization of Palestine. 3. Effects of Egyptian rule. 4. Historical significance of the visit of the spies to Jericho. 5. The oldest account of the crossing of the Jordan. 6. Later parallels. 8. What did the crossing of the Jordan mean to the Hebrews ? SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The lower Jordan valley. Hastings, D. B., II, 759–60, 764–5; Encyc. Bib., II, 2578–80; Smith, H. G. H. L., 482–96. Libbey and Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, II, 137–56. 2. The Northern Israelite and late priestly accounts of the crossing of the Jordan. St. O. T., I, 258–62. 3. Political conditions in Canaan according to the el-Amarna letters. Winckler, Tell-el-Amarna Letters; Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 72–6. 4. The religion of the Canaanites. Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 78–96; Wade, O. T. Hist. 84–90. § XXXII. Capture of Jericho and Ai. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the situation of Jericho. 2. The Canaanite city revealed by recent excavations. 3. Compare the two accounts of the capture of Jericho. 4. Why did the Hebrews slay its inhabitants? 5. Describe the crime and punishment of Achan. 6. The strategy by which Ai was captured. 7. The basis and terms of the treaty with the Gibeonites. 8. Formulate the testimony of the oldest records regarding the character and work of Joshua. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. History of the city of Jericho. Hastings, D. B., II, 579–82; Encyc. Bib., II, 2396–2403; Smith, H. G. H. L., 266–8. 2. Ancient Semitic methods of warfare. Hastings, D. B., IV, 893–5; Encyc. Bib., IV, 5264–9. 3. The Semitic custom of devoting captured cities and peoples to the gods. Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 453. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 619–20. 4. Joshua’s rôle in the later Hebrew traditions. Hastings, D. B., II, 786; Kittel, Hist. of the Hebs., Vol. I, 293–7; Smith, O. T. Hist., 82–3. 5. The two traditional versions of Joshua’s farewell address. St. O. T., I, 297–300. § XXXIII. Conditions and Conquests in Canaan. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the process by which the Hebrews became masters of Canaan. 2. The friendly Arab tribes in the south (cf. map, op. p. 19). 3. The decisive battles in the south, and the cities captured by the Hebrews 4. The zone of Canaanite cities which separated the Hebrew tribes in the south from those in the north. 5. The important cities in central and northern Palestine retained by the Canaanites. 6. Ehud’s act of deliverance, and its significance. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The hill country of Judah. Encyc. Bib., II, 2622; Smith, H. G. H. L., 305–20. 2. The central plateau of Palestine. Hastings, D. B., IV, 375; Smith, H. G. H. L., 247–56, 323–64. 3. Excavations at the ruins of the Canaanite cities on the plain of Esdraelon. Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 75–8; Sellin, Tell Ta’annek, and Der Ertrag der Ausgrabungen im Orient. § XXXIV. The Establishment of the Danite Tribe and Sanctuary. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Give the history of Micah’s sanctuary. 2. Describe the expedition of the Danite spies. 3. The situation of Laish (later Dan). 4. The plunder of Micah’s sanctuary. 5. Later history of the Danite sanctuary. 6. The popular ideas of right and wrong in the days of the settlement. 7. The religious symbols and customs. 8. The prevailing ideas of Jehovah. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The upper Jordan valley. Hastings, D. B., II, 757–8; Encyc. Bib., II, 2577–8; Smith, H. G. H. L., 471–81; Libbey and Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, I, 86–104. 2. The moral standards revealed by the story of the Gibeathites, St. O. T., I, 303–10. 3. The story of Ruth: date, contents, light which it sheds on this period, and its literary, historical, archaeological and religious value. St. O. T., I, 310–5; Hastings, D. B., IV, 316; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4166–72; Driver, Introd. to the Lit. of the O. T., 453–6; Mc-Fadyen, Introd. to the O. T., 290–3. § XXXV. Experiences of the Different Tribes. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the literary form and real character of the “Blessings of Jacob.” 2. The early history of the Reubenites. 3. Of the tribes of Simeon and Levi. 4. Probable reasons why the Levites became the custodians of the sanctuaries. 5. Meaning of the oracles regarding Judah and Benjamin. 6. The characteristics and early experiences of the northern tribes. 7. The tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh. 8. Light which these ancient songs throw upon the life of the Hebrews during the period of settlement. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Ancient Hebrew poetry. Hastings, D. B., IV, 10–12; Encyc. Bib., III, 3795–99. 2. A comparison of the Jacob oracles with the variant version attributed to Moses (Deuteronomy 33). 3. The tradition in Genesis 34. St. O. T., I, 120–3. 4. A map showing the final homes of each of the Hebrew tribes. Cf. map, op. p. 19. Kent and Madsen, Hist. and Topog. Maps for Bible Students, II. 5. Picture the conditions in Canaan during the period of settlement. § XXXVI. The Great Victory Over the Canaanites. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the two different accounts of the victory. 2. The literary character of the poetic version. 3. Conditions in Canaan before the battle. 4. Deborah’s work as a prophetess. 5. The motives which influenced the Hebrew tribes to rise against the Canaanites. 6. Tribes which failed to respond. 7. The battle beside the Kishon. 8. The death of Sisera at the hand of Jail. 9. The political, social and religious significance of the victory. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The plain of Esdraelon. Hastings, D. B., I, 757–8; Encyc. Bib., II, 1391; Smith, H. G. H. L., 379–409. 2. The position of women among the early Hebrews. Hastings, D. B., IV, 933–4; Encyc. Bib., II, 1499–1501, III, 2946–48. 3. The assimilation of the old Canaanite population, civilization and religious customs. Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 95–111; Smith, O. T. Hist., 172; Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 634–48. § XXXVII. Gideon’s Victory and Kingdom. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the points of difference and agreement in the two accounts of Gideon’s victory and kingdom. 2. Conditions in central Canaan. 3. The tradition of Gideon’s call and its meaning. 4. The successful attack upon the Midianite robbers. 5. The founding of Gideon’s kingdom. 6. The conspiracy and reign of Abimelech. 7. The significance of Gideon’s kingdom. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The character of the Midianites. Hastings, D. B., III, 365–6; Encyc. Bib., III, 3079–81. 2. The primitive ideas of sacrifice reflected in the account of Gideon’s call. Hastings, D. B., IV, 329–30; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4217–9; Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 218–24; 252–65. 3. The Semitic law of blood revenge. Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 72, 420; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 201–6; Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 623. 4. Northern Israelite version of Gideon’s victory. St. O. T., I, 324–30; Moore, Judges, 173–7. 5. The city of Shechem. Hastings, D. B., IV, 484–6; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4437–39; Smith, H. G. H. L., 332–4, 345–6. 6. Jotham’s fable. St. O. T., I, 331–2; Moore, Judges, 244–52. § XXXVIII. Jephthah’s Victory Over the Ammonites. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the situation and problems of the east-Jordan tribes. 2. Jephthah’s early history. 3. The peril of the Gileadites. 4. Jephthah’s vow. 5. The rivalry between the Hebrew tribes on the east and the west of the Jordan. 6. The characters and achievements of the deliverers who figure in the period of settlement. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The physical characteristics of the territory of Gilead. Hastings, D. B., II, 174–5; Encyc. Bib., II, 1725–8; Smith, H. G. H. L., 548, 575–90. 2. The early history of the Ammonites. Hastings, D. B., I, 82–3; Encyc. Bib., I, 142–4. 3. The vow in early Hebrew religion. Hastings, D. B., I, 479, IV, 872–3; Encyc. Bib., IV, 5252–4; Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, 156–69. 4. The analogies between the age of settlement and the colonial period in American history. § XXXIX. Samson’s Birth and Marriage. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the literary characteristics of the Samson stories. 2. Samson’s history. 3. The Nazirite vow. 4. Samson’s strength and weakness. 5. The relations between the Hebrews and the Philistines. 6. The popular beliefs and standards of the age. 7. In what respects did the period of settlement represent progress? SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Meaning of the Nazirite vow. Hastings, D. B., III, 497–500; Encyc. Bib., III, 3362–3; Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 332, 482. 2. Popular poetry and riddles in antiquity. Hastings, D. B., IV, 270–1; extra vol., 160; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4101. 3. A psychological study of the revengeful spirit. Cf. standard psychologies, especially chapters on Fear and Anger. 4. The chronology of the period of settlement. Wade, O. T. Hist., 195–6; Hastings, D. B., I, 399; Encyc. Bib., I, 773–8. 5. The religious life of the Hebrews during the period of settlement. Smith, O. T. Hist., 104–5; Wade, O. T. Hist., 278–80; Kittel, Hist. of the Hebs., II, 93–102; Kent, Hist of the Heb. People, U. K, 92–8. THE FOUNDING OF THE HEBREW KINGDOM § XL. The Philistine Victories and the Fortunes of the Ark. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the general divisions of the books of Samuel. 2. The older and later traditions regarding the founding of the kingdom. 3. The origin, characteristics and early history of the Philistines. 4. Reasons why the Hebrews were defeated. 5. History and significance of the ark. 6. Experiences of the Philistines in connection with the ark. 7. Light which the story throws upon conditions in Palestine. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH. 1. The sources of the books of Samuel. St. O. T., II, 10–4; McFadyen, Introd. to the O. T., 84–90; Smith, Samuel, xii-xxvi. 2. Traditions regarding the birth and childhood of Samuel. St. O. T., II, 12–13, 51–56. 3. The land of the Philistines. Hastings, D. B., III, 844; Encyc. Bib., III, 3714; Smith, H. G. H. L., 169–97. 4. The references to the Philistines in the Egyptian monuments. Breasted, Hist. of Egypt, 477, 512; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 697–702; Encyc. Bib., III, 3714–8. 5. Arks among other peoples. St. O. T., IV, 149; Encyc. Bib., I, 306–8; Jastrow, Relig. of Babs. and Assyrs., 653–5. § XLI. Saul’s Call and Election to the Kingship. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the crisis in Israel’s history which called forth a king. 2. The origin and character of the sons of the prophets. 3. Real character and work of Samuel. 4. Saul’s qualifications for the kingship. 5. Saul’s meeting with Samuel. 6. The victory over the Ammonites. 7. Saul’s election as king, and its significance. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The sons of the prophets in Hebrew history. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 656; Smith, O. T. Hist., 109–10; Kent, Hist. of the Heb. People, U. K., 114–5; Kittel, Hist. of the Hebs., II, 109–11. 2. The later prophetic tradition of Samuel’s attitude toward the kingship. St. O. T., II, 65–70. 3. The meaning of anointing. Hastings, D. B., I, 100–1; Encyc. Bib., I, 172–5. 4. The Hebrew ideal of the kingship. Hastings, D. B., II, 840–3; St. O. T., IV, 80. 5. An estimate of the importance of Samuel’s work. Smith, O. T. Hist, 108, 110–11; Wade, O. T. Hist., 233–4; Hastings, D. B., IV, 381–2; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4272–3. § XLII. The Great Victory Over the Philistines. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the situation in Israel immediately after Saul’s selection as king. 2. Jonathan’s bold attack on the Philistine stronghold. 3. Extent and significance of the Hebrew victory. 4. Nature and consequences of Saul’s vow. 5. Saul’s foreign wars. 6. The organization of his kingdom. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The pass of Michmash. Hastings, D. B., III, 363–4; Encyc. Bib., III, 3077–8; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 710–2. 2. The priestly oracle. Hastings, D. B., I, 725–6, IV, 838–41; Encyc. Bib., II, 1307, IV, 5235–7. 3. A sketch of the character of Jonathan. Hastings, D. B., II, 753–4. 4. The different traditions of Saul’s rejection by Samuel. St. O. T., II, 76–9; Wade, O. T. Hist, 220–2. THE DECLINE OF SAUL AND THE RISE OF DAVID § XLIII. David’s Introduction to Public Life. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Saul’s malady. 2. The oldest account of David’s introduction to Saul’s camp and court. 3. David’s personality and reputation. 4. The two accounts of David’s slaying Goliath. 5. The causes of Saul’s jealousy of David. 6. Saul’s attempts to kill David. 7. The initial stages in David’s training. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Shepherd-life in Palestine. Smith, H. G. H. L., 310–2; Knight, Song of the Syrian Guest; Browning, Saul. 2. The late prophetic tradition of the anointing of David by Samuel. St. O. T., II, 80–2. 3. The valley of Elah. Hastings, D. B., I, 674; Smith, H. G. H. L., 226–8. 4. The late tradition of David’s slaying Goliath. St. O. T., II, 82–5. 5. Compare David’s victory over Goliath with similar deeds of the knights of the middle ages, cf. e.g., the battle of Hastings, 1066. § XLIV. David as a Fugitive. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Jonathan’s services to David. 2. The basis and character of their friendship. 3. The covenant between them. 4. The hospitality of the priests of Nob, and David’s deception. 5. David’s provision for his parents. 6. His followers in his outlaw life. 7. Saul’s slaughter of the priests of Nob. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Covenants between individuals in the Semitic world. Hastings, D. B., I, 510; Trumbull, The Blood Covenant; Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 269–72, 312–7. 2. The use of showbread in Semitic religions. Hastings, D. B., IV, 495–7; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4211–2; Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 225–6. 3. The position and duties of the priest in early Hebrew life. Hastings, D. B., IV, 67–72; Encyc. Bib., III, 3839–41; St. O. T., IV, 172–4. § XLV. David’s Life as an Outlaw. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the means by which David ascertained the divine will. 2. The dangers of his outlaw life. 3. His magnanimity in sparing the life of Saul. 4. The effect upon Saul. 5. David’s services to Nabal. 6. The wisdom of Abigail’s action and counsel. 7. The significance of David’s marriage with Abigail. 8. David’s ambition, as revealed by his marriages. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The scene of David’s outlaw life. Smith, H. G. H. L., 278–86, 312–6; Encyc. Bib., II, 2618, 2622. 2. Relations between the Arabs and peasants on the borders of southern Palestine. Thomson, The Land and the Book; Conder, Tent. Life in Palestine. 3. Articles of diet among the Hebrews. Hastings, D. B., II, 27–43; Encyc. Bib., II, 1538–48. § XLVI. David Among the Philistines. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe David’s reasons for going over to the Philistines. 2. His reception by the king of Gath. 3. His manner of life at Ziklag. 4. His dilemma when the Philistines set out to invade Israel. 5. The pursuit of the Amalekites. 6. The division of the spoil. 7. Significance of the presents to the southern tribes and cities. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Probable site of Gath. Hastings, D. B., II, 113–4; Encyc. Bib., II, 1646–7; Smith, H. G. H. L., 194–7. 2. The Hebrew laws regarding the distribution of the spoils of war. St. O. T., IV, 83–6, 237. 3. A map showing the tribes and important cities of southern Palestine during this period, cf. maps, op. pp. 19, 121. § XLVII. Saul’s Defeat and Death. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the tragedy of the closing years of Saul’s reign. 2. Saul’s visit to the medium of Endor. 3. Details of the battle on Mount Gilboa. 4. Saul’s burial. 5. David’s song of lamentation over Saul and Jonathan: its literary style, contents and significance. 6. Saul’s character. 7. What did Saul do for Israel? SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The later Hebrew laws regarding mediums, sorcerers and augurs. St. O. T., IV, 102, 103; Driver, Deuteronomy, 223–6. 2. Situation of Endor. Hastings, D. B., I, 702; Encyc. Bib., II, 1291. 3. Mount Gilboa. Hastings, D. B., II, 174; Encyc. Bib., 1722–4. 4. The character and work of Saul. Hastings, D. B., IV, 415; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4313–4; Wade, O. T. Hist., 236–8; Kent, Hist. of the Heb. People, U. K., 133–5; Fleming, Israel’s Golden Age, 75–7. THE POLITICAL EVENTS OF DAVID’S REIGN § XLVIII. The Two Hebrew Kingdoms Under David and Ishbaal. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe David’s election as king by the southern tribes. 2. The remnant of Saul’s kingdom. 3. Reasons and nature of the hostilities between the two Hebrew kingdoms. 4. Abner’s character and record. 5. His death. 6. Events which led to the choice of David as king of all Israel. 7. Significance of the act. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The chronology of the period of the united Hebrew kingdom. Hastings, D. B., I, 399, 401; Encyc. Bib., I, 788–9. 2. Conditions in the Tigris-Euphrates valley during this period. Goodspeed, Hist. of the Babs. and Assyrs., 155–84; Winckler, Hist. of Bab. and Assyr., 93–9, 198–208; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 642–65. 3. In Egypt. Breasted, Hist. of the Anc. Egyptians, 357–61; Hist. of Egypt, 522–6. 4. Reasons why Palestine enjoyed immunity from foreign attack. § XLIX. The Liberation and Consolidation of all Israel. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the war of liberation. 2. Subsequent relations between the Hebrews and Philistines. 3. Early history of Jerusalem. 4. Its capture by David. 5. Strategic importance as the capital of united Israel. 6. History and significance of the transfer of the ark to Jerusalem. 7. Compare David’s court and policy with that of Saul. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The topography of Jerusalem. Hastings, D. B., II, 584–6, 591–3; Encyc. Bib., II, 2410–9. 2. Recent excavations at Jerusalem. Hilprecht, Exploration in Bible Lands, 596–606; Encyc. Bib., II, 2409–10; Warren, Underground Jerusalem; Bliss and Dickie, Excavations at Jerusalem; Baedeker, Palestine. 3. Later predictions regarding the house of David. St. O. T., II, 124–30. § L. The Internal Events of David’s Reign. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the ancient belief regarding the meaning of calamity. 2. The popular explanation of the cause of the famine in the days of David. 3. The sacrifice of the sons of Saul. 4. David’s treatment of Meribaal. 5. Purpose and result of the national census. 6. The popular interpretation of the census and of the way in which its evil consequences were averted. 7. The prevailing ideas regarding God in the days of David. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Heathen, churchly and modern doctrines of vicarious atonement. Hastings, D. B., I, 197–9: Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 421–30; cf. modern theologies, especially Clarke, Outlines of Christian Theology, and Campbell, The New Theology. 2. The temple site. Hastings, D. B., IV, 696; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4927–8. 3. Evidence that the Hebrews still thought of Jevovah as simply ruling over the land of Canaan. Judges 11:21-24, 1 Samuel 26:19; St. O. T., I, 337. § LI. David’s Foreign Wars and Conquests. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the achievements of David’s most famous warriors. 2. The organization of David’s army. 3. Cause of the Ammonite war. 4. The first and second campaigns. 5. The victories over the Arameans and Ammonites. 6. The conquest of Moab and Edom. 7. Indicate by a map the extent of David’s empire. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Hebrew military organization. St. O. T., IV, 80–6; Hastings, D. B., IV, 892–5; Encyc. Bib., IV, 5264–9. 2. The Ammonite capital. Hastings, D. B., IV, 189–90; Encyc. Bib., IV, 3998–9. 3. The Arameans in northern Syria. Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, 668–70; Encyc. Bib., I, 278–80. § LII. David’s Crimes and their Punishment. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the character of the early records of David’s family history. 2. David’s wives and children. 3. The Hebrew law regarding adultery. 4. David’s double crime. 5. Nathan’s fable, and its application. 6. Nature of David’s repentance. 7. The effect of David’s crimes upon his character. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. General character, aims and variations of the parallel history in Chronicles. St. O. T., II, 7, 22–8; Hastings, D. B., I, 389–97; Encyc. Bib., I, 763–72. 2. The oriental harem. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt, 74–7; Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 185–98. 3. Parables in Semitic literature. Hastings, D. B., III, 660–2; Encyc. Bib., III, 3563–7. § LIII. The Crimes of David’s Sons. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the character of Amnon. 2. Absalom’s motives in slay ing his brother. 3. David’s attitude toward his sons. 4. The story of the wise woman of Tekoa. 5. Absalom’s appearance. 6. His full restoration to favor. 7. Effect of David’s crimes upon his family and court. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The land of Geshur. Hastings, D. B., II, 162; Encyc. Bib., II, 1710–2. 2. The wise in Israel’s history. Encyc. Bib., IV, 5325-6; Kant, Wise Men of Ancient Israel and their Proverbs, 17–25. 3. The character of Joab. Hastings, D. B., II, 658–9; Encyc. Bib., II, 2460–2. § LIV. Absalom’s Rebellion. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Absalom’s method of winning popular favor. 2. The launching of his conspiracy. 3. David’s supporters. 4. The curses of Shimei. 5. The counsel of Ahithophel and Hushai. 6. Rally of David’s followers east of the Jordan. 7. The battle and the death of Absalom. 8. David’s sorrow. 9. His return to Jerusalem. 10. The rebellion in the north; its significance. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The history of the Benjamites. Hastings, D. B., I, 272–3; Encyc. Bib., I, 534–40. 2. The oaks of Palestine. Hastings, D. B., III, 575, IV, 719; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4975–6. 3. The character of Absalom. Hastings, D. B., I, 18–20; Encyc. Bib., I, 29–31. § LV. Solomon’s Election as King. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Adonijah’s plot to secure the kingship. 2. The action of Nathan and Bathsheba. 3. The public proclamation of Solomon’s succession. 4. Concessions to the conspirators. 5. David’s weakness and strength. 6. The significance of David’s services to his race. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The law of primogeniture in Semitic life. St. O. T., IV, 72; Encyc. Bib., III, 2728–9; Hastings, D. B., II, 341–2. 2. The tradition regarding David’s dying commands. St. O. T., II, 167–71; Hastings, D. B., I, 571. 3. The character of David. Hastings, D. B., I, 571–3; Encyc. Bib., I, 1033–4; Wade, O. T. Hist., 273–6; Smith, Mod. Crit. and the Preaching of the O. T., 155–7. 4. David’s relation to the Psalter. Hastings, D. B., I, 571. Encyc. Bib., III, 3930–4; McFadyen, Introd. to the O. T., 244–8. § LVI. Solomon’s Policy and Fame. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the steps by which Solomon established his absolute au thority. 2. Solomon’s officials. 3. His ambitions and his measures to realize them. 4. The nature of Solomon’s Wisdom 5. The wisdom of the East. 6. Solomon’s reputation as the author of later wisdom books. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The relation between subjects and rulers in the ancient oriental empires. Hastings, D. B., II, 250–3; Encyc. Bib., II, 1907–10; McCurdy, Hist. Proph. and the Monuments, I, Ch. III. 2. Conditions in Egypt during this period. Breasted, Hist. of Anc. Egyptians, 358–61; Hist. of Egypt, 522–8. 3. The authorship of the book of Proverbs. Hastings, D. B., IV, 140–1; Encyc. Bib., III, 3911–2; Kent, The Wise Men of Ancient Israel and their Proverbs, 58–62. § LVII. Solomon’s Temple. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the origin and purpose of Solomon’s temple. 2. Its site. 3. Preparations for its building. 4. Its general plan and dimensions. 5. Its decorations. 6. Objects within the temple. 7. Character and purpose of the side-chambers. 8. The great altar and the vessels used in the sacrifice. 9. The dedication of the temple. 10. Later significance of the temple. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Egyptian temples. Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt., 279–88; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 300–8; Breasted Hist. of Egypt, 341–4. 2. Babylonian temples. Peters, Nippur; Maspero, Dawn of Civil., 674–5; Hilprecht, Explorats. in Bible Lande, 467–79. 3. Sources from which the different elements in the temple plan were derived. Encyc. Bib., IV, 4923–40. 4. The later prophetic traditions regarding the dedication of the temple. St. O. T., II, 188–92. § LVIII. The Splendor and Weakness of Solomon’s Reign. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Solomon’s public buildings and the purpose of each. 2. The fortresses outside Jerusalem. 3. Solomon’s foreign commerce. 4. The effect of his foreign marriages. 5. The different rebellions in his empire. 6. The weakness and fatal consequences of Solomon’s policy. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Phoenician merchant ships. Hastings, D. B., IV, 823–4; Wade, O. T. History, 298–300; Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, 193–200. 2. Hiram king of Tyre. Hastings, D. B., II, 389; Encyc. Bib., II, 2073–4; IV, 4682–3; Maspero, Struggle of the Nations, 741–3. 3. An estimate of Solomon’s character. Hastings, D. B., IV, 563–9; Encyc. Bib., IV, 4686–9; Wade, O. T. Hist., 309–11; Fleming, Israel’s Golden Age, 142–3. § LIX. Law and Society in Early Israel. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. When were the principal decalogues in Exodus 21-23 committed to writing? 2. From which period do they come? 3. Describe the position of slaves in ancient Israel. 4. The laws protecting them. 5. The Babylonian and Hebrew methods of punishing murder and kindred crimes. 6. Responsibility for property under the early Babylonian and Hebrew codes. 7. Punishment of crimes against society. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Slavery among the Babylonians. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 589–90; Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters, 168–83; Sayce, Babs. and Assyrs., 67–84. 2. The later Hebrew criminal laws. St. O. T., IV, 109–18. 3. Hammurabi’s laws regarding property. Johns, Bab. aud Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters, 64–7, 250–70. § LX. Moral and Religious Standards in Early Israel. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe Hammurabi’s attitude toward the dependent classes. 2. Reasons why the Hebrews were especially considerate in their treatment of resident aliens. 3. Content and purpose of the Hebrew laws regarding interest. 4. The laws enjoining kindness to animals. 5. The Hebrew judicial system. 6. The early laws regarding altars and sacrifice. 7. The sacred festivals. 8. Progress in the popular conception of Jehovah. 9. Causes and nature of the victory of the religion of Jehovah over the local cults of Canaan. SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Later Hebrew laws regarding dependent classes. St. O. T., IV, 124–32. 2. The Babylonian and Hebrew judicial system. Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters, 80–99; Sayce, Babs. and Assyrs., 198–207; St. O. T., IV, 86–90. 3. The development of Israel’s religion during the period of the united monarchy. Wade, O. T. Hist., 277–293; Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 72–123; Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 645–8. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 87: 086. VOLUME 3: THE KINGS AND PROPHETS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH: FROM THE DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM TO TH... ======================================================================== The Historical Bible THE KINGS AND PROPHETS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH FROM THE DIVISION OF THE KINGDOM TO THE BABYLONIAN EXILE BY CHARLES FOSTER KENT,PH.D. WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY WITH MAPS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS COPYRIGHT 1909 ======================================================================== CHAPTER 88: 087. PREFACE ======================================================================== PREFACE The three centuries and a half, which began with the division of the Hebrew empire and extended to the Babylonian exile, were in many ways the most important period in Israel’s history. It was during this epoch that the Israelites ceased to be a provincial people, limited in their outlook to the narrow horizon of Palestine. Events over which they had little control brought them into close contact with the great world powers of the day, thereby vastly broadening their faith, as well as their vision of history and of their relation to the human race. It was a period marked by supreme political, social and religious crises, which fundamentally transformed Israel’s religion and institutions. These crises called forth the great ethical prophets of the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.; and their work and teachings made Israel’s experience during these trying years one of the most significant chapters in human history. These prophets were the conscience of their nation, its guides in the hour of peril, and the heralds of those great ethical and social principles which are the eternal foundations of law and society. The social evils with which they dealt were in many ways startlingly similar to those which still survive in our modern Christian civilization. Interpreted into the language of the twentieth century, their messages anticipate the conclusions and teachings of our keenest and most progressive social teachers. In pointing out popular errors in the existing social system, and in placing the responsibility for the prevailing evils squarely on the shoulders of the rich and powerful, who were using their authority and influence, not in behalf of the common welfare, but rather for their own personal advantage or for that of their class, they spoke to the present as well as to their own age. In their character and life-work, as well as in their words, they embodied the noblest ideals of intelligent, unselfish and effective patriotism. They were men who not only saw the truth but were equally able and effective in proclaiming it by word and deed. When once their aims and real character are understood, these peerless patriots of ancient Israel will inspire anew the live men and women of today, to devote themselves patiently, unselfishly, and persistently to eliminating the civic and social evils which disgrace our modern civilization, and to realizing in city and state the eternal ideals of justice and common service. The Hebrew prophets did not work for a new social order, but they did demand that each individual and each class should contribute their part to the common good. They also closely blended religion and ethics, and declared that a faith which did not find expression in justice and mercy was mere hypocrisy. Thus they both ethicized and socialized religion, adjusting it squarely to the universal needs of society and the individual. In the experience of the prophets and of their nation during these trying years, it is also possible to trace more clearly than in any other period of human history the process by which the Divine Father revealed and still reveals his character and will to men. That revelation was neither abstract nor mechanical, but rather a gradual opening of the mental and spiritual vision of certain men who were ready to learn and to act. They correspond in the realm of morals and religion to the world’s great scientists and inventors. The Hebrew prophets were men who, like the shepherd Amos, had been taught by occupation and experience to be ever on the watch, to interpret each significant sign, to see facts as they were; and then, when conviction deepened into certainty, to act courageously yet tactfully, and with a supreme unconcern for their personal interests. To such men God revealed his laws and purposes, sometimes through the great crises which overtook their nation, sometimes through the personal experience of the men who were thus called to be prophets—the spokesmen and interpreters of Jehovah to his race. The wealth of historical and contemporary biblical literature has made the process of selection difficult; and yet the aim has been to leave out no really vital and significant passages. The larger literature and the reasons for the selections which have been made will be found in the corresponding volumes of the author’s Student’s Old Testament. There the student may also trace the textual basis for the renderings which have been adopted. In endeavoring to reproduce in an alien language the powerful literary figures and immortal messages of the Hebrew prophets, every translator must be deeply impressed by the inadequacy of his results. Often later scribes also failed to catch the meaning of the original or to transcribe it accurately, so that any translation based simply on the present Hebrew text does not in many cases convey the thought of the ancient writers. In these cases, the evidence of the context and the testimony of the early translations, such as the Greek, Syriac and the Latin, are of the greatest value. Later Hebrew scribes have also paid their tribute to the importance of the original writings of the prophets by amplifying them at many points. This is especially true, for example, in the book of Jeremiah, where the total Hebrew text is one-eighth longer than that of the older version represented by the Greek translation. In such cases, the shorter Greek version, which contains all the essential facts without the obscuring repetitions found in the Hebrew, has in general been followed, with a corresponding gain not only in clearness and literary beauty but also in economy of space and fidelity to the original. The endeavor has been made to correct a fundamental defect in the current translations by indicating the poetic character of the prophetic addresses. With the exception of the priest-prophet Ezekiel, the pre-exilic prophets apparently always spoke in the language of poetry. The poetic form added vastly not only to the beauty and effectiveness, but also to the clear understanding of their addresses; for, in keeping with the fundamental characteristics of Hebrew poetry, the second line of each couplet repeats the same thought in similar or opposite terms, or else develops still further the idea presented in the first line. Hence, if the meaning of one line is obscure, it is illustrated or interpreted by that of the corresponding member of the couplet. In addition to this parallelism or rhythm of ideas, Hebrew, like English poetry, is characterized by symmetry in the number of beats or accented syllables in each succeeding line. The three-beat measure is the one most commonly used. Sometimes, to express great excitement, as when the approach of an enemy is announced, the quick two-beat measure is employed. In appealing to the reason, or in more deliberative passages, the calmer, more formal four-beat measure is used. To express deep emotion, whether that of sorrow, as of the mourners lamenting over the bier of the dead, or great joy and elation, the five-beat measure is introduced. This consists ordinarily of a sentence of three beats followed by a clause of two beats, suggesting the catching of the breath or an exclamation under the influence of overwhelming feeling. That the reader may distinguish at a glance these different metres, lines of the five-beat measure have been printed so as to begin at the extreme left of the page, those of the four-beat measure have been indented the equivalent of two or three letters, the three-beat a space equivalent to four or five letters, and the two-beat to seven or eight letters. In the present volume the biblical passages are taken from so many different books that references have been introduced in connection with the side-headings, to aid the student in readily identifying these quotations. As in the preceding volumes, detailed verses can be distinguished by referring to the Student’s Old Testament to which references are given under each chapter heading in the Table of Contents. The attention of the teachers is also called to the general questions and to the subjects for special research in the Appendix, where suggestions and directions are given for additional and more technical study. It is impossible to indicate in detail my indebtedness to the scores of Old Testament scholars, whose work has revealed the true character and messages of the Hebrew prophets. The names of the more important English and American contributors are found in connection with the list of books for reference in the Appendix. I owe a more personal debt to Professor Irving F. Wood, of Smith College, and Professor J. F. Genung, of Amherst College, who have generously read the proof of the present volume and offered many practical suggestions. C. F. K. YALE UNIVERSITY, April, 1909. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 89: 088. THE HISTORY OF NORTHERN ISRAEL ======================================================================== THE HISTORY OF NORTHERN ISRAEL ======================================================================== CHAPTER 90: 089. LXI. THE DIVISION OF THE HEBREW EMPIRE ======================================================================== § LXI. THE DIVISION OF THE HEBREW EMPIRE 1. Jero boam’s return (1 Kings 12:2). Now as soon as Jeroboam the son of Nebat heard [that Solomon was dead]—for he was still in Egypt, whither he had fled from the presence of King Solomon, and he dwelt in Egypt—he returned at once to his native town, Zeredah in Mount Ephraim. 2. De mands of the north erners (1 Kings 12:1;1 Kings 12:3-5). And Rehoboam went to Shechem, for all Israel had come to Shechem to make him king. And they said to Rehoboam, Your father made our yoke intolerable. Now therefore make the intolerable service of your father and the heavy yoke he laid upon us lighter, and we will serve you. And he said to them, Go away for three days, then come again to me. So the people went away. 3. Counsel of the old men (1 Kings 12:6-7). And King Rehoboam took counsel with the old men who had stood before Solomon his father during his lifetime, saying, What answer do you advise me to give this people? And they said to him, If now you will be a servant to this people, and will serve them, and give them a favorable answer, then they will be your servants forever. 4. Counsel of the young men (1 Kings 12:8-11). But he rejected the counsel which the old men had given him, and took counsel with the young men who had grown up with him and had stood before him. And he said to them, What answer do you advise us to give to this people, who have spoken to me, saying, ‘Make the yoke that your father put upon us lighter’? And the young men who had grown up with him said to him, Thus must you answer this people who have said to you, ‘Your father made our yoke heavy, but you make it lighter for us’; thus must you say to them, ‘My little finger is thicker than my father’s loins! And now, whereas my father loaded you with a heavy yoke, I will make your yoke heavier; my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scourges.’ 5. Rehoboam’s tyrannical reply (1 Kings 12:12-15). So when all the people came to Rehoboam the third day, as the king bade, saying, Come to me the third day, the king answered the people harshly, and did not follow the counsel which the old men had given him, but spoke to them according to the counsel of the young men, saying, My father made your yoke heavy, but I also will make your yoke still heavier; my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scourges. So the king gave no heed to the people; for it was a thing brought about of Jehovah to confirm his word, which Jehovah spoke by Ahijah the Shilonite to Jeroboam the son of Nebat. 6. Rejection of Rehoboam by the northern tribes (1 Kings 12:18-19). And when all Israel saw that the king gave no heed to them, the people answered the king, saying, What share have we in David? We have no claim in the son of Jesse! To your tents, O Israel! Now care for your own house, O David! So the Israelites went to their homes. Then King Rehoboam sent Adoniram, who was over the men subject to forced labor; but all Israel stoned him to death. Thereupon King Rehoboam quickly mounted his chariot in order to flee to Jerusalem. So Israel rebelled against the house of David to the present day. 7. Election of Jeroboam king (1 Kings 12:20;1 Kings 12:25). And as soon as all Israel heard that Jeroboam had returned, they sent and called him to the assembly of the people and made him king over all Israel. None remained loyal to the house of David except the tribe of Judah. And Jeroboam fortified Shechem in the hill country of Ephraim, and dwelt there. Afterwards he went out from there and fortified Penuel. 8. Establishment of royal sanctuaries (1 Kings 12:26-27a,1 Kings 12:28-30). Then Jeroboam said to himself, Now the sovereignty will revert to the house of David. If this people go up to offer sacrifices in the temple of Jehovah at Jerusalem, then will the heart of this people turn again to their lord, even to Rehoboam king of Judah; and they will kill me. So the king took counsel with himself, and made two calves of gold, and said to the people, You have gone up to Jerusalem long enough. Behold your gods, O Israel, which brought you up from the land of Egypt! And he set up the one in Bethel, and the other in Dan. And this thing became a sin to Israel, for the people went to worship before the one, even to Dan. 9. Appointment of priests (1 Kings 12:31;1 Kings 12:12). And he made houses of high places, and made priests from among all the people, who were not of the sons of Levi. And Jeroboam ordained a feast in the eighth month, on the fifteenth day of the month, like the feast that is in Judah, and he went up to the altar; so he did in Bethel, sacrificing to the calves that he had made; and he placed in Bethel the priests of the high places that he had made. 10. Jeroboam’s reign (1 Kings 14:19-20). Now the other acts of Jeroboam, how he carried on wars, how he ruled, they are already recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel. And the time during which Jeroboam reigned was twenty-two years. Then he slept with his fathers, and Nadab his son became king in his place. I. The Records of Northern Israel’s History. From the period of the division onward, the late prophetic editor of the books of Kings weaves together the history of the two Hebrew kingdoms. For the first two centuries he devotes his chief attention to Northern Israel. His method is that of the earlier Hebrew historians. Where ancient histories were available, he quotes verbatim the sections adapted to his purpose. In addition to the state annals of Northern and Southern Israel, to which he frequently refers, he evidently had access to certain originally independent biographies of the more important kings and prophets, such as Jeroboam, Ahab, Jehu, Hezekiah, Elijah, Elisha and Isaiah. The result is that his history is very brief and incomplete at certain points and very full and detailed at others. Fortunately the more important epochs are those most fully treated. The citations from the older sources are incorporated by the editor in a stereotyped framework, which gives the date of the accession of each king, the length of the reign, and certain other important facts which he seems to have drawn from the state annals of the two kingdoms. To these data he adds his own estimate of the character and policy of each ruler. His basis of judgment is that of the Deuteronomic law which makes Jerusalem the only centre where Jehovah could be rightly worshipped. Hence all the kings of Northern Israel, and most of the kings of Judah, who regarded the local sanctuaries outside Jerusalem as perfectly legitimate, are condemned by him as traitors to the religion of their race. The historical records in the books of Kings are richly supplemented by the sermons of contemporary prophets like Amos and Hosea. These sermons are like mirrors, reflecting in detail the many-sided life of the nation, and make it possible to view political, social, and moral conditions in Israel through the eyes of its most enlightened statesmen and leaders, and to interpret the real significance of facts and forces with the aid of their inspired insight. The voluminous contemporary literature which has been discovered in the ruins of ancient Babylonia and Assyria also furnishes the data for studying Israel’s history from the point of view of the conquerors, whose approach aroused the prophets to speak and precipitated the great crises which made Israel’s history forever significant. II. Rehoboam’s Fatal Policy. The immediate cause of the division of the Hebrew empire was the short-sighted policy of Solomon’s successor, Rehoboam. According to Hebrew usage, a king could not be finally established on the throne until his choice was approved by his subjects. Thus David had been chosen by the elders of Israel, and his son Solomon had been introduced to the people to receive popular acceptance and approval. Resting on their constitutional rights, the tribes of the north demanded that Rehoboam should meet them at the leading northern city of Shechem; and to their demand he was obliged to accede. Before accepting him as their king, they asked him to give them a definite assurance that he would not continue his father’s policy of onerous taxation and forced labor. Unfortunately, Rehoboam did not listen to the counsel of his oldest and most experienced advisers, but followed instead the advice of the young men who, like himself, had been brought up in the enervating and artificial atmosphere of Solomon’s court, and who were ignorant of the actual conditions and the dominant forces in the empire. His blunt assertion that he would rule as an absolute despot naturally led to his rejection by the northern tribes. He also committed the fatal error of sending Adoniram, who had charge of the forced labor, to treat with them. The result was that Rehoboam was obliged to flee ignominiously back to Jerusalem, king only of Judah and of the territory of Benajmin lying immediately adjacent to his capital. III. The Underlying Causes of the Division. The division was but the reopening of the old breach between the northern and southern tribes. In the earlier days of the settlement, each group of tribes had independently fought its own battles and conquered its own territory. A zone of Canaanite cities, with Jebus (Jerusalem) as its centre, had, even to the days of David, separated the north and the south. The physical characteristics of the land and the natural products of Northern Israel were so different from those of the south that they produced a distinct type of life and civilization. The broad fertile fields of the north supported a prosperous, luxury-loving people. Their highways of commerce were open wide to the traders who came from the adjacent lands, bringing the products, the customs, and the ideas of the neighboring Semitic nations. Judah, on the contrary, faced toward the desert and kept in closer touch with the life and thought of its nomadic ancestors; while its rocky, barren hills produced a more austere and hardy type of civilization and religion. The strong ancient rivalry between the tribes of the north and of the south had repeatedly found expression in the days of David. Solomon’s policy, however, crystallized the jealousy latent in the north into bitter discontent. In refusing to accept Solomon’s son as king, the northerners evidently had the support of their prophets. Ahijah’s act in tearing his mantle asunder, in order to give ten parts to Jeroboam, symbolizes the deliberate conviction and choice of the prophets. With their profound insight into the politics of their age, they could not have been blind to the dangers and disadvantages which would inevitably result from the disruption of the empire; yet they chose it as the lesser of two evils. Solomon’s policy threatened to wrest from the people the hereditary rights of the individual and to crush that noble democratic spirit which Israel had inherited from its nomadic past. It also meant disloyalty to Jehovah; for, in the minds of his people, he was fast being placed on an equality with the gods of the neighboring nations. To preserve their faith and freedom, the religious and political leaders of the north were therefore ready to turn their backs upon the splendor and glories of a united Israel and to face the hostile world alone. IV. Events of Jeroboam’s Reign. Having rejected the house of David, the northern tribes naturally turned to their most prominent leader. Jeroboam, although of humble origin, had already shown himself the champion of the people against Solomon’s despotic policy. Like Saul and David, he was called by popular choice to lay the foundations of the kingdom over which he ruled. Shechem, the largest city of central Israel, was at first made the capital of the new kingdom. It was beautifully situated in the broad valley which separated Mount Gerizim from Mount Ebal, and was watered by the rushing streams which gushed forth from the overhanging mountain to the south. It was impossible, however, to defend it from hostile attack. Although the biblical narrative is silent, it is clear from the Egyptian records that both Northern and Southern Israel, early in the reign of Jeroboam I, were overrun by an army led by Shishak, king of Egypt, whose conquests extended to the plain of Esdraelon on the north and Mahanaim east of the Jordan. The object of this invasion was plunder rather than conquest, and both of the Hebrew kingdoms appear to have suffered severely (cf. § LXXIII ii). The statement that Jeroboam “went out from Shechem and fortified Penuel” may reflect the fact that he was forced in the presence of this Egyptian invader to transfer his capital to the famous old sanctuary east of the Jordan. V. Jeroboam’s Religious Policy. The late prophetic editor of the books of Kings bitterly condemns Jeroboam because he set up two calves of gold at the ancient sanctuaries of Bethel and Dan. The act, however, was undoubtedly commended by the political and religious leaders of his day. In so doing he was but following the precedent of Gideon and Solomon. The calves or bulls overlaid with gold were probably similar in form to the cherubim which guarded the ark in the temple at Jerusalem. The bull appears to have been a common object in ancient Semitic symbolism. Whether they were intended to represent the clouds on which Jehovah was borne, as he came to deliver his people, or symbolized the strength and creative power of the Deity, it is clear that Jeroboam had no intentions of setting aside the national worship of Jehovah. In selecting two sanctuaries, one in the north and the other in the extreme south of his kingdom to suit the convenience of his subjects, and in making these sacred places national shrines, he showed his zeal for the worship of Israel’s God. Many other sanctuaries continued to exist in the land; but henceforth those at Dan and Bethel were provided with special priests appointed and doubtless supported by the king. They stood in the same relation to the other high places of Israel, as did Solomon’s temple to the sanctuaries of Judah. In offering the public sacrifices in behalf of the nation on the great feast days, Jeroboam, like Solomon before him, was simply discharging one of his duties as the religious head of the nation. VI. Character of Jeroboam’s Reign. Analyzing the later biblical testimony in the light of contemporary customs and conditions, it seems clear that Jeroboam was devoted to the welfare of his kingdom. The oft-repeated condemnation of the later prophetic author of the books of Kings is from the point of view of the southern kingdom and the Jerusalem temple which this writer regarded as the one legitimate sanctuary. Jeroboam’s dynasty, however, enjoyed none of the prestige which had gathered about the house of David. His kingdom also lacked coherence and natural defences. Instead, on every side its broad valleys invited the attack of foreign invaders. Chance references indicate that the Philistines again renewed their intermittent attacks upon Northern Israel. Hence, to maintain his position and to hold together the loosely connected tribes of the north, Jeroboam was obliged to contend constantly with difficult problems within, as well as with foes without his kingdom. The proof of the strength of his character and policy is the fact that for over two decades he maintained himself against these many odds, and was able at his death to hand down his kingdom intact to his son Nadab. VII. Effects of the Division. The division of the empire was one of the great turning points in Hebrew history. By one stroke it largely undid the work of Saul and David. The old breach between the north and the south, thus opened, was never again permanently closed. The Hebrews never ceased to dream of world-wide conquest; but the actual course of history bore them to a very different goal. Each of the two Hebrew kingdoms, weakened by civil war, was henceforth exposed to almost constant attack from strong foes. As a result of these protracted wars, their strength was exhausted and they became weaker and weaker until they were ground down under the iron heel of the Assyrians and Babylonians. The division ultimately meant for the Hebrews political ruin and exile; but to each of the kingdoms in turn it brought tragic yet profoundly significant experiences, which opened the eyes of the race to new visions of Jehovah’s character and demands, and impressed indelibly upon their consciousness the great ethical and spiritual principles which made them a prophet nation. In the bitter school of experience, they learned at last to pity and succor the afflicted. Victims of injustice and greed, they became the champions of ethical righteousness. Disappointed in their national and political hopes, they found the eternal God of love and those spiritual joys which far transcend all material glories. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 91: 090. LXII. THE MILITARY DYNASTIES OF NORTHERN ISRAEL ======================================================================== § LXII. THE MILITARY DYNASTIES OF NORTHERN ISRAEL 1. Nadab’s assassination (1 Kings 15:25;1 Kings 15:27-29a). And Nadab the son of Jeroboam became king in the second year of Asa king of Judah, and he reigned over Israel two years. And Baasha the son of Ahijah, of the house of Issachar, conspired against him, and Baasha smote him at Gibbethon, which belonged to the Philistines, while Nadab and all Israel were laying siege to Gibbethon. So in the third year of Asa king of Judah Baasha slew him, and became king in his place. But as soon as he became king, he smote all the house of Jeroboam. He did not leave of Jeroboam’s house a single soul which he did not destroy. 2. Baasha’s condemnation and death (1 Kings 15:33;1 Kings 15:32;1 Kings 16:6;1 Kings 16:6). In the third year of Asa king of Judah Baasha the son of Ahijah became king over all Israel in Tirzah, and reigned twenty-four years. And there was war between Asa and Baasha king of Israel all their days. Now the other acts of Baasha, and what he did and his mighty deeds, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? Moreover, by the prophet Jehu the son of Hanani the word of Jehovah came against Baasha and against his house, because of the evil that he did in the sight of Jehovah, to provoke him to anger with the work of his hands, in being like the house of Jeroboam, and also because he smote the house of Jeroboam. And Baasha slept with his fathers and was buried in Tirzah, and Elah his son became king in his place. 3. Zimri’s conspiracy against Elah and his house (1 Kings 15:8-12a). In the twenty-sixth year of Asa king of Judah Elah the son of Baasha became king over Israel in Tirzah, and reigned two years. And his servant Zimri, commander of half his chariots, conspired against him. While he was in Tirzah drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza, the royal chamberlain in Tirzah, Zimri went in and smote and killed him, in the twenty-seventh year of Asa king of Judah, and became king in his place. But as soon as he became king and had seated himself on the throne, he smote all the house of Baasha; he left him not a single male, either of his kinsfolks or of his friends. Thus Zimri destroyed all the house of Baasha. 4. Election of Omri king (1 Kings 15:15-18). In the twenty-seventh year of Asa king of Judah, Zimri reigned seven days in Tirzah. Now the people were besieging Gibbethon, which belonged to the Philistines. And the people who were engaged in the siege heard the report, Zimri has conspired and has also smitten the king; therefore all Israel made Omri, the commander of the army, king over Israel that day in the camp. So Omri went up from Gibbethon and all Israel with him, and they besieged Tirzah. When Zimri saw that the city was taken, he went into the castle of the royal palace, and burnt the royal palace over him. Thus he died. 5. Omri’s victory over his rival (1 Kings 15:21-23). Then the people of Israel were divided. Half of the people followed Tibni the son of Ginath and made him king, and the other half followed Omri. But the people with Omri were stronger than the people with Tibni the son of Ginath. So Tibni and his brother Joram died, and Omri became king. In the thirty-first year of Asa king of Judah Omri began to reign over Israel, and reigned twelve years; six years he reigned in Tirzah. 6. His reign (1 Kings 15:24;1 Kings 15:27-28). Then he bought the hill Samaria from Shemer for two talents of silver; and he built on the hill and named the city which he built Samaria, after the name of Shemer, the owner of the hill. Now the rest of the acts of Omri, and all that he did and his mighty deeds, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? So Omri slept with his fathers and was buried in Samaria. And Ahab his son became king in his place. 7. Ahab’s marriage with Jezebel (1 Kings 15:29-30,1 Kings 15:31-33a). Now in the thirty-eighth year of Asa king of Judah Ahab the son of Omri began to reign over Israel; and Ahab the son of Omri reigned over Israel in Samaria twenty-two years. And Ahab the son of Omri did that which displeased Jehovah more than all his predecessors: he took as wife Jezebel the daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and went and served Baal and worshipped him. And he erected an altar for Baal in the temple of Baal, which he had built in Samaria. And Ahab also made the asherah. 8. Rebuilding Jericho (1 Kings 15:34). In his days Hiel the Bethelite built Jericho. He laid its foundation with the loss of Abiram his eldest, and set up the gates with the loss of his youngest son Segub, as Jehovah had spoken by Joshua the son of Nun. 9. Benhadad’s unreasonable demands (1 Kings 20:1-6). Then Ben-hadad the king of Aram gathered all his host together, and there were thirty-two kings with him, and horses and chariots. And he went up and besieged Samaria and fought against it. And he sent messengers to Ahab king of Israel into the city and said to him, Thus says Benhadad, ‘Your silver and your gold are mine; your wives also and your children, are mine.’ And the king of Israel answered and said, As you say, my lord, O king: I am yours with all that I have. And the messengers came again and said, Thus says Ben-hadad, ‘I sent to you, saying, “You shall deliver to me your silver and your gold and your wives and your children”; but to-morrow I will send my servants about this time and they shall search your house and the houses of your servants; and whatever is attractive to them, they shall take in their hands and bear it away.’ 10. Abab’s refusal to comply (1 Kings 20:7-12). Then the king of Israel called all the elders of the land and said, Mark, I pray, and see how this man is seeking to make trouble, for he sent to me for my wives and my children and for my silver and gold, and I did not refuse him. And all the elders and all the people said to him, Do not hearken nor consent! Therefore he said to the messengers of Ben-hadad, Tell my lord the king, ‘All that you demanded of your servant at the first I will do, but this I cannot do.’ So the messengers departed and brought him word again. Then Ben-hadad sent to him and said, Let the gods do to me what they will, if the dust of Samaria shall suffice for handfuls for all the people who follow me! And the king of Israel answered and said, Tell him, ‘Let not him who is girding on his sword boast himself as he who is putting it off.’ Now when Ben-hadad heard this message—he was drinking together with the kings in the pavilions—he said to his servants, Set yourselves in array. And they set themselves in array against the city. 11. His victory over the Arameans (1 Kings 20:13-21). But just then a prophet came near to Ahab king of Israel and said, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘Hast thou seen all this great multitude? Behold, I will deliver it into thy hand to-day, and thou shalt know that I am Jehovah.’ And Ahab said, By whom? And he said, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘By the young men under the provincial commanders.’ And he said, Who shall begin the battle? And he answered, Thou. Then he mustered the young men under the provincial commanders, and they were two hundred and thirty-two. And after them he mustered all the people, even all the Israelites—seven thousand. And at noon they made the attack, while Ben-hadad was drinking himself drunk in the pavilions, together with the thirty-two kings who had come to help him. And the young men under the provincial commanders went out first. And Ben-hadad sent out messengers and they reported to him saying, Men have come out from Samaria. And he said, Whether they have come out with peaceful intent, take them alive; or whether they have come out for war, take them alive. So these (the young men under the provincial commanders) went out of the city, and the army which followed them. And they slew each his man, so that the Arameans fled. And the Israelites pursued them, but Ben-hadad, the king of Aram, escaped on a horse with horsemen. Then the king of Israel went out and captured horses and chariots, and slew a great number of the Arameans. 12. Benhadad’s preparations for a second campaign (1 Kings 20:22-25). And the prophet came near to the king of Israel and said to him, Go, strengthen thyself, and mark and see what thou wilt do, for a year from now the king of Aram will come up against thee. And the servants of the king of Aram said to him, Their gods are hill-gods, therefore they were too strong for us; but let us fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall be stronger than they. And do this: take the kings away each from his place, and put commanders in their place, and assemble an army, like the army that you have lost, horse for horse and chariot for chariot; then we will fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall be stronger than they. And he listened to their advice and did so. 13. Ahab’a second great victory (1 Kings 20:26-30). Now when the year had come around Ben-hadad mustered the Arameans and went up to Aphek to fight against Israel. And the Israelites were mustered and provided with provisions, and went against them. And the Israelites encamped before them like two small flocks of goats, while the Arameans filled the country. Then a man of God came near and said to the king of Israel, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘Because the Arameans think, “Jehovah is a hill-god but not a god of the valleys,” therefore I will deliver all this great multitude into thy hand, that ye may know that I am Jehovah.’ So they encamped opposite each other seven days. But on the seventh day the battle was joined; and the Israelites slew of the Arameans a hundred thousand footmen in one day. But the rest fled to Aphek, into the city; and the wall fell upon twenty-seven thousand of the men who were left. Ben-hadad also fled, and came into the city, into an innermost chamber. 14. Liberal terms offered to Benhadad by Ahab (1 Kings 20:31-34). And his servants said to him, Behold now, we have heard that the kings of the house of Israel are merciful kings; let us therefore put sackcloth about our loins and ropes about our heads and go out to the king of Israel; perhaps he will save your life. So they girded sackcloth about their loins and put ropes about their heads, and came to the king of Israel and said, Your servant Ben-hadad says, ‘Let me live.’ And he replied, Is he yet alive? He is my brother. Now the men began to divine his thought and quickly caught it up from him and said, Ben-hadad is your brother. Then he said, Go, bring him! And when Ben-hadad came out to him he took him up to himself in the chariot. And Benhadad said to him, The cities which my father took from your father, I will restore, and you may establish streets for yourself in Damascus as my father established in Samaria. And Ahab said, I will let you go with this agreement. So he made an agreement with him and let him go. 15. The acted prophecy and its application (1 Kings 20:35-43). Now a certain man of the sons of the prophets at the command of Jehovah said to his fellow, Smite me, I pray. But the man refused to smite him. Then he said to him, Since you have not obeyed the voice of Jehovah, as soon as you have gone away from me, a lion shall slay you. Accordingly, as soon as he had gone away from him, a lion found him and slew him. Then he found another man, and said, Smite me, I pray. And the man smote him so as to wound him. Then the prophet departed and waited for the king by the way and disguised himself with a covering over his eyes. And as the king was passing by, he cried to the king and said, Your servant had gone out into the midst of the battle, when suddenly a man turned aside, and brought a man to me and said, ‘Watch this man; if by any means he be missing, then must your life be for his life, or else you must pay a talent of silver!’ And as your servant was looking here and there, he was gone. And the king of Israel said to him, Such is your verdict: you yourself have decided it. Then he quickly took the covering away from his eyes, and the king of Israel recognized that he was one of the prophets. And he said to him, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘Because thou hast let go out of thy hand the man whom I had condemned to destruction, therefore thy life shall go for his life and thy people for his people.’ And the king of Israel went homeward in ill-humor and sullen, and came to Samaria. I. The Dynasty of Baasha. After the death of Jeroboam the instability of the kingship in Northern Israel was speedily demonstrated. Nadab, the son of Jeroboam I, after a reign of only two years, fell a prey to a conspiracy led by Baasha. Baasha is one of the two or three men mentioned in Israelite history who came from the central tribe of Issachar. The prophetic historian has little to say about this dynasty, which was founded by bloodshed and maintained by the sword. The chief event was the war with Judah. Asa, the king of the southern realm, was so closely pressed that he appealed for help to Damascus. Thus was inaugurated that protracted series of wars between the Israelites and Arameans which drained the resources of both kingdoms and prepared the way for the later Assyrian conquests. The history of Baasha’s dynasty well illustrates the truth that “they who take the sword shall perish by the sword.” Elah, his son, after a brief reign, was slain in a drunken debauch by one of his military commanders, and all the members of the royal family shared his fate. II. Omri’s Accession. The Hebrew army in the field forthwith proclaimed their commander, Omri, king, and marched against the capital, which was then at Tirzah, a little to the northeast of Shechem. Omri quickly overthrew the forces of the assassin; but his position on the throne of Israel was not firmly established until he had vanquished another rival, Tibni, the son of Ginath. Northern Israel was thus torn by civil war, until finally the strong hand of Omri united all the rival factions and inaugurated a new era of prosperity and strength for the greater Hebrew kingdom. In certain respects Omri was the David of Northern Israel. Following the example of the founder of the Hebrew empire, he secured a fertile hill, northwest of Shechem, named it Samaria, and made it his capital. Its strength, like that of Jerusalem, depended not upon its elevation but upon its being surrounded by deep valleys and therefore capable of easy defence. On the top of the hill was ample room for a large and strong city. The fact that the inhabitants of Samaria were later able for three years to defy successfully the highly organized army of Assyria amply confirms the wisdom of Omri’s choice. III. Omri’s Foreign Policy. The Old Testament says nothing of Omri’s military achievements; but in the famous Moabite stone, discovered in 1868 at Dibon in the territory of ancient Moab, Ahab’s contemporary, Mesha, king of Moab, tells of his wars with Israel. He states in his inscription, which he set up to commemorate his victory over the Hebrews, that “Omri was king of Israel and he afflicted Moab many days because Chemosh (the god of Moab) was angry with his land. Omri took possession of the land of Medeba and he occupied it during half of his sons’ days, forty years.” From this contemporary evidence it is clear that Omri reasserted the rule of Israel over at least the northern part of Moab. He also was the first of Israel’s rulers to pay tribute to the new power, Assyria, which, under its conquering king, Asurnaçirpal III, in 876 B.C., carried its arms into Northern Syria as far as the Mediterranean Sea. It is also significant that even in the days of Jehu, the rebel who overthrew Omri’s dynasty, Northern Israel was still known to the Assyrians as “the House of Omri.” Omri further established the strength of his kingdom through an alliance with Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians. By this act he opened the way for commerce between Northern Israel and the civilized peoples of the eastern Mediterranean. Thus, under the strong leadership of Omri, the northern Hebrew kingdom began to emerge from its period of anarchy and wasting warfare, and to assume a commanding position among the nations of southwestern Asia. In the Arameans to the northeast, Omri met a foe before whom he was obliged to bow. Following in the wake of the ancient Hittites, the Arameans had come down and strongly intrenched themselves among the Lebanons, and at Damascus, on the border line between the agricultural territory of the eastern Mediterranean and the Arabian desert, they had built up a strong and prosperous capital. Damascus itself is a fertile oasis fed by the waters which break through the eastern Lebanons and which, by an elaborate system of irrigation, transform the sands of the desert into a series of fruitful gardens. To the Arameans, Omri ceded certain territory, probably east of the Jordan, and also certain streets or quarters in his new capital, Samaria, for the use of Aramean merchants. He also probably paid heavy tribute to insure immunity from Aramean attack. IV. Ahab’s War of Independence. Omri laid the foundations of a strong kingdom; but to his son Ahab he left the task of shaking off the Aramean yoke. At first Ahab appears to have paid tribute and to have been ready to yield to any reasonable demand imposed by his Aramean overlords. When, however, Ben-hadad, king of Aram, demanded the privilege of pillaging without restriction Ahab’s capital and palace, the Hebrew king naturally refused. Encouraged by the advice of a prophet, Ahab met the vainglorious boast of the Aramean king with active and successful resistence. A year later another Aramean army was vanquished near Aphek, east of the sea of Chinnereth. The numbers possibly have been magnified in transmission, but many Arameans were slain and, most significant of all, Ben-hadad himself was captured. Instead of slaying his rival, Ahab set him free on condition that the captured Israelite cities should be restored and that certain streets should be set aside in Damascus for Israelite merchants and settlers, even as Omri had granted like concessions in Samaria to the Arameans. The narrative itself suggests that Ahab’s motive in giving Ben-hadad his freedom was to establish close commercial relations between the two countries. By land the Arameans commanded the trade of the east and northeast, even as the Phœnicians by sea controlled that of the Mediterranean. The records also indicate that one of Ahab’s ambitions was to build up a magnificent court and kingdom like that of Solomon. To realize this ambition, close commercial relations with the surrounding nations were essential. Ben-hadad’s liberation may also have been due to Ahab’s recognition of the fact that both he and his rival were confronted by a common foe, Assyria, and that the only hope of escape was by uniting their forces. At least, in 854 B.C., according to the annals of Shalmaneser II, both Aram and Israel fought together against the Assyrian invader. To the prophets of Israel, Ahab’s action in freeing Ben-hadad seemed inexcusable. By means of a dramatic symbolism, which appears to have been characteristic of these early prophets, a certain unknown son of the prophets declared to the king that he had proved himself a traitor to the God of his race in setting free his heathen foe, and that for this act disaster would overtake Israel and its king. There appears to have been much that was fanatical in the aims and methods of these early sons of the prophets. Their fanaticism was, at the same time, their strength as well as their weakness. Their zeal for Jehovah made them a strong power in the life of the nation; but that same zeal also blinded them to the political and commercial issues of the hour. V. Ahab’s Character and Policy. By the majority of Ahab’s contemporaries he was undoubtedly regarded as an able and successful warrior, a patriotic ruler, and a wise statesman. Northern Israel, with its broad and productive fields, could enjoy in return for its products the best that the older and higher civilizations could furnish, provided an open market could be secured for its grain and other products. Alliances with the Phœnicians and Arameans were therefore exceedingly desirable. Ahab also secured peace with the southern Hebrew kingdom by means of an alliance, sealed by the marriage of his daughter Athaliah with Ahaziah of the house of Judah. Thus, by his military skill and diplomacy in carrying out the policy instituted by his father Omri, Ahab not only threw off the Aramean yoke and established the supremacy of Northern Israel among the states of eastern Mediterranean, but also opened wide the gates of commerce which brought to his people the culture and products of the ancient Semitic world. In many ways he was the greatest king of Northern Israel. VI. The Dangers of Ahab’s Policy. If Israel’s highest ideal had been the attainment of material splendor and strength, Ahab’s policy would doubtless have passed unchallenged. There was, however, hid in the heart of the nation from the first a nobler ideal, which Ahab’s policy was fast obscuring. As has been shown, that ideal was brought by the ancestors of the Hebrews from the desert and was probably first formulated by Moses. It was that Israel should give its entire loyalty to Jehovah, since he would tolerate no rival god. Solomon had ignored this fundamental tenet of Israel’s faith and the division of the kingdom had been the result. In the luxurious, enervating, urban life of Northern Israel, the majority of the Hebrews had lost sight of the old desert ideal and doubtless sympathized with Ahab in accepting the inevitable consequences of a Semitic alliance, and in tolerating within the bounds of Israel the worship of the gods of the allies. The crisis was intensified by the fact that the Tyrian queen, Jezebel, who came to Ahab’s court to seal the Phœnician alliance, was not an ordinary oriental woman. Her father, Ethbaal, was a former priest of Baal, who had mounted the Tyrian throne by assassinating the reigning king. Jezebel thus inherited unusual ability and energy, a strong religious zeal and those oriental despotic ideals which hesitated at no crime in attaining personal ends. As queen she had the right to establish at the Hebrew court a temple and priesthood for the worship of her native God, Baal Melkart. It was also easy for a woman of her ability gradually to increase the number of the priests and the splendor of the ritual at the Baal temple, until they overshadowed those of the older native sanctuaries. To an agricultural people, the worship of Baal, the native Canaanite god of fertility, also offered many strong attractions; and its licentious rites appealed powerfully to their baser instincts. It was almost inevitable, therefore, that in such an atmosphere and under royal patronage, this kindred worship should flourish and attract many followers. There is no evidence that Ahab contemplated abandoning the worship of Jehovah for that of Baal. The names of four of his children contain the shortened form (Jah or Jo) of the divine name Jehovah or Yahweh. To the close of his reign the king was surrounded by a group of prophetic advisers who spoke in the name of Israel’s God; but with the more zealous prophets, who demanded that he banish from his realm all vestiges of the alien religion, he had no sympathy. In the light of Semitic custom, such an act would mean the severing of all alliances with their neighbors and a complete abandonment of the constructive policy which had brought peace and prosperity to Israel. The situation called for some one able clearly to define the issue and to appeal to the nation to choose between its material and spiritual ideals. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 92: 091. LXIII. ELIJAH’S WORK AS A RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORMER ======================================================================== § LXIII. ELIJAH’S WORK AS A RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORMER 1. Elijah before Ahab (1 Kings 17:1). Now Elijah the Tishbite of Tishbe in Gilead, said to Ahab, As Jehovah, the God of Israel, liveth, whom I serve, there shall be neither dew nor rain these years, except according to my word. . . . 2. By the Brook Cherith (1 Kings 17:2-5). Then the word of Jehovah came to him, saying, Depart from here and turn eastward and hide thyself by the Brook Cherith, that is east of Jordan. Then thou shalt drink out of the brook; and I have commanded the ravens to feed thee there. So he went and obeyed the command of Jehovah and dwelt by the Brook Cherith that is east of Jordan. And the ravens brought him bread every morning and flesh every evening, and he used to drink out of the brook. But after a while the brook dried up, because there was no rain in the land. 3. Miraculous provision of food at Zarephath (1 Kings 17:8-18). Then the word of Jehovah came to him, saying, Arise, go to Zarephath, which belongs to Sidon, and dwell there. Behold, I have commanded a widow there to provide for thee. So he arose and went to Zarephath. And when he came to the gate of the city a widow was there gathering sticks; and calling to her, he said, Bring me, I pray, a little water in a vessel, that I may drink. And as she was going to bring it, he called after her, Bring also, I pray, a bit of bread with you. And she replied, As Jehovah your God liveth, I have nothing but a handful of meal in the jar and a little oil in the cruse; and now I am gathering a few sticks, that I may go in and prepare it for myself and my son, that we may eat it and then die. But Elijah said to her, Fear not; go and do as you have said, but first make me from it a little cake, and then make for yourself and your son. For thus saith Jehovah, the God of Israel, ‘The jar of meal shall not be used up, neither shall the cruse of oil become empty, until the day that Jehovah sendeth rain upon the earth.’ And she went and did as Elijah directed. So she and he and her household had food to eat. From that day the jar of meal was not used up, neither did the cruse of oil become empty, just as Jehovah had said by Elijah. 4. Restoring the son of the widow (1 Kings 17:17-24). Now after this the son of the mistress of the house fell sick; and his sickness was so severe that there was no breath left in him. Then she said to Elijah, What have I to do with you, O man of God? You have come to me to remind me of my sin by slaying my son! And he said to her, Give me your son. And he took him out of her bosom and carried him up into the upper chamber, where he was staying, and laid him upon his own bed. And he cried to Jehovah, and said, O Jehovah, my God, hast thou also brought evil upon this widow, whose guest I am, by slaying her son? And he stretched himself upon the child three times, and cried to Jehovah and said, O Jehovah, my God, I pray thee, let this child’s life come back to him again. And Jehovah hearkened to the voice of Elijah; and the life of the child came back to him again, so that he revived. Then Elijah took the child and brought him down from the upper chamber into the house and gave him to his mother. And Elijah said, See, your son lives! And the woman said to Elijah, Now I know that you are a man of God, and that the word of Jehovah in your mouth is truth. 5. Elijah’s demand (1 Kings 18:1-2a). Now a long time after this the word of Jehovah came to Elijah, in the third year, saying, Go, show thyself to Ahab; and I will send rain upon the earth. So Elijah went to show himself to Ahab. 6. Severity of the famine (1 Kings 18:2-6). And the famine was severe in Samaria. And Ahab had called Obadiah, the prefect of the palace. Now Obadiah revered Jehovah greatly; for when Jezebel tried to exterminate the prophets of Jehovah, Obadiah took a hundred prophets, and hid them by fifty in a cave and fed them continually with bread and water. And Ahab had said to Obadiah, Up! let us go through the land to all the springs of water and to all the brooks; perhaps we may find grass so that we can save the horses and mules alive and not lose all the beasts. So they divided the land between them to pass through it: Ahab went in one direction by himself and Obadiah went in another direction by himself, 7. Elijah’s interview with Obadiah (1 Kings 18:7-15). And while Obadiah was on the way, Elijah met him suddenly. When he knew him, he fell on his face and said, Is it you, my lord Elijah? And he answered him, It is I; go, tell your lord, ‘Elijah is here.’ And he said, Wherein have I sinned, that you would deliver your servant into the hand of Ahab, to slay me? As Jehovah your God liveth, there is no nation or kingdom, whither my lord has not sent to seek you; and when they said ‘He is not here,’ he took an oath of the kingdom and nation, that no one had found you. And now you say, ‘Go, tell your lord, “Elijah is here.”’ And as soon as I am gone from you the spirit of Jehovah will carry you to a place unknown to me, and so when I come and tell Ahab, and he cannot find you, he will put me to death, although I, your servant, have feared Jehovah from my youth. Was it not told my lord what I did when Jezebel slew the prophets of Jehovah, how I hid a hundred of Jehovah’s prophets by fifty in a cave and fed them continually with bread and water? And now you say, ‘Go, tell your lord, Elijah is here,’ that he may put me to death! But Elijah said, As Jehovah of hosts liveth, before whom I stand, I will surely show myself to him to-day. 8. His command to Ahab (1 Kings 18:16-19). So Obadiah went to meet Ahab, and told him, and Ahab went to meet Elijah. And as soon as Ahab saw Elijah, Ahab said to him, Is it you, you who have brought misfortune to Israel? And he answered, I have not brought misfortune to Israel, but you and your father’s house, in that you have forsaken the commands of Jehovah and have run after the Baals. Now therefore send and gather to me all Israel to Mount Carmel, together with the four hundred and fifty prophets of the Baal and the four hundred prophets of the asherah, who eat at Jezebel’s table. 9. Elijah’s address to the people (1 Kings 18:20-24). So Ahab sent to all the Israelites and gathered the prophets together to Mount Carmel. Then Elijah came near to all the people and said, How long are you going to limp between the two sides? If Jehovah be God, follow him, but if the Baal, then follow him. But the people gave him no answer. Then Elijah said to the people, I, even I only, am left as a prophet of Jehovah, but the Baal’s prophets are four hundred and fifty men. Let them therefore give us two bullocks, and let them choose one bullock for themselves and cut it in pieces and lay it on the wood without putting on any fire, and I will dress the other bullock and lay it on wood without putting on any fire. Then you call on your god and I will call on Jehovah; and the God who answers by fire, he is the God. And all the people answered and said, It is well spoken. 10. Failure of the prophets to meet the test (1 Kings 18:25-29). And Elijah said to the prophets of the Baal, Choose one of the bullocks for yourselves and dress it first, for you are many, and call on your god, without putting on any fire. So they took the bullock which he gave them and dressed it, and called on the Baal from morning even until noon, saying, O Baal, hear us. But there was no voice nor answer. And they limped about the altar which they had erected. But when it was noon, Elijah mocked them, saying, Cry aloud; for he is a god; either he is musing, or he has gone aside, or he is on a journey, or perhaps he is sleeping and must be awakened! Then they cried aloud, and cut themselves after their manner with swords and lances until the blood gushed out upon them. And when midday was past, they prophesied until the time of the offering of the evening oblation; but there was neither voice nor answer nor heed paid to their cry. 11. Elijah’s preparations for the test (1 Kings 18:30,1 Kings 18:32-35). Then Elijah said to all the people, Come near to me. And all the people came near to him. And he repaired the altar of Jehovah which had been thrown down. Then he made a trench about the altar of about the capacity of one and one-fourth bushels of seed. And he laid the pieces of wood in order, cut up the bullock, and laid it on pieces of the wood. And he said, Fill four jars with water and pour it on the burnt-offering and on the pieces of wood. And he said, Do it the second time; and they did it the second time. And he said, Do it the third time; and they did it also the third time, so that the water ran round the altar; and he also filled the trench with water. 12. The sign from heaven confirming Elijan’s words (1 Kings 18:38-40). But when it was time to offer the evening oblation, Elijah the prophet came near and said, O Jehovah, God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Israel, let it be known this day that thou art God in Israel and that I am thy servant, and that I have done all these things at thy command. Hear me, O Jehovah, hear me, that this people may know that thou, Jehovah, art God, and that thou hast turned their heart back again. Then the fire of Jehovah fell and consumed the burnt-offering and the wood, the stones and the dust, and licked up the water that was in the trench. And when all the people saw it, they fell on their faces, and cried, Jehovah, he is God; Jehovah, he is God. But Elijah commanded them, Take the prophets of the Baal; let not one of them escape! So they took them down to the Brook Kishon and slew them there. 13. Coming of the rain (1 Kings 18:41-46). Then Elijah said to Ahab, Go up, eat and drink; for there is the sound of a heavy downpour of rain. So Ahab went up to eat and drink. But Elijah went up to the top of Carmel, and crouched down upon the earth, with his face between his knees. And he said to his servant, Go up now, look toward the sea. And he went up, and looked and said, There is nothing. And he said, Now go again seven times. So the servant went back seven times. But the seventh time he said, There is a cloud arising out of the sea as small as a man’s hand. And he said, Go up, say to Ahab, ‘Make ready your chariot, go down, that the rain may not stop you.’ Then in a little while the heavens grew black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain. And Ahab rode toward Jezreel. And the hand of Jehovah was on Elijah, so that he girded up his loins and ran before Ahab to the entrance of Jezreel. 14. Elijah’s flight to Horeb (1 Kings 19:1-9a). Now when Ahab told Jezebel all that Elijah had done, and all the details of his slaying the prophets with the sword, Jezebel sent a messenger to Elijah, saying, As surely as you are Elijah and I am Jezebel, may the gods do to me what they will, if I do not make your life as the life of one of them by to-morrow about this time. Then he was afraid and arose and went for his life. And he came to Beersheba, which belongs to Judah; and there he left his servant. But he himself went a day’s journey into the wilderness, and came and sat down under a broom tree, and he asked that he might die, saying, It is enough; now, O Jehovah, take my life, for I am not better than my fathers! Then he lay down and slept under the broom tree. Thereupon a divine messenger touched him and said to him, Rise, eat! And when he looked, he saw there at his head a cake, baked on hot stones, and a jar of water. And he ate and drank and lay down again. But the messenger of Jehovah came again the second time and touched him and said, Rise, eat, or else the journey will be too long for you. So he arose and ate and drank and went in the strength of that food forty days and forty nights to Horeb the Mount of God. And there he came to a cave and lodged therein. 15. His complaint (1 Kings 19:9-11a). Thereupon the word of Jehovah came to him. And he said to him, What doest thou here, Elijah? And he said, I have been very jealous for Jehovah, the God of hosts; for the Israelites have forsaken thee, thrown down thine altars, and slain thy prophets with the sword; and I only am left, and they seek to take my life from me. Then he said, Go forth and stand on the mount before Jehovah. 16. Revelation of Jehovah’s true character (1 Kings 19:11-14). Thereupon Jehovah passed by, and a great and violent wind rent the mountain and broke in pieces the rocks before Jehovah; but Jehovah was not in the wind. And after the wind an earthquake; but Jehovah was not in the earthquake. And after the earthquake a fire; but Jehovah was not in the fire. And after the fire the sound of a low, soft whisper. And as soon as Elijah heard it, he wrapped his face in his mantle and went out and stood at the entrance of the cave. And then there came a voice to him and said, What doest thou here, Elijah? And he said, I have been very jealous for Jehovah, the God of hosts, for the Israelites have forsaken thee, thrown down thine altars, and slain thy prophets with the sword, and I only am left, and they seek to take away my life from me. 17. Directions for the overthrow of Baalism (1 Kings 19:15-18). Then Jehovah said to him, Go, return on thy way to the Wilderness of Damascus, and when thou comest anoint Hazael to be king over Aram. And Jehu the son of Nim-shi shalt thou anoint to be king over Israel. And Elisha the son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah shalt thou anoint to be prophet in thy place. And it shall be that whoever escapes the sword of Hazael, Jehu shall slay; and whoever escapes the sword of Jehu, Elisha shall slay. Yet will I spare seven thousand in Israel—all the knees which have not bowed to Baal and every mouth which hath not kissed him. 18. Selection of a disciple and successor (1 Kings 19:19-21). Now when he had departed from there he found Elisha the son of Shaphat, as he was plowing with twelve yoke of oxen, and he was with the twelfth. And Elijah went over to him and cast his mantle upon him. And he left the oxen and ran after Elijah and said, Let me, I pray you, kiss my father and my mother and then I will follow you. And he said to him, Go back again, for what have I done to you? So he turned from following him and took the yoke of oxen and slew them and boiled their flesh with the implements of the oxen and gave to the people to eat. Then he arose and went after Elijah and entered into his service. 19. Naboth’s refusal to sell his vineyard to Ahab (1 Kings 21:1-4). Now Naboth the Jezreelite had a vineyard beside the palace of Ahab king of Samaria. And Ahab spoke to Naboth, saying, Give me your vineyard, that I may have it for a vegetable garden, because it is near my house, and I will give you a better vineyard for it; or, if it is more satisfactory to you, I will give you the value of it in money. But Naboth answered Ahab, Jehovah forbid me, that I should give to you the inheritance of my fathers. And Ahab came into his house in ill-humor because of the word which Naboth the Jezreelite had spoken to him; for he had said, I will not give to you the inheritance of my fathers. And he lay down on his bed and covered his face and would eat no food. 20. Jezebel’s measures to secure Naboth’s death (1 Kings 21:5-10). But Jezebel his wife came to him and said to him, Why are you so out of humor that you eat no food? And he replied to her, Because I made a proposition to Naboth the Jezreelite and said to him, ‘Give me your vineyard for money; or else if it is more satisfactory to you I will give you another vineyard for if; and he answered, ‘I will not give you my vineyard.’ Then Jezebel his wife said to him, Is it you who now holds sway in Israel? Arise, eat, and let your heart be cheerful. I will give you the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite. So she wrote letters in Ahab’s name and sealed them with his seal, and sent the letters to the elders and to the nobles who were in his city, who presided with Naboth. And she wrote in the letters, Proclaim a fast and also place Naboth in a prominent place among the people. Then place two base men before him and let them bear witness against him, saying, ‘You have cursed God and the king.’ And then carry him out and stone him to death. 21. Realization of her designs (1 Kings 21:11-16). And the men of his city, the elders and the nobles who presided in his city, did as Jezebel had ordered them. As was commanded in the letters which she had sent to them, they proclaimed a fast, and put Naboth in a prominent place among the people. And two base men came in and sat before him, and the scoundrels bore witness against him (Naboth) in the presence of the people, saying, Naboth cursed God and the king. Then they carried him out of the city and stoned him to death with stones. And they sent to Jezebel, saying, Naboth has been stoned and is dead. And as soon as Jezebel heard that Naboth had been stoned and was dead, Jezebel said to Ahab, Arise, take possession of the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite, which he refused to give you for money; for Naboth is not alive but dead. And as soon as Ahab heard that Naboth was dead, Ahab rose up to go down to the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite, to take possession of it. 22. Ahab’s guilt (1 Kings 21:17-20,1 Kings 21:23;1 Kings 21:27). But the word of Jehovah came to Elijah the Tishbite, saying, Arise, go down to meet Ahab the king of Israel, who dwells in Samaria; he is just now in the vineyard of Naboth, whither he has gone down to take possession of it. And thou shalt speak to him, saying, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “Hast thou killed and also taken possession?”’ Moreover thou shalt speak to him, saying, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “In the place where the dogs licked the blood of Naboth will the dogs lick thy blood also.”’ And Ahab said to Elijah, Have you found me, O mine enemy? And he answered, I have. And of Jezebel also Jehovah hath spoken, saying, ‘The dogs shall eat Jezebel in the district of Jezreel.’ Now when Ahab heard those words he tore his clothes and put sackcloth on his flesh and fasted; he also slept on sackcloth and went about quietly. I. The Elijah Stories. The account of Ahab’s wars contains no references to the prophet Elijah. In the extracts from what appears to have been a detailed account of the events of Ahab’s reign, the king is pictured as a brave and benign ruler. The condemnation of his policy in sparing the life of the Aramean king, Ben-hadad, suggests the attitude of the prophetic party. The activity and point of view of Elijah, the great commanding figure of the period, are recorded in the chapters seventeen, eighteen, nineteen and twenty-one of I Kings. In the Greek version of the Old Testament these chapters follow each other without a break. It is evident that they were taken from the same source. That source was evidently an account of the work of Elijah which was current among the prophets of a later day. The abruptness with which Elijah is introduced indicates that the original Elijah history is here quoted only in part. The interest in this Elijah history is religious rather than political and fixes attention on the activity of the prophet rather than of the king. Its point of view is fundamentally different, but its testimony is not contradictory, but rather supplementary, to that of the Ahab history. It reveals the deeper problems and forces in Israel’s life. The prominence of miracles and the exaltation of the authority of the prophet far above that of the king reveal the influence of transmission on the lips of the people or of the later prophets. The stories represent tradition’s remembrance and interpretation of the real character and work of Elijah. To gain a true conception of the actual course of history, it is therefore necessary to make allowance for this traditional element. At the same time there is a freshness and a wealth of detail in each of the narratives which indicate that they come from a period not far removed from the events which they record. As there is in them no condemnation of the high places of Israel and of the rites connected with them, it would seem that these Elijah stories were committed to writing some time before the middle of the eighth century; for at that time Amos, Hosea and Isaiah began to attack these popular institutions. II. Elijah, the Tishbite. The situation in the days of Ahab required a man of clear vision and of fearless, heroic character to stem the popular tide and to lead the nation back to its simpler and older ideals. Almost unconsciously the king and the people were yielding to the allurements of the agricultural and commercial civilization which they had received from the ancient Canaanites and the neighboring Phœnicians. It was natural that Moses’s successor should come from Gilead, which was the borderland between the desert of Israel’s earlier days and their settled home in Palestine. Elijah’s costume, the rough shepherd’s mantle and staff, his food, and the freedom with which he moves from place to place, all proclaim his wilderness origin. His flight to Horeb in the hour of his great discouragement also indicates that he felt himself to be the champion of the God of Moses and of Israel’s earlier faith. In common with the Rechabites and Nazirites, the representatives of the old nomadic religion, he viewed askance the agricultural civilization of Canaan, with its debasing religious institutions and its gross immorality. By Ahab and the members of his court this prophet of the desert was doubtless regarded as a rude fanatic. The king’s words on meeting Elijah reveal the inevitable hostility which existed between these two strong men. III. Elijah’s Demand of Loyalty to Jehovah. From his desert point of view Elijah could see no justification of Ahab’s policy in tolerating within the land of Israel the worship of an alien god. His reasoning was simple and incontrovertible: Israel was Jehovah’s people, and Jehovah from the first had demanded their entire loyalty. To share that loyalty with another god was treason on the part of both king and people. Doubtless the prophet was also fully aware of the unspeakably corrupting moral influences of the Baal religion. On the other hand, in the light of conditions in Northern Israel, it is easy to understand why Ahab refused to listen to the prophet. To have acceded to Elijah’s demands it would have been necessary for the king to reverse completely his most cherished policies. It would have meant not only severing foreign alliances, but also throwing off the powerful influence of his own queen Jezebel. Hence the close-drawn issue between king and prophet, and the necessity of Elijah’s public appeal to the conscience of the people. The Greek historians record a famine during the reign of Ittobaal of Tyre which affected Phœnicia as well as Israel; but according to them it lasted but one year. By Phœnicians, as well as Israelites, a calamity of this character was regarded as certain evidence of divine disfavor. It therefore prepared the minds of the people in a most effective manner for the prophet’s message. IV. Elijah’s Appeal to the Nation. According to the prophetic tradition, Elijah’s appeal to the people was made at a great national assembly, the background and primary occasion of which was a severe and protracted drought. The scene of the assembly was the ancient sanctuary on the eastern heights of Mount Carmel, which projects into the heart of Northern Israel and was easily accessible from all parts of the kingdom. Here, not far from Ahab’s capital, but upon the heights, removed from the Canaanite shrines and civilization, the representatives of the nation assembled to ask divine favor and deliverance. Later tradition has preserved the memory of a lightning flash and the downpour of rain, which were interpreted as divine confirmation of the prophet’s authority; but it has also recorded that which was most significant in the dramatic scene on Mount Carmel—the prophet’s bold demand that the people choose once and forever between Jehovah and Baal. As at all times in their history, however, the people were slow to choose and slower to act. Elijah, like the earlier prophets, appears to have taken the initiative, and, in his consuming zeal, to have given command to slay the hated prophets of Baal. For the moment he seemed victorious and in his enthusiasm ran before Ahab’s chariot across the plain to the entrance of Jezreel. V. The Revelation at Horeb. Unlike most oriental women, Jezebel was daunted neither by fear nor public opinion. It soon became evident that she was still in control of Ahab and of the capital. Like every enthusiast, Elijah was probably subject to great revulsions of feeling. In his despondency Jezebel’s message to the prophet apparently drove him forth a fugitive, discouraged and in terror. Nomad that he was, he naturally fled along the great highway southward to the sacred sanctuary at Beersheba, and then on alone, a pilgrim to the sacred mountain of Jehovah, the scene, according to the early Hebrew stories, of the revelation to Moses and the nation. Again popular tradition suggests with wonderful beauty and delicacy the significant facts in Elijah’s experience at this critical period of his life. Man of iron—he had trusted to the public appeal and to the sword to win his people to Jehovah. In the solitude he learned at last that God reveals himself not alone and in highest measure in the tempest and earthquake and flaming fire, but in the low, soft whisper in the heart of man. Although, in the effort to make the narratives clear and dramatic, prophetic tradition long continued to represent God as speaking by audible words to his servants, yet in the ultimate analysis it was always in the heart of the individual prophet that the truths were appreciated which he later proclaimed as the message of God to his race. VI. The Call of Elisha. Confronted by Jezebel and the diplomacy of the court, Elijah painfully realized his limitations. Reared in the wilderness, he was a stranger to the life of the city. It was probably because he appreciated these limitations and because he was baffled by his new environment that he fled in terror and discouragement back to the desert. In proclaiming to the people the fatal dangers inherent in the policy of Ahab and in showing them the fatal danger in tolerating Baal worship in their midst, he had accomplished his real life work. Some one intimately acquainted with the complex civilization of Northern Israel and in close touch with king and people, was also needed to instil into the popular consciousness the truth proclaimed by Elijah and, in time, to arouse the nation to shake off the pernicious influence of Baalism. Such a man was found in Elisha, the son of a prosperous farmer of central Israel. Elisha’s immediate response to the call of Elijah revealed his sympathy with the point of view of the great prophet and his readiness and fitness to take up his work. Even in the flickering light of popular tradition, the character and methods of these two prophets are clearly revealed and they stand in striking contrast to each other. The one was the prophet of thunder and the sword; the other was the popular counsellor and diplomat, who attained his ends by persuasion and organization. Elisha’s field of activity was in court and camp. By virtue of his intimate knowledge of men and forces in Israel and his close touch with leaders and people, he saw fruits, where Elijah was only able to sow the seed. VII. Elijah’s Condemnation of Ahab’s Tyranny. On one other important occasion the flashlight of popular tradition reveals the work of Elijah. This time, like Amos and Micah, he figures as the champion of the oppressed, and voices the deep resentment with which the free, democratic Israelites viewed the encroachments of unscrupulous absolutism. Jezebel had brought to Ahab’s court not only the Baal cults but also the prevailing oriental idea of the relation between a king and his subjects. Ahab himself was an energetic organizer and builder. In extending his palace grounds, he desired to secure the vineyard of a certain Naboth that he might convert it into a vegetable garden. Naboth, however, refused to part with the land, preferring to maintain his ancestral right of inheritance even in the face of the king’s wishes. Ahab recognized that Naboth’s position was impregnable according to the accepted laws and traditions of Israel. Jezebel, however, trained in a very different court, tempted her husband to disregard the most sacred rights of his people and by injustice and murder to secure possession of the coveted vineyard. Doubtless Ahab’s act in yielding to the temptation was quickly known throughout the land of Israel, for such an act endangered the liberties of all his subjects. It was, therefore, a critical and dramatic moment in Israel’s history, when one of his subjects, Elijah, the Tishbite, dared to stand up before Ahab, as the king was about to take possession of the vineyard of Naboth, to denounce the royal culprit and to proclaim in the name of Jehovah the inevitable consequences of this bloody crime. VIII. The Significance of Elijah’s Work. In later literature and thought, Elijah stands as the classic example of a brave, effective herald of reform. In times of moral and religious degeneracy, later Judaism looked for his return or for the appearance of one who in his spirit would denounce all forms of apostasy and injustice, even though these were intrenched under the shadow of a throne or of a sanctuary. Elijah’s conception of Jehovah, however, appears to have been the same as that of Moses and the earlier leaders of his race. They were quite willing that Baal should be worshipped in Phœnicia; but in Jehovah’s land there was no place for a heathen god. His recognition of the Arameans as agents in accomplishing Jehovah’s purpose also suggests that broadening conception of the sphere of Jehovah’s influence, which became an accepted fact in the thought of Amos and Hosea. Elijah’s great work, however, appears to have been done not as a theologian but as a reformer, who stayed the encroachments of Baalism and championed the rights of the people against the fatal tyranny of their king. He was, therefore, the forerunner of the great social reformers of succeeding generations, who defined religion not merely in terms of belief and ritual but also in terms of justice and mercy. While he himself did not see the popular acceptance of the principles which he proclaimed, Elijah was the great informing spirit of his age, inspiring the activity of his disciple Elisha and preparing the way for the epoch-making prophets of the Assyrian period. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 93: 092. LXIV. THE DECLINE OF THE HOUSE OF AHAB ======================================================================== § LXIV. THE DECLINE OF THE HOUSE OF AHAB 1. The alliance against Aram (1 Kings 22:1-4). Then for three years they remained at peace, without there being war between Aram and Israel. But in the third year, when Jehoshaphat the king of Judah had come down to the king of Israel, the king of Israel said to his servants, Do you know that Ramoth in Gilead belongs to us, yet we sit still instead of taking it from the king of Aram? And he said to Jehoshaphat, Will you go with me to fight against Ramoth in Gilead? And Jehoshaphat said to the king of Israel, I am as you, my people as your people, my horses as your horses. 2. Encouraging message of the official prophets (1 Kings 22:5-8). Jehoshaphat also said to the king of Israel, Inquire at this time, I pray, for the word of Jehovah. Then the king of Israel gathered the prophets together, about four hundred men, and asked them, Shall I go to fight against Ramoth in Gilead or shall I forbear? And they said, Go up; for Jehovah will deliver it into the hand of the king. But Jehoshaphat said, Is there no other prophet of Jehovah, that we may inquire of him? And the king of Israel said, There is another by whom we may inquire of Jehovah, Micaiah the son of Imlah, but I hate him; for he prophesies for me nothing good, but only evil. And Jehoshaphat said, Let not the king say so. 3. Their prediction of victory (1 Kings 22:9-12). Then the king of Israel called an eunuch and said, Bring quickly Micaiah the son of Imlah. Now while the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah were sitting each on his throne, clad in his robes of state at the entrance of the gate of Samaria, and all the prophets were prophesying before them, Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah made for himself horns of iron and said, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘With these shalt thou push the Arameans until thou hast destroyed them!’ And all the prophets prophesied the same saying, Go up to Ramoth in Gilead; for Jehovah will deliver it into the hand of the king. 4. Micaiah’s prediction of defeat (1 Kings 22:13-17). And the messenger who went to call Micaiah said to him, See, now the prophets have with one consent promised good fortune for the king; therefore speak the same as they all do and prophesy good fortune. But Micaiah said, As Jehovah liveth, I will speak what Jehovah saith to me. And when he came to the king, the king said to him, Micaiah, shall we go to Ramoth in Gilead to fight or shall we forbear? And he answered him, Go up and prosper; and Jehovah will deliver it into the hand of the king! But the king said to him, How many times shall I adjure you that you speak to me nothing but the truth in the name of Jehovah? And he said, I saw all Israel scattered upon the mountains, as sheep that have no shepherd. And Jehovah said, ‘These have no master; let each of them go home in peace!’ 5. The lying spirit within the official prophets (1 Kings 22:18-23). And the king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, Did I not tell you that he would prophesy no good concerning me, but evil? And Micaiah said, Therefore hear the word of Jehovah: I saw Jehovah sitting on his throne and all the host of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left. And Jehovah said, ‘Who shall delude Ahab so that he will go up and fall at Ramoth in Gilead?’ And one proposed one thing and another another, until there came forth a spirit and stood before Jehovah and said, ‘I will delude him.’ And Jehovah said to him, ‘By what means?’ And he said, ‘I will go forth and become a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets.’ Thereupon he said, ‘Thou shalt delude him and shalt succeed also! Go forth and do so.’ So behold, Jehovah hath now put a lying spirit in the mouth of all these your prophets, since Jehovah hath determined to bring evil upon you. 6. Micaiah’s imprisonment (1 Kings 22:24-28). Then Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah came near and struck Micaiah on the cheek and said, Which way did the spirit of Jehovah go from me to speak to you? And Micaiah said, Indeed, you shall see on that day, when you shall go from one chamber to another to hide yourself. Then the king of Israel said, Take Micaiah and carry him back to Amon the governor of the city and to Joash the king’s son, and say, ‘Thus the king commands, “Put this fellow in prison and feed him with a scanty fare of bread and water until I return in peace.”’ And Micaiah said, If you indeed return in peace, Jehovah hath not spoken by me. 7. Ahab’s disguise (1 Kings 22:29-29). Then the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah went up to Ramoth in Gilead. And the king of Israel said to Jehoshaphat, I will disguise myself and go into the battle, but you can put on your robes. So the king of Israel disguised himself and went into the battle. Now the king of Aram had given orders to the thirty-two commanders of his chariots, saying, Fight with neither small nor great, except only with the king of Israel. Accordingly when the commanders of the chariots saw Jehoshaphat, they said, Surely, it is the king of Israel, and they surrounded him to fight against him, but Jehoshaphat cried out. Therefore, as soon as the commanders of the chariots saw that it was not the king of Israel, they turned back from pursuing him. 8. His fatal wound (1 Kings 22:34-53). But a certain man drew at a venture and smote the king of Israel between the attachments and the coat of mail. Therefore he said to the driver of his chariot, Turn about and carry me out of the army; for I am severely wounded. And the battle increased that day, and the king was propped up in his chariot against the Arameans until evening, and the blood ran out of the wound into the bottom of the chariot. But at evening he died. And toward sunset the cry went throughout the army, Each to his city and each to his land, for the king is dead! So they came to Samaria and buried the king in Samaria. And when they washed the chariot by the pool of Samaria, the dogs licked up his blood, and the harlots washed themselves in it, just as Jehovah had declared. 9.Résumeof his reign (1 Kings 22:39-40). Now the other acts of Ahab, and all that he did and the ivory house which he built and all the cities that he built, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? So Ahab slept with his fathers and Ahaziah his son became king in his place. 10. Ahaziah’s policy (1 Kings 22:51;1 Kings 22:53). Ahaziah the son of Ahab became king over Israel in Samaria in the seventeenth year of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and he reigned two years over Israel. And he served Baal and worshipped him, and provoked to anger Jehovah, the God of Israel, just as his father had done. 11. Ahaziah’s embassy to Ekron (2 Kings 1:2-4). Now Ahaziah fell out through the lattice in his upper apartment in Samaria, and lay sick. Then he sent messengers and commanded them, Go, inquire of Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron, whether or not I shall recover of this sickness. But the messenger of Jehovah said to Elijah the Tishbite, Arise, go up to meet the messengers of the king of Samaria and say to them, ‘Is it because there is no God in Israel, that ye go to inquire of Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron?’ Now therefore thus saith Jehovah, ‘Thou shalt not come down from the bed whither thou hast gone up, but thou shalt surely die.’ Then Elijah went away. 12. Report of the embassy (2 Kings 1:5-8). And when the messengers came back to him, he said to them, Why have you returned? And they said to him, A man came up to meet us and said to us, ‘Go back again to the king who sent you and say to him, “Thus saith Jehovah: Is it because there is no God in Israel that thou sendest to inquire of Baal-Zebub the god of Ekron? Therefore thou shalt not come down from the bed whither thou hast gone up, but shalt surely die.”’ And he said to them, What kind of man was he who told you these things? And they answered him, A man clad in a skin and girt with a leather girdle about his loins. Then he said, It is Elijah the Tishbite! 13. Jehoram’s policy (2 Kings 3:1-2). So Ahaziah died according to the word of Jehovah which Elijah had spoken. And Jehoram the son of Ahab became king over Israel in Samaria in the eighteenth year of Je-hoshaphat king of Judah, and he reigned twelve years. And he displeased Jehovah, but not as did his father and mother, for he put away the pillar of Baal that his father had made. 14. Mesha’s rebellion (2 Kings 3:4-5). Now Mesha king of Moab was a sheepmaster; and he rendered regularly to the king of Israel a tribute of a hundred thousand lambs and the wool of a hundred thousand rams. But after Ahab died, the king of Moab rebelled against the king of Israel. 15. Perplexity of the invading kings (2 Kings 3:6-12). And King Jehoram went out of Samaria at that time and mustered all Israel. Then he proceeded at once to send to Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, saying, The king of Moab has rebelled against me; will you go with me to fight against Moab? And he replied, I will come up; I am as you, my people as your people, my horses as your horses. And he inquired, Which way shall we go up? And he answered, By the way of the Wilderness of Edom. So the king of Israel went with the king of Judah and the king of Edom. And when they made a circuit of seven days’ journey, the army and the beasts that followed them had no water. And the king of Israel said, Alas! for Jehovah hath called these three kings together to deliver them into the hand of Moab! But Jehoshaphat said, Is there no prophet of Jehovah here that through him we may inquire of Jehovah? And one of the king of Israel’s servants answered and said, Elisha the son of Shaphat is here, who poured water on the hands of Elijah. And Jehoshaphat said, The word of Jehovah is with him. So the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat and the king of Edom went down to him. 16. Elisha’s prediction and its realization (2 Kings 3:13-20). And Elisha said to the king of Israel, What have I to do with you? Go to the prophets of your father and to the prophets of your mother! But the king of Israel said to him. No; for Jehovah hath called these three kings together to deliver them into the hand of Moab. And Elisha said, As surely as Jehovah of hosts liveth, whose servant I am, were it not that I have regard for the presence of Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, I would pay no attention to you. But now bring me a minstrel. And whenever the minstrel played, the power of Jehovah came upon him. And he said, Thus saith Jehovah, ‘I will make this torrentbed full of cisterns.’ For thus saith Jehovah, ‘Ye shall not see wind neither shall ye see rain; yet this torrent-bed shall be filled with water, so that ye yourselves together with your army and your beasts shall drink. But since this is only a slight thing in the sight of Jehovah, he also will deliver the Moabites into your hand. And ye shall smite every fortified city and fell all the good trees and stop up all the springs of water and destroy with stones all the good cultivated land.’ Accordingly in the morning, about the time when the offering is presented, water came suddenly from the direction of Edom, so that the country was filled with water. 17. The victory over the Moabites (2 Kings 3:21-25). Now when all the Moabites had heard that the kings had come up to fight against them, they gathered together all who were able to bear arms and upward, and stood on the border. But in the morning early, when the sun had risen on the water, the Moabites saw the water opposite them as red as blood. And they said, This is blood! The kings have surely fought together and they have smitten one another. Now therefore, Moab, to the spoil! And when they came to the camp of Israel, the Israelites rose up and smote the Moabites, so that they fled before them; and they went forward smiting the Moabites as they went. And they kept on destroying the cities; on all the good cultivated land they cast each his stone, until they filled it; all the springs of water they stopped up, and felled all the good trees, and they harried Moab until her sons were left in Kir-hareseth, and the slingers surrounded and smote it. 18. Desperate straits of the king of Moab (2 Kings 3:26-27). But when the king of Moab saw that the battle was too fierce for him, he took with him seven hundred men, armed with swords, to break through against the king of Edom, but they could not. Then he took his eldest son, who was to reign in his place, and offered him for a burnt-offering upon the wall. And great wrath came against Israel, so that they departed from him and returned to their own land. I. The Advance of Assyria. Henceforth Assyria becomes more and more the determining factor in the politics of southwestern Asia. The contemporary Assyrian and Moabite inscriptions indicate that the biblical extracts from the personal memoirs of Ahab, Elijah and Jehu give only a fragmentary picture of the real course of Northern Israel’s history. The great Assyrian conqueror, Shalmaneser II, records in his annals a campaign in the year 854 B.C. into central and southern Syria. At Karkar on the River Orontes, twenty miles north of Hamath, he was confronted by the allied armies of Syria. His detailed account sheds contemporary light upon conditions along the Mediterranean seaboard: “1,200 chariots, 1,200 horsemen, 20,000 men of Dad’idri (Hadadezer, Ben-hadad II), of Damascus; 700 chariots, 700 horsemen, 10,000 soldiers of Irhulini of Hamath; 2,000 chariots, 10,000 soldiers of Ahab of Israel; 500 soldiers of Guai; 10,000 soldiers of the land of Muçri; 10 chariots, 10,000 soldiers of the land of Irkanat; 200 soldiers of Matinu-baal (Mattan-baal) of Arvad; 200 soldiers of the land of Usanata; 30 chariots, 10,000 soldiers of Adnu-bali (Adoni-baal) of Shiana; 1,000 camels of Gindibu of Arba; . . . 1,000 soldiers of the Ammonite, Basa son of Ruhubi (Rehob); these twelve kings he (i.e., Irhulini) took to help him; for battle and combat they advanced against me. With the exalted succor, which Asshur, the lord, rendered, with the mighty power, which Nergal, who marched before me, bestowed, I fought with them. From Karkar to Gilzan I effected their defeat; 14,000 of their troops with weapons I slew; like Adar (the storm-god) I rained down a flood upon them; I scattered their corpses; the surface of the wilderness I filled with their many troops; with weapons I caused their blood to flow. . . . I took possession of the River Orontes. In the midst of that battle I captured their chariots, their horsemen and their teams.” It appears from this record that Ben-hadad of Damascus furnished the greater number of fighting men, although Ahab, perhaps as a result of his previous victories over the Arameans, was able to send a larger number of chariots. While the Assyrian king claimed that he won a sweeping victory, the result was by no means decisive. Hamath in the north met the chief brunt of the Assyrian attack, and Damascus seems for the time to have escaped invasion. The inscription is especially significant, for it contains the earliest reference in Assyrian annals to an Israelite king. For the first time, also, the Hebrew warriors met face to face the Assyrian foes who were destined for over two centuries to determine the course of Israel’s history. II. Micaiah and the Four Hundred False Prophets. As soon as the Assyrian invader retired, the old feud between Damascus and Northern Israel was revived. The contest was now for the possession of the city of Ramoth in Gilead, east of the Jordan, which was the natural eastern outpost of Israel and commanded the important highway of trade from Damascus to the port of Elath on the Red Sea and on to Arabia. Originally Ramoth had been held by the Israelites; but apparently in the days of Omri it had been captured by the Arameans. It was among the cities ceded by Ben-hadad I after his defeat and capture by Ahaz at the battle of Aphek. To strengthen his forces, Ahab summoned his ally, and possibly at this time vassal, Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, to join him in the campaign. Following the long-established custom, the king of Judah demanded that they should first consult the prophets of Jehovah regarding the outcome of the campaign. The prominence of the prophets at this time in Northern Israel is shown by the fact that Ahab is able at once to summon about four hundred. In the name of Jehovah these official prophets predicted victory with such unanimity that Jehoshaphat’s suspicions were aroused. It is evident in the light of the sequel that they were a body of prophets, apparently, like the prophets of Baal, connected with the royal sanctuaries and supported either directly or indirectly by court favor. Here again the indirect influence of Baalism may be recognized. Although they prophesied in the name of Jehovah, the God of Israel, it is evident that they were dominated by mercenary motives. Their presence shows how deep seated was the religious degeneracy against which the true prophets, like Elijah and Elisha, struggled. The incident also brings to the front, for a brief instant, another true prophet, who spoke not to secure royal favor, but as his deepest convictions dictated. Ahab’s reference to him indicates that Micaiah, like Elijah, found little to commend and much to condemn in the character and policy of the king. It was a striking scene when this unpopular prophet was brought into the presence of the allied kings of the north and the south and, in the face of the definite predictions of the four hundred royal prophets, declared that only calamity awaited the king and people of Israel. The sarcastic prediction of success with which Micaiah introduced his prophecy, revealed his supreme contempt for his mercenary fellow prophets, and for the king who was ready to sacrifice even truth and religion for the realization of his selfish policy. III. The Prototype of Satan. To confirm his prediction Micaiah uttered a parable which dramatically set forth the motive which actuated the false prophets. The heavenly scene thus pictured is strikingly similar to that presented in the opening chapters of the book of Job. Jehovah sits on his throne with angelic beings about him. The occasion is a divine council, corresponding to that at which the kings of Israel and Judah were then presiding. Jehovah’s disapproval of Ahab and his acts is implied by the question of how the king may be lured on to his ruin. Different counsels are suggested, until finally a certain spirit comes forth and proposes that Jehovah put a lying message in the mouth of his prophets. The proposal meets with the divine approval, and the spirit is commissioned to go forth and carry out his plan. Here is found the first allusion in Israel’s history to a heavenly being whose rôle corresponds in part to that of the Satan of later Jewish belief. He is still an accredited member of the heavenly hierarchy and his act meets with full approval, and yet he manifests a zeal in misleading mankind which is in many ways akin to that attributed to Satan in later Jewish thought. Although the story was clearly intended by Micaiah to be a dramatic illustration of his message, it would have been meaningless to his hearers were not the conceptions of Jehovah and of the angelic beings, which it reflects, already firmly fixed in the popular mind. The roots of these beliefs may be traced in the early Semitic mythology. The modifications are due to the influence of Israel’s faith, which attributed to Jehovah a transcendent position, far above all other heavenly beings. The incident discloses that broad underlying current of popular belief against which the true prophets of the latter day set their faces in their divinely inspired endeavor to proclaim the one supreme God of justice and love. Like Jeremiah and other true prophets Micaiah was obliged, for his true speaking, to suffer persecution and indignity at the hands of his false brethren, and imprisonment at the command of the king; but his action shows that at this critical period in Israel’s history Elijah and Elisha did not stand entirely alone. IV. Ahab’s Death. Following his own desire and the counsel of his false prophets, Ahab went forth to battle; but he bowed before Micaiah’s prediction so far as to disguise himself. Ahab’s importance as a commander and leader is indicated by the orders of the Aramean king to his captains that they direct the attack solely against the king of Israel. Jehoshaphat narrowly escaped falling a victim to this command. Ahab, however, was mortally wounded by a chance arrow; but with marvellous strength and courage he fought throughout the day, propped up in his chariot. When at evening he died and the news spread throughout his army, each man returned to his native town, and the Arameans were left in possession of Ramoth in Gilead. Thus died on the field of battle the most active and energetic warrior who ever sat on the throne of Northern Israel. Ahab’s courage in battle and his sagacity as a diplomat are unquestioned; but his ambition and his attitude toward his subjects were those of a tyrant. His latter days witnessed the beginning of the decay of that kingdom for which he had sacrificed the nobler religious ideals of his race. His supreme mistake was in trampling upon the liberties of his subjects and in disregarding Jehovah’s claim to the complete and absolute loyalty of his people. The good is often the enemy of the best. In the pursuit of a worthy, but not the noblest ambition revealed to his race and age, Ahab sinned and brought ultimate disaster upon his house and nation. V. The Reign of Ahaziah. Calamities in quick succession pursued the house of Ahab. Ahaziah, who succeeded him, suffered a severe accident. Tradition states that this son of Jezebel and Ahab sent messengers to consult Baal-Zebub the god of Ekron, regarding his recovery. In connection with this mission, Elijah for the last time appeared in Israel’s political history to protest against Ahaziah’s apostasy and to predict the death of the king, which speedily followed. VI. The War Against Moab. Little is recorded regarding Jehoram, the son of Ahab, who succeeded his brother Ahaziah. His reign must have been short; for contrary to the chronology of Kings, which attributes fourteen years to the reigns of Ahaziah and Jehoram, but twelve years elapsed between the time when, in 854 B.C., Ahab fought at Karkar and 842 B.C. when Jehu, who exterminated the house of Omri, paid tribute to the king of Assyria. Evidently the war with the Arameans continued; for at the time of his death Jehoram had been wounded in an engagement at Ramoth in Gilead. The chief event of his reign appears to have been a campaign against the Moabites. The contemporary inscription of Mesha, the Moabite king (cf. § LXIIiii), states definitely that the Israelites retained possession of Moab for forty years after its capture by Omri. It also gives a vivid description of the recapture of the northern Moabite cities by Mesha; of the putting to death of the Hebrew colonists in the name of the Moabite god, Chemosh, and of the fortification of these northern border towns: “And I fortified Baal-meon; and I made in it the reservoir; and I fortified Kirjathaim. And the men of Gad had occupied the land of Ataroth from of old; and the king of Israel built Ataroth for himself. And I fought against the city and took it. And I slew all the people; the city (became) a gazing-stock to Chemosh and to Moab. And from there I brought the altar-hearth of Dodoh (?); and I dragged it before Chemosh in Kerioth; and I caused the men of Sharon (?) to dwell there, and also the men of . . . “Then Chemosh said to me, ‘Go and take Nebo against Israel. So I went by night and fought against it from the break of dawn until noon, and I took it and slew them all—seven thousand men and women and . . . female slaves—for I had devoted it to Ashtar-chemosh. And I took from there the altar-hearths of Jehovah, and dragged them before Chemosh. And the king of Israel had fortified Jahaz, and occupied it while he fought against me. But Chemosh drove him out before me. I took two hundred men of Moab—all its poverty-stricken citizens—and I brought them into Jahaz and took possession of it, to add it to Dibon. “I fortified Karhoh, the wall of the forests and the wall of the acropolis. And I built its gates; and I built the royal palace; and I constructed the sluices of the reservoir for the water in the midst of the city. And there was no cistern in the midst of the city, in Karhoh; so I said to the people, ‘Each of you make a cistern in his own house.’ And I cut the trenches for Karhoh with the help of the prisoners of Israel. “I built Aroer, and I made the highway by the Arnon. I rebuilt Bethbamoth, for it had been overthrown. I rebuilt Bezer, for it was in ruins, (with the help of) fifty men of Dibon, for all Dibon was obedient. And I reigned over a hundred (chiefs) in the cities which I added to the land. And I built Medeba and Beth-diblathaim and Beth-baal-meon.” The campaign recorded in the popular Elisha stories evidently followed the Moabite rebellion recorded in the Mesha inscription. Again Jehoshaphat of Judah joined. his forces with those of his kinsman Jehoram (or Joram). To avoid the fortified cities in the north, the campaign was carried around the southern end of the Dead Sea. Elisha figures as the prophetic adviser of the allied kings. When their armies were threatened, because of lack of water in the barren region to the south of the Dead Sea, Elisha is represented as predicting, while in a state of ecstasy induced by music, that they should have an abundant supply of water and should overrun the land of the Moabites. Apparently the next morning, as the result of a heavy fall of rain in the uplands of Edom, the watercourses were filled with water as the prophet had predicted. The Moabites, misinterpreting natural phenomena, confidently attacked the allied Hebrew armies, but were defeated and put to flight. Southern Moab was conquered and pillaged and the king was shut up in one of his fortresses. The tradition states that in his extremity he sacrificed, as a burnt offering on the walls of the fortress, his eldest son in order to call forth the pity and aid of his god. The act apparently aroused the superstitious horror of the allies, for they retired without completing the conquest of Moab. This incident concludes the warlike history of the house of Omri. Under the leadership of this dynasty Israel had fought many and, for the most part, successful wars with the strong and bitter foes which encircled it. The effect of these wars between the petty states of Palestine had been, on the whole, disastrous, for they had only engendered greater bitterness, exhausted the natural resources of the land, and prepared the way for its ultimate conquest by Assyria which was slowly but surely advancing from the northeast. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 94: 093. LXV. JEHU’S REVOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ======================================================================== § LXV. JEHU’S REVOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES 1. Anointing of Jehu at Elisha’s command (2 Kings 9:1-6;2 Kings 9:10b). Now Elisha the prophet called one of the sons of the prophets and said to him, Gird up your loins, take this flask of oil in your hand and go to Ramoth in Gilead. And when you arrive there look for Jehu the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi, and go in and make him rise up from among his kinsmen and bring him into an inner chamber. Then take the flask of oil and pour it on his head and say, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “I have anointed thee king over Israel.”’ Then open the door and flee without delay. So the young man (the servant of the prophet) went to Ramoth in Gilead. And just as he arrived, the commanders of the army were sitting together. And he said, I have a word for you, O commander. And Jehu said, To which of us all? And he said, To you, O commander. Then he arose and went into the house. And [the young man] poured the oil on his head and said to him, Thus saith Jehovah, the God of Israel, ‘I have anointed thee king over Jehovah’s people Israel.’ Then he opened the door and fled. 2. Proclamation of Jehu as king (2 Kings 9:11-13). When Jehu came out to the servants of his lord, they asked him, Is all well? Why did this insane fellow come to you? And he said to them, You know the man and his talk. And they said, It is false! Tell us now. And he said, Thus and thus he spoke to me, saying, ‘Thus saith Jehovah, “I have anointed thee king over Israel.”’ Then they quickly took each his garment, laid it at his feet and on the bare stairs, and blew the trumpet, crying, Jehu is king! 3. His plan to slay Joram (2 Kings 9:14-16). So Jehu the son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi, conspired against Joram. Now Jehu, together with all Israel, was defending Ramoth in Gilead against Hazael king of Aram, but King Joram had returned to be healed in Jezreel of the wounds which the Arameans had given him, when he fought with Hazael king of Aram. And Jehu said, If it be in your mind, then let none escape from the city to go to tell it in Jezreel. Then Jehu mounted his chariot and went to Jezreel, for Joram lay there. And Ahaziah king of Judah had come down to see Joram. 4.His proach to Jezreel (2 Kings 9:17-20). Now the watchman was standing on the tower of Jezreel, when he saw the cloud of dust about Jehu, as he came, and said, I see a cloud of dust. And Joram said, Take a horseman and send him to meet them that he may inquire whether all is well. So one went on horseback to meet him and said, Thus saith the king, ‘Is all well?’ And Jehu replied, What have you to do with welfare? Turn about and follow me. So the watchman reported, The messenger came to them, but comes not back. Then he sent out a second horseman who came to them and said, Thus saith the king, ‘Is all well?’ And Jehu answered, What have you to do with welfare? Turn about and follow me. So the watchman reported, He also came to them but comes not back; however, the driving is like the driving of Jehu the son of Nimshi, for he is wont to drive furiously. 5. Joram’s death by the hand of Jehu (2 Kings 9:21-26). Then Joram said, Make ready. And as soon as they had made ready his chariot, Joram king of Israel and Ahaziah king of Judah set out, each in his chariot, and they went to meet Jehu and found him in the field of Naboth the Jezreelite. And when Joram saw Jehu, he said, Is all well, Jehu? And he answered, How can all be well, as long as the whoredoms of your mother Jezebel and her witchcrafts are so many? Then Joram turned about to flee, and said to Ahaziah, Treachery, Ahaziah! But Jehu, being already armed, shot his bow and struck Joram between his shoulders, so that the arrow went through his heart and he sank down in his chariot. Then Jehu said to Bidkar his captain, Take him up and cast him in the field of Naboth the Jezreelite, for I remember how that, when I and you rode together after Ahab his father, Jehovah pronounced this judgment upon him: ‘Surely I saw yesterday the blood of Naboth and his sons,’ saith Jehovah; ‘and I will requite thee in this plot,’ saith Jehovah. Now therefore take and cast him into this plot, according to the word of Jehovah. 6. Ahaziah’s death (2 Kings 9:27-28). But when Ahaziah the king of Judah saw this, he fled in the direction of Beth-gannim. And Jehu followed after him, with the command, Him also! Smite him in the chariot! And they smote him at the ascent of Gur, which is by Ibleam. But he fled to Megiddo and died there. And his servants carried him in a chariot to Jerusalem, and buried him in his sepulchre with his fathers in the city of David. 7. Jezebel’s fate (2 Kings 9:30-37). Then Jehu came to Jezreel. And as soon as Jezebel heard of it, she painted her eyes, attired her head, and looked out at the window. And as Jehu came in at the gate, she said, Is all well, you Zimri, your master’s murderer? But he looked up to the window and said, Who is on my side? who? And two or three eunuchs looked at him. And he said, Throw her down. And they threw her down so that some of her blood was spattered on the wall and on the horses, and he trod her under foot. Then he went in and ate and drank. Thereupon he gave the command, See now to this cursed woman and bury her, for she is a king’s daughter. But when they went to bury her, they found no more of her than the skull, the feet, and the hands. When, therefore, they came back and told him, he said, This is the word of Jehovah, which he spoke by his servant Elijah the Tishbite, saying, ‘In the plot of Jezreel shall the dogs eat Jezebel’s flesh, and the body of Jezebel shall be as dung on the face of the field in the plot of Jezreel, so that they cannot say, “This is Jezebel.”’ 8. Jehu’s in structions regarding Ahab’s descendants (2 Kings 10:1-6). Now Ahab had seventy descendants in Samaria. And Jehu wrote letters and sent to Samaria, to the rulers of the city, to the elders, and those who had charge of the descendants of Ahab, saying, Now as soon as this letter comes to you, since you have with you your master’s sons, and chariots and horses, fortified cities and arms; choose the best and most capable of your master’s sons, and set him on his father’s throne and fight for your master’s house. But they were exceedingly afraid and said, Behold, the two kings could not stand before him, how then shall we stand? And he who was over the household and he who was over the city, together with the elders and the guardians, sent to Jehu, saying, We are your servants and we will do all that you bid us; we will not make any one king; do what you please. Then he wrote a second letter to them, saying, If you are on my side and if you wish to obey me, then take each of you the head of your master’s son [entrusted to you], and meet me at Jezreel to-morrow at this time. Now the king’s sons, seventy in all, were with the great men of the city, who brought them up. 9. Slaughter of Ahab’s descendants and friends (2 Kings 10:7-11). And as soon as the letter came to them, they took the king’s sons and slew them, seventy in all, and put their heads in baskets and sent them to him to Jezreel. And when the messenger came and told him, saying, They have brought the heads of the king’s sons, he said, Lay them in two heaps at the entrance of the gate until the morning! And in the morning he went out and stood and said to all the people, You are fair-minded: to be sure I conspired against my master and slew him, but who smote all these? Know now that of the word of Jehovah, which Jehovah spoke against the house of Ahab by his servant Elijah, nothing shall fail of fulfilment. Thereupon Jehu smote all who remained of the house of Ahab in Jezreel, together with all his great men and his kinsmen and his priests, until he left him none remaining. 10. Of the Judean princes (2 Kings 10:12-14). Then Jehu set out on the way to Samaria. And as he was at Beth-eked of the shepherds on the way, Jehu met the kinsmen of Ahaziah king of Judah, and said, Who are you? And they answered, We are the kinsmen of Ahaziah, and we have come to visit the children of the king and the children of the queen-mother. And he said, Take them alive. And they took them alive and slew them at the pit of Beth-eked, forty-two men, so that not one of them was left. 11. Compact with Jehonadab (2 Kings 10:15-16). And when he had departed from there he found Jehona-dab the son of Rechab coming to meet him. And he saluted him and said to him, Is your heart in sincere sympathy with my heart, as mine is with yours? And Jehonadab answered, It is. Then Jehu said, If it be, give me your hand. And he gave him his hand; and he took him up to him into the chariot. And he said, Come with me, and see my zeal for Jehovah. So he made him ride in his chariot. 12. Destruction of the Baal worshippers (2 Kings 10:17-27). And when he came to Samaria, he smote all who remained to Ahab in Samaria, until he had destroyed all, according to the word of Jehovah which he spoke to Elijah. Then Jehu gathered all the people together and said to them, Ahab served Baal a little; but Jehu will serve him much. Now therefore call all the prophets of Baal, all his worshippers and all his priests; let none remain behind; for I will make a great sacrifice to Baal; whoever shall remain behind shall not live. But Jehu did it with the secret purpose of destroying the worshippers of Baal. Then Jehu said, Proclaim a solemn assembly for Baal. And they proclaimed it. And Jehu sent through all Israel, and all the worshippers of Baal came, so that there was not a man left who did not come. And when they had come into the temple of Baal, so that the temple of Baal was filled from one end to the other, he said to the one who was in charge of the wardrobe, Bring out garments for all the worshippers of Baal. And he brought out garments for them. Then Jehu, with Jehonadab the son of Rechab, went into the temple of Baal, and said to the worshippers of Baal, Search, and look that there may not be here with you any of the servants of Jehovah, but only worshippers of Baal. Thereupon he went in to offer sacrifices and burnt-offerings. Now Jehu had appointed eighty men outside with the command, The man who allows any of the men, whom I entrust into your hands, to escape, his life shall be for the life of him. And as soon as he had finished offering the burnt-offering, Jehu said to the runners and to the captains, Go in, and slay them, let none come forth. And they put them to the sword, and the runners and the captains cast them out, and went into the sanctuary of the temple of Baal. Then they brought out the asherah from the temple of Baal and burned it, and broke down the pillar of Baal and destroyed the temple of Baal and made it a draught-house to this day. 13. Political history (2 Kings 10:32-36). In those days Jehovah began to loathe Israel, and Hazael smote them in all the territory of Israel, from the Jordan toward the east, all the land of Gilead, the Gadites, the Reubenites, and the Manassites, from Aroer by the valley of the Arnon, including Gilead and Bashan. Now the other acts of Jehu and all that he did, and all his brave deeds, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? And Jehu slept with his fathers, and they buried him in Samaria. And Jehoahaz his son became king in his place. And the time that Jehu reigned over Israel in Samaria was twenty-eight years. 14. The disastrous Aramean invasions (2 Kings 13:1-9) In the twenty-third year or Joash the son of Ahaziah king of Judah, Jehoahaz the son of Jehu became king over Israel in Samaria; and he reigned seventeen years. And he did that which displeased Jehovah, and the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat with which he led Israel into sin—he did not depart from them. And the anger of Jehovah was kindled against Israel and he delivered them continually into the hand of Hazael king of Aram, and into the hand of Ben-hadad the son of Hazael. Then Jehoahaz besought Jehovah, and Jehovah hearkened to him; for he saw the oppression of Israel, how that the king of Aram oppressed them. Therefore Jehovah gave Israel a saviour, so that they escaped from the hand of the Arameans, and the Israelites could dwell in their homes as formerly. Nevertheless they did not depart from the sins of the house of Jeroboam, with which he led Israel into sin, but walked therein. Also the asherah in Samaria remained standing. And he left to Jehoahaz of the people not more than fifty horsemen, ten chariots, and ten thousand footmen; for the king of Aram destroyed them and made them like the dust in the threshing. Now the other acts of Jehoahaz and all that he did and his brave deeds, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? And Jehoahaz slept with his fathers and they buried him in Samaria. And Jehoash his son became king in his place. 15. Partial deliverance from the Arameans (2 Kings 13:10-23). In the thirty-seventh year of Joash king of Judah, Jehoash the son of Jehoahaz became king over Israel in Samaria, and reigned sixteen years. And he did that which displeased Jehovah; he did not depart from all the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat with which he led Israel into sin, but he walked therein. Now Hazael king of Aram oppressed Israel all the days of Jehoahaz. But Jehovah was gracious to them and had compassion on them, and turned again to them, because of his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and would not destroy them nor as yet cast them from his presence. 16. Recovery of the cities (2 Kings 13:24-25). But when Hazael king of Aram died, Ben-hadad his son became king in his place. Then Jehoash the son of Jehoahaz took again from Ben-hadad the son of Hazael the cities which he had taken in war from Jehoahaz his father. Three times Jehoash smote him and thus recovered the cities of Israel. 17. End of Jehoash’s reign (2 Kings 14:15-16). Now the other acts of Jehoash which he did and his mighty deeds, and how he fought with Amaziah king of Judah, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? And Jehoash slept with his fathers, and was buried in Samaria with the kings of Israel. And Jeroboam his son became king in his place. 18. Extension of the boundaries of Israel (2 Kings 14:23-27). In the fifteenth year of Amaziah the son of Joash king of Judah, Jeroboam the son of Jehoash king of Israel became king of Israel in Samaria and reigned forty-one years. And he did that which displeased Jehovah: he did not depart from all the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat with which he led Israel into sin. He restored the boundaryline of Israel from the entrance to Hamath to the sea of Arabah, according to the word of Jehovah, the God of Israel, which he spoke by his servant Jonah the son of Amittai, the prophet who was of Gath-hepher. For Jehovah saw the very bitter affliction of Israel, that none was shut up nor left at large, and that there was no helper for Israel. But Jehovah had not determined to blot out the name of Israel from under heaven, so he saved them through Jeroboam the son of Jehoash. 19. Conclusion (2 Kings 14:28-29). Now the other acts of Jeroboam, and all that he did, and his brave deeds, how he carried on war and how he recovered Damascus and Hamath for Israel, are they not recorded in the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel? And Jeroboam slept with his fathers, even with the kings of Israel. And Zechariah his son became king in his place. I. The Prophetic Guilds. The policy of Ahab and the aggressive proselyting activity of Jezebel on the one hand, with the courageous preaching of Elijah and the more quiet educational work of Elisha on the other, developed in Israel a strong and growing party whose watchword was absolute and uncompromising loyalty to Jehovah. The great prophets, like Elijah, Elisha and Micaiah, were the natural leaders in this movement; but it is evident from the popular Elisha stories that the so-called “sons of the prophets” were especially active at this period, and that they were in close touch with the prophetic leaders. Their presence and prominence are evidence of the growing popular reaction against the encroachments of Baalism. From the references in the popular traditions it is evident that the sons of the prophets lived together in guilds with their wives and children, all sharing a common table. These prophetic guilds were connected with the ancient sanctuaries, such as Bethel, Gilgal and Samaria. As in the days of Samuel, their religious exercises apparently consisted of frenzied ecstasy induced by song and music. The fact that their frenzy was infectious may in part explain why they joined themselves together in guilds. From the reference in I Kings 2041 it may be inferred that the members of each guild bore a certain distinguishing mark. While there is no direct evidence, there is every reason to believe that the popular stories in the historical books of the Old Testament, and especially those which gather about the names of Elijah and Elisha, grew up and were transmitted within the circle of those prophetic societies. From II Kings 438 and 61 it may also be inferred that the sons of the prophets, as disciples, at times received instruction from leading prophets like Elisha. At this period of their history, however, the sons of the prophets figure as more than mere religious enthusiasts. Their zeal for Jehovah impelled them to adopt active measures to drive out the hated followers of Baal. While they themselves probably never took up the sword, it is clear that they aroused public opinion and actively engaged in the politics of their day. They appealed both to the patriotism and to the religious emotions of the people. Their narrowness, intensity and devotion increased the strength of their appeal. Their influence with the people must have been great, for they shared the popular conceptions of Jehovah and enjoyed that peculiar reverence which the ancient East was always ready to pay to those who gave evidence of being under the influence of a supernatural power. II. The Jehovah Party in Israel. Doubtless to the same group of devoted followers of Jehovah belonged Jonadab, whose descendants, the Rechabites, according to Jeremiah 35, still retained down to the period of the Babylonian exile their peculiar life and traditions (§ LXXXVII 18–23). Their aim was evidently to preserve in its simple purity the old nomadic religion of Jehovah. They were, therefore, bitterly opposed to that Canaanite civilization which had been adopted by the rank and file of the Northern Israelites. They and the Nazirites, whose vow was in many ways similar, stood as a permanent protest against the corruption, intemperance and luxury of the dominant Canaanite civilization. As the evils of Baalism became more apparent and calamity began to overshadow the house of Ahab, the zealous but narrow champions of Jehovah began to enlist a wider sympathy and following from the mass of the nation. At last when Joram, the king of Israel, had been smitten by an Aramean foe, the moment seemed ripe for action. It was natural that the rebellion should be instigated by Elisha, the disciple of Elijah and the recognized leader of the zealous Jehovah party. III. The Anointing of Jehu. The revolution itself is recorded fully and vividly in a narrative which is closely related in language, point of view and interest, to the early Elijah stories. Jehu, the commander of the forces of Israel engaged in the siege of the famous city of Ramoth in Gilead, was chosen, because of his position and ruthless energy, to head the revolt. The account implies that there was already an understanding between him and Elisha. As a signal to the people that the right moment for action had arrived and to Jehu that he had the support of the representatives of Jehovah, one of the sons of the prophets was dispatched by Elisha to anoint Jehu. The anointing, which signified a divine call to an unique service, and, in the case of a military leader like Jehu, to nothing less than the kingship of Israel, was performed in secret; but it soon became known to the other officers in the army. So far had the spirit of reaction against the house of Ahab permeated even the military class, that they immediately proclaimed Jehu king. Leaving the warriors behind, with the command that no one be allowed to follow him, Jehu set out alone in hot haste to establish his title to the kingship by slaying the reigning king. Fortune favored the revolutionist. Joram, with his guest and kinsman, Ahaziah, king of Judah, came out to meet Jehu. The place of the meeting was the field of Naboth with its tragic memories. To the king’s salutation, “Is all well?” Jehu replied that conditions could not be well, while the malign influence of Jezebel dominated the court and kingdom. Then as the king, alarmed by this ominous reply, turned to flee, he fell mortally wounded by the hand of Jehu, and his body was cast into the field of Naboth. Ahaziah, of Judah, whose mother was the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, was also slain at Jehu’s command. IV. Jehu’s Bloody Reform Measures. Personal ambition and blind religious zeal were so blended in the energetic, ruthless character of Jehu that his revolution was the most bloody recorded in all of Israel’s history. Jezebel was naturally his next victim. Attired in all her finery, the aged queen met him with a bitter taunt. To the last she played consistently the rôle of an imperious queen. No one was found in the court or land of Israel to take up the sword in defence of Jezebel or the house of Ahab. Ignominiously she died, and her fate was regarded as signal evidence of a divine judgment and a fulfilment of the stern prediction of Elijah. From the point of view of her race and religion, Jezebel was doubtless adjudged a supremely able and devoted servant of the Baal of Tyre. From the point of view of Israel, she was the evil genius who brought divine displeasure and calamity upon Ahab, his family and his kingdom. Ahab’s descendants in Samaria were also put to death at Jehu’s instigation. Even the Judean princes, who were captured in the territory of Northern Israel, did not escape Jehu’s mad zeal to root out all offspring of the hated house of Ahab. By this act the friendly relation, which had been established between the two Hebrew kingdoms in the days of Ahab, was forever severed. According to the tradition, Jehu’s religious fervor was not cooled until all the prophets and worshippers of Baal, together with the pillar an 1 temple, were completely destroyed. Jehu’s acts were doubtless approved by the extremists of his day. It is true that the evils which he undertook to correct were deep-seated and deadly. Disloyalty to Jehovah was counted in ancient Israel as treason, and treason in all ages has been punished by death. Jehu also lived before the conception of Jehovah as the God not only of justice but of love had been clearly proclaimed to the race. But measured even by the standards of his own age, his deeds as recorded by tradition cannot be wholly justified. Politically, Jehu’s policy of slaying the leaders of his nation was as disastrous as it was indefensible. It left his kingdom weak and open to attack on every side at the moment when all its strength was needed to meet the great dangers which impended. The prophet Hosea, who saw clearly the mistakes of the past, absolutely condemned Jehu’s bloody acts (§ LXIX 2). V. Jehu’s Tribute to Assyria. Although the biblical narrative contains no reference to the event, it appears from the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser II, that in 842 B.C., Jehu, together with the Tyrians and Sidonians, paid tribute to the Assyrian king. This tribute consisted of “silver, gold, a golden bowl, golden goblets, a golden ladle, golden pitchers, bars of lead, a sceptre for the hand of the king and spear shafts.” This tribute is a confession of weakness and reveals Jehu’s desire not only to purchase immunity from the attack of the Assyrians, but also to secure their aid in establishing his position on the throne of Israel. It marks a complete reversal of the policy of the house of Ahab, which had so valiantly fought against the Assyrian invader. At this time, and also in 839 B.C., the Arameans suffered most from the Assyrian attack; but the city of Damascus survived the siege, and when the Assyrian armies retired, the kingdom of Damascus, under Hazael, rapidly recovered its strength and supremacy. VI. The Cruel Oppression by the Arameans. During the half century following 839 B.C., the fortunes of Northern Israel reached their lowest ebb. Hazael of Damascus proved an ambitious and energetic ruler. He was not slow to avenge the disloyalty of Jehu in paying tribute to their common foe Assyria. His armies ravaged the east-Jordan territory of Gilead and Bashan, and even penetrated as far south as the Philistine town of Gath, which was completely destroyed. The barbarity of the conqueror knew no limit. Cities were pillaged, men were pitilessly slain, women were ravished, and Hebrew children were dragged off to cruel slavery. Even before the death of Jehu, all of the east-Jordan territory, including Moab, appears to have been captured by the Arameans. Under Jehoahaz, Jehu’s son and successor, Northern Israel suffered even greater reverses and indignities, which the biblical historian passes over with the general but significant statement that “the king of Aram destroyed the Israelites and made them like the dust in the threshing.” Only fifty horsemen, ten chariots and ten thousand footmen remained to protect the northern kingdom, which at this time had probably become but a dependency of Damascus. It is perhaps from this period that the story in II Kings 624–717 comes, which tells of a siege of Samaria by the Arameans so severe that in their hunger the people within the city were beginning to devour their own children. VII. The Revival of Northern Israel under Jehoash and Jeroboam. In 803 B.C. Damascus, together with Tyre, Sidon and Israel, paid tribute to Adad-nirari III, the Assyrian king who was then carrying on war against the states of northern Syria. According to the biblical narrative, at the accession of Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, which occurred about this time, the tide of battle turned and Israel began to regain its independence and lost territory. The reason given by the author of Kings for this change was because “Jehovah raised up a saviour for Israel.” Hitherto this saviour has been identified with Assyria; but from the contemporary inscriptions it is clear that for the next thirty years, to the end of the reign of Shalmaneser III, the Assyrians were fully occupied at home defending their empire from the attack of the northern kingdom of Urartu. In the light of an Aramaic inscription recently discovered in Northern Assyria by M. Pognon, the French consul in Mesopotamia, it would now appear that the saviour which delivered the Northern Israelites from the cruel rule of Damascus was another Aramean kingdom which rose to power at the beginning of the eighth century before Christ, and conquered Damascus, as well as northern Syria. The inscription consists of four stone fragments, the lower part of a monolith once surmounted by a statue, probably representing the conquering king who reared the monument. Of the fifty or sixty lines, but fifteen are well preserved; but these and the remaining fragments make it possible to determine the general purport of the inscription. The first part, which is the best preserved, reads: “The stele which Zakar, king of Hamath and Laash, erected to El-Ur and inscribed it, ZAKAR KING OF HAMATH AND LAASH. “I was a man of humble birth and the Lord of Heaven helped me and supported me, and the Lord of Heaven made me king over Hazrak. And Ben-hadad son of Hazael king of Aram united against me seventeen kings. Ben-hadad and his army, Ben-raggash and his army, and the king of Cilicia and his army, and the king of Aruk and his army, and the king of Gurgum and his army, and the king of Samal and his army, and the king of Miliz . . . and seven kings and their armies. All these kings laid siege to Hazrak. And they raised a wall higher than the wall of Hazrak, and dug a trench deeper than its trench. Then I lifted up my hands to the Lord of Heaven, and the Lord of Heaven answered and spoke to me through seers and astrologers and said to me: ‘Fear not, for I made thee king, and will support thee and will deliver thee from these kings who are besieging thee.’” From the broken fragments which follow it is clear that this otherwise unknown king of Hazrak utterly vanquished his foes and conquered their territory. Of his two later capitals, Hamath was the famous city on the River Orontes in central Syria. Since the discoverer has not yet disclosed the place at which the inscription was discovered, the site of Hazrak has not yet been made public. It is clearly to be identified with the Hadrach referred to in Zechariah 91 in connection with Damascus and in the Assyrian Eponym Canon as Hatarikka, situated somewhere to the north of Damascus. The rise of this powerful yet hitherto almost unknown kingdom must have been somewhere between 800 and 772 B.C., for in 772 the Assyrian king Ashurdan III made an expedition against Damascus, and in the following year another against Hatarikka. The statement is so brief in the Eponym Canon that there is no suggestion regarding the result of these campaigns, but inasmuch as they were not repeated and the remainder of the reign of Ashurdan, until 755 B.C., was devoted to suppressing rebellions nearer home, it would seem clear that the strength of the northern Aramean kingdom founded by Zakar remained unbroken, possibly until the middle of the eighth century. The hour of Damascus’s humiliation was Northern Israel’s opportunity. Jehoash of Israel and his successor Jeroboam II, in a series of campaigns against the Damascenes, recovered their ancient territory and reestablished their prestige, until the boundary of Israel extended from the territory of the Aramean kingdom with its capital at Hamath in the north, to the southeast of the Dead Sea. Even Amaziah, the strong king of Judah, who rashly challenged Jehoash to ‘battle, was defeated, and part of the wall of Jerusalem was torn down. From the people of Judah, as well as from the neighboring nations whom they had conquered, the kings of Israel received rich spoil and tribute. The victories and prosperity of the reign of Jeroboam II were all the more impressive because of the contrast with the defeats and calamities of the preceding years. It was the Indian summer of Northern Israel’s history. Overconfidence succeeded the former despondency, and the leaders of the people began to shut their eyes to existing evils and to dream of a world-wide empire. The end for which Elijah and Elisha had struggled—the extermination of Baalism in Israel—had been realized, and the nation had at last recovered from the shock of Jehu’s revolution. But new political and social dangers loomed on Israel’s horizon, and a new type of prophet and a far broader and truer conception of Jehovah and of his demands were required to guide the people in meeting these new crises. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 95: 094. LXVI. AMOS’S ARRAIGNMENT OF NORTHERN ISRAEL ======================================================================== § LXVI. AMOS’S ARRAIGNMENT OF NORTHERN ISRAEL 1. The crimes of the Arameans (Amos 1:3). Thus saith Jehovah: For three transgressions of Damascus, Yea, for four, I will not revoke it; Because they have thrashed Gilead with thrashing instruments of iron. 2. Judgment awaiting them (Amos 1:4-5). Therefore I will send fire into the house of Hazael, And it shall devour the palaces of Ben-hadad, And I will break the bar of Damascus, And I will cut off the inhabitants from the valley of Aven, And him who holdeth the sceptre from Beth-Eden; And the people of Aram shall go into captivity to Kir, Saith Jehovah. 3. Crimea of the Philistines (Amos 1:6). Thus saith Jehovah: For three transgressions of Gaza, Yea, for four, I will not revoke it; Because they carried away captive all the people, To deliver them up to Edom. 4. Judgment that awaits them (Amos 1:7-8). Therefore I will send fire on the wall of Gaza, And it shall devour her palaces. And I will cut off the inhabitants from Ashdod, And him who holds the sceptre from Askelon, And I will turn my hand against Ekron, And the remnant of the Philistines shall perish, Saith Jehovah. 5. Crimes of the Ammonites (Amos 1:13). Thus saith Jehovah, For three transgressions of the Ammonites, Yea, for four, I will not revoke it; Because they have ripped up the pregnant women of Gilead, That they might enlarge their border. 6. Judgment that awaits them (Amos 1:14-15). Therefore I will kindle a fire on the wall of Rabbah, And it shall destroy her palaces, With a war-cry in the day of battle, With a tempest in the day of the whirlwind. And their king shall go into exile, He and his nobles together, Saith Jehovah. 7. Crimes of the Moabites (Amos 2:1-2c). Thus saith Jehovah: For three transgressions of Moab, Yea, for four, I will not revoke it; Because they have burned the bones of the king of Edom, To desecrate the dead on account of violence done to Moab. 8. Judgment that awaits them (Amos 2:2a, b,d,Amos 2:3). Therefore I will send a fire into Moab, And it shall devour the palaces of Kirioth, With war-cry, with the sound of trumpets; And I will cut off the ruler from her midst, And all his nobles will I slay with him, Saith Jehovah. 9. The superlative crimes of the Israelites (Amos 2:6-8). Thus saith Jehovah: For three transgressions of Israel, Yea, for four, I will not revoke it; Because they sell the righteous for money, And the needy for a pair of shoes. Who trample on the head of the poor, And turn aside the way of the humble. And a man and his father go into the same maid, And so profane my holy name; Upon garments taken in pledge they stretch themselves beside every altar, And the wine of those who have been fined they drink in the house of their God. 10. What Jehovah has done for them (Amos 2:10;Amos 2:9). And yet it was I who brought you up from the land of Egypt, And led you forty years in the wilderness, And brought you hither to possess the land of the Amorites. And it was I who destroyed from before you the Amorite. Whose height was like that of the cedars, and he was strong as the oaks; Yet I destroyed his fruit from above and his roots from beneath. 11. Instruction by prophets and Nazirites (Amos 2:11-12). Moreover I raised up some of your sons to be prophets and some of your youths to be Nazirites. Is not this indeed so, O Israel? It is the oracle of Jehovah. But ye made the Nazirites drink wine and upon the prophets ye laid a prohibition. 12. Judgment Behold it is I who will make you groan in your places, As groans a wagon under its load of sheaves. 13. Impossibility of escape (Amos 2:14-16). Then shall refuge fail the swift, And the strongest shall not avail himself of his strength, Neither shall the warrior deliver himself, Nor he who handles the bow stand, Nor the swift of foot escape. Even he who is mounted shall not save his life; But he who is stoutest of heart among warriors Shall flee away naked in that day; It is the oracle of Jehovah. I. Political Conditions in Northern Israel under Jeroboam II. The long and prosperous reign of Jeroboam II (781–740 B.C.) marks the zenith of Northern Israel’s prosperity. The east-Jordan territory had been reconquered from the Arameans. The Moabites had apparently been reduced to subjection, and the Ammonites on the east and the Philistines on the west ceased to be a menace to Israel’s peace. Except in the south, the old boundaries of David’s empire were reestablished. Peace gave the Northern Israelites ample opportunity to develop the rich natural resources of their kingdom. They felt that they had again taken their place among the great nations of southwestern Asia. Their success and prosperity were interpreted as clear evidence of Jehovah’s favor and an earnest that he had still greater conquests and glories in store for them. The political situation, however, afforded no basis for these vain delusions. Already the Assyrian armies, after having been detained for nearly a century by local uprisings and internal dissensions, were beginning to move westward. Against the numerous, well-equipped forces of Assyria the petty people of Syria and Palestine were practically helpless. Israel’s danger was all the greater, because the leaders of the nation were shutting their eyes to the ominous facts. II. Society and Religion in Israel. Social conditions within Israel were equally alarming. In the early days each Hebrew lived on his own hereditary estate. The native slave class appears to have been small. There was no marked distinction between king, noble and subject. The Aramean wars, however, had fundamentally altered these simple conditions. In the protracted disastrous campaigns many of the free Israelite families had lost their hereditary estates and had been reduced to servitude; for slavery for himself or his family was the fate of every Hebrew who could not pay his debts. Moreover, Jehu’s revolution had brought to the front a strong military class that had been brutalized by the horrible bloodshed and cruelty which had characterized the Aramean wars. Returning prosperity brought wealth and opportunities for commerce to the nobles, who enjoyed the royal patronage, but only greater bondage to the poverty-stricken masses, who were at the mercy of their greedy creditors and cruel rulers. The social evils of the East soon became glaringly apparent. Among Semitic peoples judicial decisions were always referred either to the civil or religious officials. When the rulers were corrupt, the dependent classes were constantly subject to a type of legalized robbery from which there was no redress. Thus through bribery and unjust decisions the common people were reduced still further to a condition of servitude; the free middle class almost entirely disappeared; and, in their new and mad zeal to build palaces and to indulge in the prevailing forms of luxury, the rulers neglected more and more the demands of ordinary justice and mercy. The old popular Semitic conception of religion still prevailed. As long as the rulers brought rich sacrifices to the sanctuaries and faithfully met the demands of the ritual, they were confident of Jehovah’s favor and protection and were blind to the glaring contrast between their public professions and their private acts. The very offerings which they brought to Jehovah were wrested from their dependent fellow-countrymen by injustice or oppression. Even the great religious festivals at the sanctuaries were characterized by gluttony, drunkenness and immorality; and yet they believed that they were thus by the splendor of their ritual purchasing Jehovah’s continued favor. The situation was well calculated to arouse the apprehensions of an enlightened onlooker and to stir him to strenuous action. III. Date of Amos’s Appearance. The superscription to the book of Amos gives little aid in determining the prophet’s date, for it represents a period of nearly half a century. The two kings of Israel and Judah, Jeroboam II and Uzziah, reigned contemporaneously between the years 780 and 740 B.C. From references within the book it is clear that Amos’s activity belonged to the latter rather than to the earlier part of this period. The political, social and economic conditions in Northern Israel, reflected in the prophet’s addresses, indicate that many years had elapsed since the tide of prosperity turned toward Northern Israel. From paragraphs 3 and 4, it may be inferred that Gath had already been captured by Uzziah. The reference to the eclipse in § LXVIII11 is probably to the solar eclipse of 763 B.C., recorded in the Assyrian Eponym Canon. During the reigns of Shalmaneser III and Ashurdan III the Assyrian armies had ceased (except in the two campaigns of 772–1 B.C., cf. § LXV vii) to invade the West Country. These invasions were not resumed until the reign of Tiglath-pileser IV, who came to the throne in 745 B.C. While Amos’s references to the advance of Assyria are somewhat indefinite, there is a ring of certainty and a note of impending doom which suggest that the dread invaders are not far distant. In the light of all these and other considerations, the date of Amos’s preaching was evidently somewhere between 750 and 740, and probably about 745 B.C. IV. Amos’s Personal History. In the superscriptions to his prophecies, and later in the seventh chapter, Amos is described as a man who took charge of small animals, such as sheep and goats. He is also called a dresser of sycamore trees. The fruit of this tree was ground for flour out of which a coarse bread was made. This bread was apparently eaten only by the poorer classes. His double occupation suggests that Amos was one who sought employment wherever he could find it at the different seasons of the year, and that, therefore, he came from the poorest laboring class in the land. The fact that the name of his father is not given also indicates that he belonged to an obscure family. His home was Tekoa, twelve miles south of Jerusalem and twenty-two from the sanctuary of Bethel, the scene of his ministry. The little town of Tekoa, shut in by gray limestone hills on the north and west, and looking down to the southeast over a rocky, barren wilderness which extends to the Dead Sea, was a fitting home for the stern prophet of reform. Here the life of a shepherd was a constant struggle with inclement nature and wild beasts. It was an environment calculated to develop men of iron, inured to hardship, bold in the presence of danger and opposition, keen of eye, and quick to interpret the signs of the times and to sound the cry of warning. The independence of his shepherd life and possibly the necessity of finding markets for the wool produced by the flock, gave Amos an acquaintance, not merely with Tekoa, but with the larger world about the eastern Mediterranean. His knowledge of conditions in Egypt, in Northern Israel, and even in distant Assyria, indicate, either that he had travelled widely or else had conversed frequently with traders and travellers from these distant lands. Of his later life no facts are known except those which gather about his memorable mission to the Northern Israelite sanctuary at Bethel. Like Elijah, he suddenly emerges from his desert environment and sweeps across the horizon of Israel, occupying for a brief time the central place—at least in the perspective of history—and then disappears, leaving his message to sink gradually into the consciousness of his race and to bear rich fruit in subsequent generations. V. The Personality of the Prophet. The real character of Amos is clearly revealed in the remarkable addresses which have been preserved in the prophecy which bears his name. His independence of all human authority, and his marvellously keen perception are peculiar to his nomadic point of view and training. His boldness is not begotten by passion or religious frenzy but by a calm study of conditions and a mature judgment. While he employed a great wealth and variety of figures, Amos was at heart a realist rather than an idealist. He knew conditions in Israel from actual knowledge and careful study. From these premises he reasoned to certain conclusions, with a clear, forceful logic which was irresistible. Although from the humblest ranks, Amos was clearly one of the best educated men of his age; but his school was that of experience and observation. With the important facts of Israel’s early history he was well acquainted. He also possessed an astonishing knowledge of the ethnology, geography and sociology of the world and age in which he lived. On the basis of this wide knowledge, under the influence of the divine spirit upon his keenly receptive mind, he had arrived at certain definite convictions which differed fundamentally from those which prevailed in his day. With characteristic directness and fearlessness, he set forth to impress his God-given message upon the minds of the political and religious leaders of his race. His appearance at Bethel was one of the most significant events in human history. Single handed, trusting only in God, whose messenger he was, he attacked the established traditions, the cherished institutions, and the narrow religious conceptions of his race and age, and proclaimed instead certain universal principles which have become the basis of modern faith and ethics. VI. Amos’s Method of Securing a Hearing. No reformer or apostle of truth ever faced greater odds than Amos, when he appeared at the royal sanctuary of Bethel. The occasion was evidently one of the annual festivals, when all classes, and especially the rich and rulers, were gathered from every part of the land to share their offerings with Jehovah amid song and glad rejoicing. The sense of power, of prosperity, and of enjoying Jehovah’s favor was strong in the minds of the assembled multitudes. Nothing could seem more incongruous than to proclaim on this joyful occasion the downfall of the nation and the futility of all the proud ceremonialism; and yet this was Amos’s purpose. Coming also as he did from the rival southern kingdom, which had only recently suffered for its presumption a crushing defeat from a Northern Israelite army, Amos, the Judean, could expect only suspicion and contempt. His shepherd garb and his sunburned features also proclaimed the fact that he came from the ranks, and therefore had little in common with the richly clad nobles and the luxury-loving women whom he found at Bethel. But Amos proved himself a man not only with a message but with tact to deliver it. His aim in his opening address was clearly not only to win a hearing from an antagonistic audience, but also to compel his hearers to assent to certain fundamental principles which he forthwith asked them to apply to themselves. The text: “Whenever Jehovah roars from Zion, And utters his voice from Jerusalem, The pastures of the shepherds mourn, And the top of Carmel withers,” was probably added by some later editor, who possibly took it from Joel 3:16 and introduced it here because it appropriately epitomizes the thought of the book as a whole. Amos himself, with supremer tact, opened his address with a powerful yet just arraignment of Israel’s most hated foe, the Arameans. In epigrammatic language he declared by implication and plain statement that hitherto Jehovah had repeatedly overlooked the crimes of the people whose proud capital was Damascus; but that, at last, they had sinned beyond forgiveness and that the Divine Judge would no longer withhold the sentence. The typical crime cited was the cruelty with which these northern foes treated the Hebrew victims of their conquests in the east-Jordan region. The figure of the thrashing instrument, with its projecting teeth of iron, which on the rocky thrashing-floor ground even the straw to chaff, recalled vividly to the minds of the graybeards in Amos’s audience the memories of Aramean attack, slaughter and pitiless plunder. Therefore they rejoiced in his words, and all recognized the justice of the judgment about to be meted out to their guilty foes. The Arameans had transgressed even the cruel laws of war; hence it was but just that the foreign conqueror, Assyria, should pillage and burn the palaces of Hazael and Ben-hadad, should slay the inhabitants of the tributary valleys, and should carry away the remnant of the people into captivity in distant Assyria. Similarly those other foes of the Hebrews, the Philistines to the southwest had showed no pity to their captives, but had sold them into shameful captivity. Therefore the same conqueror, as Jehovah’s agent, must pillage and burn their palaces and cities and carry away their people into captivity. In his initial address Amos apparently spoke only of the hated foes of the Northern Israelites. Next, therefore, the Ammonites, east of the Jordan, were arraigned by the prophet. Upon them falls the same divine judgment, couched in the same grim formula of doom. Their typical crime is also that of a cruelty and greed which knew no pity. They likewise should soon know the woes of brutal conquest. The typical crime of the Moabites, the fourth and last of Israel’s foes, was a senseless act of impiety toward the dead—a crime which was condemned by all ancient people. Apparently in some hostile foray ‘they had broken open a royal tomb and dragged out and burned the bones of an Edomite king. For this and kindred acts of violence, Jehovah’s agent of judgment was about to sweep over the land of Moab. VII. The Universal Principles Established in Amos’s Opening Address. The effect of Amos’s opening words upon his audience can readily be imagined. The garb, the strange accent and the austere aspect of the prophet had already been forgotten. Each oracle, which he uttered in the same measured formula, was received by all members of his audience with glad acclaim. That which they had secretly hoped was now openly proclaimed in their ears by a prophet of Jehovah. No one could gainsay the justice of his words and the principles upon which they were based; and yet those principles were in fundamental contradiction to the accepted faith and practice of all his hearers. Formulated in universal terms they were: (1) Jehovah rules not only over Israel, but over all peoples; therefore all are alike accountable to him for their acts. (2) Jehovah is merciful and long overlooks the crimes of nations; but the time surely comes when he must and will punish deliberate and continuous wrong-doing. (3) Each nation is responsible to him in direct proportion to its opportunity and enlightenment. (4) Jehovah judges peoples not according to their religious creeds or ceremonial rites, but according to their acts. VIII. The Application to Northern Israel. While his hearers were perhaps still dreaming of the glories of the coming day when Jehovah would destroy their foes and establish their world-wide dominion, like a flash came the application of the principles which they had so readily accepted for others. In a few incisive sentences Israel’s guilt is laid bare. The typical crimes cited are not those of all members of the nation, but of the rich and ruling class: the selling of a needy fellow-Hebrew into slavery, because he had nothing wherewith to pay a petty debt; the subverting of the cause of the poor in the public tribunal or through the misuse of authority; immorality, all the more loathsome because practised in the name of religion, as was the case in the prevailing Canaanite cults; the retaining of garments taken in pledge, which law and mercy commanded should be returned to those for whom they were the only bed at night; and carousals under the shadow of the sanctuary with wine extorted by injustice. Then, in striking contrast to this dark picture of guilt and ingratitude, Amos recalls in rapid succession what Jehovah had done in the past for his people; how he had delivered them, a disorganized body of slaves, from the land of Egypt, and led them through the barren wilderness, had wrested the fruitful land of Canaan from the powerful Amorites, and had made it possible for the Israelites to enjoy their present prosperity. To train them by word and example, Jehovah had also sent them prophets and Nazirites; but they had influenced the Nazirites to break their vows, and the prophets they had silenced. Time and again Jehovah had pitied and pardoned his guilty people; but now for them there was nought but doom and the heavy burden of foreign conquest which would crush them as a heavily laden wagon crushes all beneath it. From this doom neither courage nor prowess nor flight could deliver. Thus the dauntless shepherd prophet shook, for the moment at least, the fatal apathy of the Northern Israelites, and impressed upon their unwilling minds his divine message of warning. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 96: 095. LXVII. THE FATAL ERRORS AND CRIMES OF THE ISRAELITES ======================================================================== § LXVII. THE FATAL ERRORS AND CRIMES OF THE ISRAELITES 1. Responsibility proportionate to opportunity (Amos 3:1-2). Hear this word Which Jehovah hath spoken against you, O Israelites, Against the whole race that I brought up from the land of Egypt: You only have I known of all the races of earth, Therefore will I visit upon you all your iniquities. 2. The law of cause and effect (Amos 3:3-6). Do two walk together unless they be agreed? Does a lion roar in the forest, when there is no prey for him? Does a young lion cry out in his den, unless he has taken something? Does a bird fall to the earth, if no bait is set for it? Does a snare spring up from the ground, without catching anything? Can a trumpet be blown in a city and the people not tremble? Can calamity befall a city and Jehovah not have caused it? 3. Reason for the prophet’s presence (Amos 3:7-8). Surely the Lord Jehovah doeth nothing, Unless he revealeth his purpose to his servants the prophets. The lion has roared; who does not fear? The Lord Jehovah hath spoken; who can but prophesy? 4. Samaria’s as tounding wickedness (Amos 3:9-10). Proclaim over the palaces in Ashdod: Gather upon the mountain of Samaria, And see the manifold tumults, And acts of oppression in its midst; For they know not how to do right, They are heaping up violence and oppression in their palaces! It is the oracle of Jehovah. 5. The pitiless penalty (Amos 3:11-12). Therefore, thus saith the Lord Jehovah, An adversary shall surround the land, And he shall strip from thee thy strength, And thy palaces shall be plundered. As a shepherd rescues from the mouth of a lion Two shin-bones or a piece of an ear, So shall the Israelites be rescued— They who sit in Samaria on the corner of a couch, On the damask of a divan! 6. Temple, palace and hovel, all to be destroyed (Amos 3:13-15). Hear and testify against the house of Jacob, It is the oracle of Jehovah, the God of hosts, That in the day when I visit the transgressions of Israel upon him, I will also visit in judgment the altars of Bethel, And the horns of the altar shall be cut off, And they shall fall to the ground. And I will smite the winter house, together with the summer house; And the houses of ivory shall perish, Yea, many houses shall be swept away. It is the oracle of Jehovah. 7. Guilt of the wives (Amos 4:1). Hear this word, Ye kine of Bashan, who dwell in the mountain of Samaria Who oppress the poor and crush the needy Who say to your husbands, ‘Bring that we may drink.’ 8. Their pitiable fate (Amos 4:2-3). The Lord Jehovah hath sworn by his holiness: ‘Behold, days are coming upon you, When ye shall be taken away with hooks, even the last of you with fish-hooks, And through the breaches shall ye go out, each woman straight before her, And ye shall be cast toward Harmon,’ is Jehovah’s oracle. 9. Futility of ceremonial (Amos 4:4). Come to Bethel and transgress, At Gilgal increase your transgression; And bring in the morning your sacrifices, On the third day your tithes! 10. Its selfish motive (Amos 4:5). And burn some leavened bread as a thank offering, And proclaim aloud the voluntary offerings, For you love to do so, O Israelites! It is the oracle of the Lord Jehovah. 11. Failure to learn theleston taught by famine (Amos 4:6). But it was also I who gave to you Cleanness of teeth in all your cities, And lack of bread in all your palaces, Yet ye have not returned to me, is the oracle of Jehovah. 12. By drought (Amos 4:7-8b). I, also, it was who withheld from you the rain, And I sent rain upon one city, While upon another I did not let it rain, Yet ye did not return to me, is the oracle of Jehovah. 13. By blight and insect plagues (Amos 4:9). I smote you with blight and mildew, I laid waste your gardens and vineyards; Your fig and your olive trees the young locust devoured; Yet you did not return to me, is the oracle of Jehovah. 14. By pestience and destructive war (Amos 4:10). I sent among you a pestilence by the way of Egypt, I slew your youths with the sword, taking captive your horses, And I caused the stench of your camps to rise in your nostrils; Yet ye did not return to me, is the oracle of Jehovah. 15. By a great disaster (Amos 4:11). I wrought a destruction among you, As God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, And ye were as a brand plucked from the burning; Yet ye did not return to me, is the oracle of Jehovah. 16. Doom impending over Israel (Amos 4:12-13e). Therefore thus will I do to thee, O Israel, Because I am about to do this to thee, Prepare to meet thy God, O Israel. Jehovah, the God of hosts, is his name. 17. Overwhelming disaster impending (Amos 5:1-3). Hear the word which I take up against you, even a dirge, O house of Israel: Fallen, no more to rise, is the virgin Israel! Hurled down upon her own soil she lies, with none to raise her! For thus saith the Lord Jehovah: The city that taketh the field with a thousand hath but a hundred left, And the one that taketh the field with a hundred hath but ten left. 18. The true source of deliverance (Amos 5:4-5). For thus saith Jehovah to the house of Israel: Seek me and live, But seek not Bethel, And Gilgal do not enter, To Beersheba go not over; For Gilgal shall taste the gall of exile, And Bethel [House of God] shall go to perdition. 19. Danger of not seeking Jehovah (Amos 5:6). Seek Jehovah and live, Lest he cast fire on the house of Joseph, And it devour and there be none to quench it for Bethel. 20. Woe to the foes of justice (Amos 5:7;Amos 5:10). Alas for those who turn judgment to wormwood, And cast righteousness to the ground, Who hate him that reproves in the gate, And abhor one that speaks uprightly! 21. Their punishment (Amos 5:11). Therefore, because ye trample upon the weak And take from him exactions of grain, Houses of hewn stone have ye built, But ye shall not dwell in them, Charming vineyards have ye planted, But ye shall not drink their wine. 22. Their judicial crimes (Amos 5:12). Surely I know how many are your transgressions, And how great are your sins! Ye persecutors of the righteous, takers of bribes! Yea, the needy in the gate they thrust aside! 23. Advice to the prudent (Amos 5:13-14). Therefore, since the prudent man at such a time keeps silent, It is surely an evil time. Seek good and not evil, That ye may live. That this Jehovah, God of hosts, May be with you, as ye have said. 24. Hope for the honest man (Amos 5:16). Hate evil and love good, And establish justice in the gate; Perhaps Jehovah will be gracious, The God of hosts, to a remnant of Joseph. 25. The catastrophe about to overtake all classes (Amos 5:16-17). Therefore, thus saith Jehovah, the God of hosts: In all squares there shall be wailing, And in every street they shall say, ‘Alas! Alas!’ And they shall summon the husbandman to mourning, And to wailing those skilled in lamentation, Yea, in all vineyards there shall be wailing, When I pass through the midst of thee, saith Jehovah. 26. Horrors of the day of Jehovah to the guilty (Amos 5:18-20). Alas, for those who long for the day of Jehovah! What have you to do with the day of Jehovah? It is darkness, and not light. It is as when one flees from a lion, And a bear falls upon him, Or goes into the house and leans his hand upon the wall, And a serpent bites him. Shall not Jehovah’s day be darkness and not light, Yea, murky darkness without a ray of light in it? 27. Jehovah’s rejection of mere ceremonialism (Amos 5:21-24). I hate, I despise your feasts, And I will not smell the savor of your festivals, And with your cereal-offerings I will not be pleased, And the peace-offerings of your fatlings I will not regard with favor. Banish from me the noise of your songs, For to the melody of your lyres I will not listen. But let justice roll on as a flood of waters, And righteousness like an unfailing stream. 28. Banishment of the nation that trusts in ceremonialism (Amos 5:26-27). Was it only sacrifices and cereal offerings ye brought me In the wilderness during forty years, O house of Israel? But now ye shall lift up the shrine of your king, And the image of your God which you have made for yourselves, And I will carry you away into exile beyond Damascus, Saith Jehovah, the God of hosts. 29. Woe to the irresponsible rulers (Amos 6:1;Amos 6:3). Alas for those who are careless in Zion And overconfident on the mountain of Samaria! Men of mark of the first of the nations, To whom the house of Israel resort! They who would postpone the day of calamity, And yet have instituted a rule of violence! 30. Their selfish indulgence and debauchery (Amos 6:4-6). They who lie on ivory couches, And sprawl upon their divans, And eat lambs from the flock, And calves from out the stall; They drawl to the sound of the lyre, Like David, they devise for themselves instruments of song, They drink bowlfuls of wine, And anoint themselves with the finest of oil, But they do not grieve over the ruin of Joseph. 31. Conquest and exile awaiting them (Amos 6:7-8;Amos 6:11b, c). Therefore now they must go into exile at the head of the captives, And hushed shall be the revelry of the sprawlers, It is the oracle of Jehovah, the God of hosts. Jehovah hath sworn by himself: I abhor the pride of Jacob, And his palaces I hate, Therefore I will deliver up the city and all that is in it. And one shall smite the great house into atoms And the small house into fragments. 32. Folly of trusting their own strength (Amos 6:12-13). Do horses run upon crags? Does one plow the sea with oxen? That you turn justice into poison, And the fruit of righteousness into wormwood? Ye who rejoice in that which is not, Who say, Have we not by our own strength taken horns for ourselves! 33. Approach of the Assyrian conqueror (Amos 6:14). Verily, I am now raising up against you, O house of Israel, a nation; And they shall oppress you, From the entrance of Hamath Even to the brook of the Araban, Is the oracle of Jehovah, the God of hosts. I. The Literary Form of Amos’s Prophecy. The original prophecies of Amos fall naturally into three groups. The first contains a series of brief, forcible oracles of judgment, dealing with Israel’s foes and then culminating in the oracle regarding Israel herself (chaps. 1, 2). The second division, the main body of the book (3–6), is cast in the form of a judicial charge against the leaders of the nation. The prophet presents his own credentials, summons the heathen nations as witnesses against Israel, and then prefers the detailed charges against the guilty classes in the nation, supplementing these charges with argument, exhortation, lamentation and warning. Frequently the prophet takes up anew a familiar theme, expanding or emphasizing it. At times one may recognize the influence of his audience, and in some cases even their rejoinders to his bitter denunciations. Hence the thought does not run on uninterruptedly from premise to conclusion, but is characterized by a recurring cycle of woe, condemnation and doom. The third division of the book (Amos 7-9) consists of a series of visions in which the note of judgment also prevails. Thus, in the three general divisions of the prophecy, the same fundamental teachings are repeatedly presented, although in very different literary form. In the more argumentative passages the four- or five-beat measures are employed, as, for example, in Amos 7:1-3; Amos 7:7-8; Amos 7:11-16 of the present section. Elsewhere the characteristic three-beat measure prevails. The parallelism of thought is carefully observed. There is also often a marked rhythmic parallelism between succeeding stanzas. The literary style is forceful, vigorous, logical and often impassioned. A great variety of figures are employed and most of them are drawn from nature and were suggested by Amos’s shepherd experiences. These figures reveal a prophet of superlative poetic skill and originality, and are characterized by a literary finish and beauty which establish Amos’s position as one of the greatest Hebrew masters of style. The literary form of his prophecies suggests that they were the product of careful thought and preparation, were shaped under the influence of the noblest poetic inspiration, and were probably later carefully revised, as the prophet returned to put them in written form in the quiet of his home at Tekoa. II. The Prophet’s Credentials. The setting of the present section is clearly the great festival at Bethel. The same hostile audience, made up of the rich and ruling classes of Northern Israel, confront the shepherd-prophet from Tekoa. Amos first takes up the objection, probably suggested by some one of his hearers, that Israel was the special object of Jehovah’s care and protection, and therefore would not be left to suffer the same fate as her heathen neighbors. Like a flash comes the rejoinder, “Yes, you have been the most favored of all the nations, and therefore, since you have been faithless to your responsibilities, you shall be the most severely punished.” Amos next answers the question, which was doubtless prominent in the minds of his hearers, “By what authority do you proclaim this message of doom?” His method is the same as that in his opening address. In a series of questions he leads his hearers to accede to the truth that no effect in nature is without its corresponding cause, and conversely that no cause fails to produce its corresponding effect. The application of this principle was obvious to even the dullest of Amos’s hearers. The prophet’s presence to deliver at the danger of his life an unpleasant message to Northern Israel pointed to some compelling cause. The only sufficient cause was that Jehovah, who always reveals in advance his purpose to his servants the prophets, had commanded him to go and speak. Having once heard the roar of the Assyrian lion, as it was about to leap, Amos the shepherd could not remain silent without uttering the cry of warning. III. The Crimes of the Ruling Classes. It is significant that Amos nowhere speaks of the sins of the masses. In his great arraignment of Northern Israel, the acts of cruel oppression and the wealth secured by the king and nobles through violence and injustice rise up before his vision as witnesses whose testimony even their heathen neighbors can appreciate. The ancient principle, “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth,” is evidently in his mind. They who have plundered others shall themselves in turn be plundered, and only a pitiable remnant shall survive. Palaces, hovels, and even the temples shall not escape the impending judgment. From the nobles of Israel and their blood-bought luxury the prophet turns in hot indignation against their wives, whom he likens to the fat, sleek kine of Bashan, which in their pursuit of food stupidly and ruthlessly crush every humble flower or worm which may lie in their path. That they may secure the means to satisfy their own appetites these greedy women goad on their husbands to crush by oppression the poor and needy of the land. Before their startled eyes the prophet flashes the bold figure of a fisherman hauling out fish with the cruel hook, and declares that even so they will be dragged forth from their proud city as victims of the foreign conqueror. IV. The Uselessness of Mere Ceremonial. Amos next deals with the popular fallacy that Jehovah desires sacrifice, not mercy. As he recalled the crimes against justice committed by the sanctimonious worshippers who stood before him, their proud ritual seemed to him but hateful hypocrisy. With biting sarcasm he advises them to go on with their round of sacrifices, not because it secures Jehovah’s favor but because they find in it pleasure and satisfaction. If they would but read the signs of the times, they could not fail to see how distasteful to Jehovah is all this ceremonialism. Rapidly, in a series of balanced strophes concluding with the same powerful refrain, Amos refers to the calamities which had overtaken the nation within the memory of many of those who stood before him. Famine, drought, plague, pestilence, defeat at the hands of their enemies, disasters, even as great as those which overtook the wicked Canaanite cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, had swept over Israel. And yet these calamities, which even the heathen interpreted as a call to repentance, had not touched the heart of the proud, self-satisfied Israelites. Therefore nothing remains for Jehovah to do except to visit upon Israel its well-deserved doom. The indefiniteness of this doom added greatly to its impressiveness. In imagination the prophet already saw and pictured the effects of this imminent judgment. In the characteristic five-beat measure, in which the hired mourners in ancient Israel voiced their lamentation over the dead, he sings a dirge over the nation. Nothing more striking could be imagined than the contrast between the proud confidence of Israel’s leaders and the prophet’s crooning its death dirge in their presence. V. The Call to Repentance. Amos’s message from beginning to end was almost without exception that of condemnation and doom; and yet it is evident that his one supreme purpose was to save Northern Israel from the awful fate which he proclaimed with absolute conviction. He felt himself to be the watchman, who alone saw the approaching foe and was, therefore, called to sound the alarm that the nation might put itself in a state of defence. The sternness of his denunciation but reveals his passionate eagerness to save. The call to “seek Jehovah and live” expresses his ultimate conception of Jehovah as a God not merely of grim judgment but of tenderness and mercy, eager to forgive the guilty nation, if it would but turn to him in true repentance. The reëstablishment of the vital and personal relation between Jehovah and his people meant life. The refrain, “seek Jehovah and live,” is therefore Amos’s positive message to his race and to humanity. VI. Amos’s Ideal of Righteousness. Amos felt keenly the startling contrast between the elaborate ritual at the sanctuaries and the gross injustice in the public tribunals, in the market place, and in the court and palace. To him the palaces built by exactions and oppression seemed but sepulchres. Unflinchingly, to their very face, he pronounced woes upon the nobles, the judges, and the rich who had built these palaces at the expense of the needy members of the community. They who were fondly waiting for the day of Jehovah and were expecting that it would prove a day of national victory and exaltation were following a grim spectre. Instead, it should be a day of judgment with no escape for the guilty. In the name of Jehovah, he declared that all the feasts and festivals and offerings with which they thought to buy divine favor, were only hateful to Jehovah. Israel’s wilderness experience had proved that offerings were unnecessary to insure his care and guidance. Only justice, not meted out with scanty measure, but like a mighty flood, pervading palace and court and public tribunal, could win the divine favor which they craved. VII. The Impending Doom. Amos concludes his sermon with a clear announcement of coming conquest and exile. Again his conclusions were based on the laws of cause and effect. Horses cannot run upon crags nor can one plow the sea with oxen; no more can men sin against the fundamental laws of the universe and expect that the results will be peace and strength. Already the inevitable consequences of Israel’s crimes were beginning to appear: the rulers were incapable, the natural resources had been deflected for personal ends, the middle class had been reduced to servitude, there were no leaders to inspire public confidence and arouse patriotism, and the hope of the nation centred in mere material strength and a vain hypocritical formalism. In the presence of Assyria’s armies, Israel’s guilt and weakness were clearly patent to the mind of a keen observer like Amos; but to the c he spoke his words seemed but madness. In the face of these conditions, the prophet could predict only doom and disaster for the nation. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 97: 096. LXVIII. THE INEVITABLE CONSEQUENCES OF ISRAEL’S CRIMES ======================================================================== § LXVIII. THE INEVITABLE CONSEQUENCES OF ISRAEL’S CRIMES 1. Jehovah’s leniency in averting the locust plague (Amos 7:1-3). Thus the Lord Jehovah showed me, And behold, he was forming locusts, When the late spring grass began to come up. And when they were making an end Of devouring the vegetation of the land, I said, O Lord Jehovah, forgive, I pray; How can Jacob stand, for he is small? Jehovah repented concerning this; It shall not be, said Jehovah. 2. In averting the drought (Amos 7:4-6). Thus the Lord Jehovah showed me, And behold, he was giving command to execute judgment, By fire—the Lord Jehovah. And it devoured the great deep, And had begun to devour the tilled land. Then I said, O Lord Jehovah, cease, I pray; How can Jacob stand, for he is small? Jehovah repented concerning this; Neither shall this be, said Jehovah. 3. The inevitable judgment awaiting Israel (Amos 7:7-9). Thus the Lord showed me, And behold the Lord was standing Beside a wall, with a plumb-line in his hand. And Jehovah said to me, What dost thou see, Amos? And I answered, A plumb-line, Then the Lord said, Behold, I am setting a plumb-line In the midst of my people Israel; I will not again pass by them any more. And the high places of Isaac shall be desolate, The sanctuaries of Israel shall be laid waste, And I will rise up against the house of Jeroboam with the sword. 4. Amaziah’s message to the king (Amos 7:10-11). Then Amaziah the priest of Bethel sent to Jeroboam king of Israel, saying, Amos has conspired against you in the midst of the house of Israel; the land is not able to bear all his words. For thus has Amos said, ‘Jeroboam shall die by the sword, and Israel shall surely be led away captive out of his land.’ 5. His command to Amos (Amos 7:12-13). Also Amaziah said to Amos, O seer, go flee away to the land of Judah, and there eat bread and there prophesy; but you shall no longer prophesy at Bethel, for it is the king’s sanctuary, and it is the royal residence. 6. Amos’s reply (Amos 7:14-15). Then Amos answered and said to Amaziah, I was no prophet, nor a son of a prophet; but I was a shepherd and a dresser of sycamores when Jehovah took me from following the flock, and Jehovah said to me, ‘Go, prophesy against my people Israel.’ 7. Fate of Amaziah and his class (Amos 7:16-17). Now therefore hear the word of Jehovah: ‘Thou sayest, “Thou shalt not prophesy against Israel, nor preach against the house of Isaac,”’ therefore thus saith Jehovah: ‘Thy wife shall be a harlot in the city and thy sons and thy daughters shall fall by the sword, and thy land shall be divided by line; and thou shalt die upon an unclean soil and Israel shall surely be led away captive out of this land.’ 8. Israel’s ripeness for judgment (Amos 8:1-2). Thus the Lord Jehovah showed me, And behold, a basket of summer fruit. Then he said, What dost thou see, Amos? And I said, A basket of summer fruit. And Jehovah said to me, The end has come to my people Israel, I will not again pass them by. 9. The evidences of decay (Amos 8:4-6c). Hear this, you who trample upon the needy, And oppress the poor of the earth, saying, When shall the new moon pass that we may sell grain, And the sabbath that we may open the corn— Making smaller the measure and enlarging the weight And perverting the false balances— And that we may sell the refuse of the corn? 10. Consequences of crime: earthquake (Amos 8:7-8). Jehovah hath sworn by the pride of Jacob, Never shall I forget all their deeds! For this shall not the land tremble, And all her inhabitants mourn? Shall not the whole of it rise like the Nile, And sink like the Nile of Egypt? 11. Eclipse and pestilence (Amos 8:9;Amos 8:3). And it shall come to pass in that day, It is the oracle of the Lord Jehovah, That I will make the sun set at noon, And darken the earth in broad day, And the singing-women of the palace shall wail, It is the oracle of the Lord Jehovah. A multitude of carcasses! In every place they are cast! 12. Universal lamentation (Amos 8:10). And I will turn your festivals into mourning, And all your songs into dirges, I will bring upon all loins sackcloth, And upon every head baldness, I will make it like the mourning for an only son, And the end of it like a bitter day. 13. Absence of divine revelation (Amos 8:11-12). And I will send hunger in the land, Not a famine of bread nor a thirst for water, But for hearing the word of Jehovah. Then shall they wander from sea to sea, From the north to the rising of the sun shall they run to and fro, To seek the word of Jehovah, but they shall not find it. 14. Destruction of the flower of the nation (Amos 8:13-14). In that day shall faint The fairest maidens and the youths, Who swear by the guilt of Samaria, And say, As liveth thy God, O Dan! And as liveth thy patron, O Beersheba! And they shall fall, no more to rise. 15. Destruction of sanctuary and people (Amos 9:1). I saw the Lord standing by the altar, And he said, Smite the capitals that the thresholds may shake, Yea, break them off upon the head of all of them, And the rest of them I will slay with the sword, Not one of them shall escape, Nor shall a refugee be delivered from among them. 16. Absolutely no escape from Jehovah (Amos 9:2-3a, b). If they dig through to Sheol, Thence will my hand take them; And if they climb up to heaven, Thence will I bring them down; And if they hide themselves on the top of Carmel, Thence will I search them out and take them. 17. Retribution to over take all (Amos 9:3c, d.Amos 9:4). And if they hide out of my sight at the bottom of the sea, Thence will I command the sea-serpent to bite them; And if they go into captivity before their enemies, Thence will I command the sword to slay them, And I will keep my eye on them, For evil and not for good. 18. Israel to be punished like the heathen (Amos 9:7-8a, b). Are ye not as the Cushites to me, O Israel? is the oracle of Jehovah. Did I not bring up Israel out of the land of Egypt, And the Philistines from Caphtor, and Aram from Kir? Behold the eyes of the Lord Jehovah are upon the sinful kingdom, And I will destroy it from the face of the earth. I. The Visions of Impending Judgment. It would seem that Amos, having exhausted the resources of exhortation, denunciation and warning, made a final effort by means of graphic word pictures, vividly and indelibly to impress his message upon the minds of the leaders of Northern Israel. The first picture was that of a dread locust plague sweeping over the land, just as the late spring grass was beginning to come up and just before the hot Palestinian summer began. Realizing that this plague meant want and starvation for man and beast, the prophet prayed that Jehovah would be merciful and pity the helpless nation, and his prayer was granted. Again he presents the vision of a fiery drought which destroyed even the perennial springs. Again the prophet petitioned for divine mercy, and his prayer was granted. In his third vision of the impending doom, Amos beheld Jehovah holding a plumbline, the symbol of justice and rectitude, over the nation Israel. Appreciating the guilt and impenitence of his people and the futility of pleading for mercy in the presence of impartial justice, the prophet could do nothing but proclaim the devastating judgment which should soon sweep over sanctuary and palace, leaving all a desolate waste. The meaning of these parables or visions is obvious. Repeatedly Jehovah has overlooked the crimes of his guilty people, and because of his mercy and love has delivered them from the judgments which they richly deserved; but “for three transgressions of Israel, yea for four, he could no longer revoke it.” The guilt of the impenitent Israelites compelled Jehovah in justice to visit upon them such a signal calamity that they would be shaken from their blind, senseless self-confidence. For them, therefore, these visions meant simply a dramatic and impressive reiteration of his message of solemn warning. They also represent Amos’s final appeal to the conscience of Northern Israel. Their balanced literary form and their perfect adaptation to the situation and to the characteristics of the nation, indicate that they are the product of careful thought and elaboration. Each successive vision is in itself a complete picture—vivid, impressive, terrifying. They are akin to the acted prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Their later counterpart is found in the marvellous parables of the New Testament. II. The Reception of Amos’s Message. Some later disciple of Amos has fortunately recorded the way in which his message was received by the chief priest of the royal sanctuary at Bethel. Amos’s words were too true and too bold not to rouse bitter opposition. The sanctity of the person of the prophet and the fact that his words had been directed against the crimes of classes rather than of individuals had hitherto evidently deterred Amaziah from interposing. The reference, however, to the overthrow of the reigning house of Jeroboam was at once made the basis of a charge against Amos. The narrative would seem to imply that Jeroboam was then present at the royal sanctuary. Amaziah’s charge was partially true and partially false; at least it represents a very free interpretation of Amos’s words. The king’s answer is not recorded. Possibly Amaziah acted at his direction in expelling Amos from Bethel. The priest’s words voice the arrogant contemptuous attitude of the corrupt rulers of that ill-fated northern kingdom. Amos naturally resented the implication that he was a mercenary prophet, prophesying, like the four hundred false prophets who gathered about Ahab (§ LXIV), not under the compulsion of divine conviction but for personal ends. He even went further and denied that he had any connection with the prophet class in Israel, and asserted that he was simply a plain humble laborer whom Jehovah called from his task to go and warn the nation Israel. Thus, almost unconsciously, every true prophet is born. Like many a bold speaker of truth in later ages, Amos was silenced by the rulers whose crimes he denounced. As he departed, however, he uttered against Amaziah, who represented the religious leaders of the nation, a final prophecy which pictured in grim detail the fate that was soon to overtake not only the priest to whom it was addressed but also the rulers of Northern Israel. III. Amos’s Conclusions Regarding Israel’s Future. The remaining visions in the book of Amos may have been uttered as the prophet retired from Bethel or may have been appended to the final collection of his prophecies. They constitute a fitting conclusion to the prophet’s message. The vision of a basket of summer fruit represents the nation as prosperous, attractive, but, like perishable summer fruit in a hot, oriental climate, on the eve of a rapid and complete decay. There is also a solemn play on the sound of the similar Hebrew words for summer fruit (kêyic) and end (kêc). In the succeeding stanzas, Amos presents the causes and nature of the coming national decay: the greed and oppression of the ruling and merchant class and the lack of brotherly kindness. A fate, which he likens to the horrors of earthquake, eclipse and pestilence, shall quickly overtake the land, so that lamentation shall soon take the place of festal joys. The nation which has banished Jehovah’s prophet shall soon feel a hunger for the word of Jehovah which shall know no satisfaction, and the cults of the ancient sanctuaries shall prove of no help or avail to their devotees in the hour of Israel’s dire need. Indeed, upon the sanctuaries themselves and their vaunted sacrifices, the thunderbolt of Jehovah’s wrath shall fall, smiting the temple and destroying the worshippers. None shall escape Jehovah’s judgment. Even though they hide in the secluded caves of Carmel or seek refuge in the uttermost parts of the earth, Jehovah’s vengeance will yet pursue them. Before Jehovah’s tribunal heathen Cushites and Philistines and Israelites are judged alike; and Israel, being the most guilty, must suffer the most overwhelming fate. IV. The Later Appendix to the Book. A later editor has added an appendix to the book of Amos (Amos 9:9-15), adapting it to the post-exilic point of view and presenting a glorious picture of restoration; but such promises in the mouth of Amos, as he stood before the defiant, guilty leaders of the nation, were impossible, and such predictions would have completely destroyed the effect of his courageous words of warning. They also speak of material prosperity and conquest; but Amos labored for something far more glorious—a nation ruled by the eternal principles of justice and of mercy toward all mankind. V. Amos’s Conception of Jehovah. Amos is primarily a social and ethical reformer. The principles which he proclaimed are to-day being recognized by all civilized nations whether Christian or pagan. And yet it was not an abstract ethical ideal which inspired him. The motive which determined all his activity was his conception of Jehovah and the deep sense of personal obligation to him. The God of Amos’s prophecies is constantly called Jehovah of hosts. He it is who controls the forces of nature and his realm includes the earth, the great deep, and the heavens above. His authority was no longer limited to little Israel. The experiences and activities of the neighboring peoples, and even of the distant Assyrians, were determined by him. The God whom Amos proclaimed was not apart from life, but was intimately interested and active in all the experiences of men. In Amos’s logical, judicial thought, the most prominent attribute of Jehovah was unquestionably justice. The situation in Northern Israel also compelled him to place all the emphasis upon the imminent divine judgment; but he also declared that Jehovah was a God of mercy, lenient toward the crimes of the heathen, listening to the petitions of his prophet, seeking by judgments and warnings to save his people from ultimate annihilation—a God not only of justice but of goodness. VI. Amos’s Social Teachings. Amos was the first great social reformer known to history. With the modern socialist he also had much in common. Probably he himself knew through painful personal experience the social evils of his day. He was the tribune of the poor and oppressed. The rich and the rulers and those in authority were the especial objects of his attack. By them he was silenced as a dangerous agitator and banished from the northern kingdom. He first of all the prophets committed his addresses to writing, and probably sent them forth as a tract that they might bear his message where he could not speak in person. There is a sanity and a depth, however, in Amos’s social teachings which make him the father, not of any one passing school of socialists, but of all true social reformers. The ultimate goal of his work was not to overthrow existing social and political institutions, but by means of fundamental reform to preserve and render them efficient. He offered no programme for the reorganization of society, but looked for its salvation through an intelligent and faithful recognition of individual and class responsibility. He did not attack wealth and authority, but rather their selfish and criminal misuse. He not only declared that public office and wealth are a public trust, but he also demanded in the name of Jehovah that justice and mercy should govern every man in his dealing with his fellows. Above all he declared that deeds of justice and love are the absolutely essential fruits of true religion and the only stable foundations upon which a state or society can be founded. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 98: 097. LXIX. THE BEGINNING OF JEHOVAH’S REVELATION BY HOSEA ======================================================================== § LXIX. THE BEGINNING OF JEHOVAH’S REVELATION BY HOSEA 1. Hosea’s marriage (Hosea 1:2-3a). Now Jehovah said to Hosea: Go marry a wife with whorish instincts who will bear you children by her whoredom, For the land is continually going a-whoring from after Jehovah. So he went and married Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim. 2. Birth and name of his first son (Hosea 1:3-5). And when she conceived and bore him a son, Jehovah said: Call his name Jezreel, For yet a little while, And I will avenge the blood shed at Jezreel upon the house of Jehu, And I will cause the kingdom of Israel to cease. And it shall come to pass in that day, That I will break the bow of Israel in the valley of Jezreel. 3. Of Lo-ruhamah (Hosea 1:6). And when she conceived again and bore a daughter, he said to him: Call her name Lo-rubamah [Unpitied], For I will no longer Have pity on the house of Israel, That I should still spare them. 4. Of Loammi (Hosea 1:8-9). Then she weaned Lo-ruhamah; and when she conceived and bore a son, he said: Call his name Lo-ammi [Not-my-people], For ye indeed are not my people, And I indeed am not your God. 5. Hosea’s divorce of his unfaithful wife (Hosea 2:2b, c,Hosea 2:4,Hosea 2:5a, b). [Then Hosea said: I will put away Gomer], For she is not my wife, And I will not be her husband; And on her children I will have no pity, Since they are children of whoredom, For their mother hath become a harlot; She who conceived them hath behaved shamefully. 6. The divine promptings still to love her (Hosea 3:1). But Jehovah said to me: Still go, love this woman Who loves a paramour and is an adulteress, As Jehovah loveth the Israelites, Although they turn to other gods, And love raisin-cakes. 7. Her restoration and discipline (Hosea 3:2-3). So I bought her to me for fifteen pieces of silver and eight bushels of barley and a measure of barley. And I said to her: Many days shalt thou abide for me, Thou shalt not play the harlot, and thou shalt not be any man’s wife. 8. Israel’s similar experience (Hosea 3:4). Yet, I on my part will be thine. For through many days The Israelites shall abide Without king and without prince, Without sacrifice and without pillar, Without ephod and without teraphim. 9.Jehovah’s appeal to the Israelites to save their nation from apostasy (Hosea 2:2a, d, e,Hosea 2:3;Hosea 2:5, c–e). Strive with your mother, strive, That she put her acts of whoredom from her sight, And her adulteries from between her breasts, Lest I strip her naked, And set her as she was on the day of her birth, And make her like the wilderness, And let her become like a parched land, And let her die of thirst. For she hath said, I will go after my paramours Who gave me my bread and my water, My wool, my flax, my oil and my drink. 10. Jehovah’s discipline of Israel to make clear the folly of apostasy (Hosea 2:6-7a–c,Hosea 2:8a–c,Hosea 2:9-10;Hosea 2:12;Hosea 2:11;Hosea 2:13). Therefore I am going to hedge up her ways with thorns, And build a wall about her, So that she cannot find her paths. And she will pursue her paramours, But will not overtake them, And she will seek and not find them. But she herself did not know That it was I who gave her The corn, the sweet wine and the oil. Therefore I will take back my corn in its time, And my sweet wine in its season, And I will withdraw my wool and my flax, Given to cover her nakedness; And so I will uncover her shame, And none shall deliver her out of my hand. And I will lay waste her vines and her fig trees, Of which she hath said, These are my rewards Which my lovers have given me. And I will make them a thicket, And the wild beasts shall devour them. And I will also cause all her mirth to cease, Her feasts, her new moon and her sabbaths. And thus will I visit upon her the days of the Baalim, In which she made offerings to them, And decked herself with ear-rings and jewels, And went after her paramours And forgot me, is the oracle of Jehovah. 11. Divine favor and reconciliation for penitent Israel (Hosea 2:14-17,Hosea 2:19-20). Therefore I am going to allure her, And bring her into the wilderness, And speak endearingly to her. And I will give her from there her vineyards And the valley of Achor as a door of hope, And there she shall respond as in the days of her youth, As when she came up from the land of Egypt. And it shall be in that day, is the oracle of Jehovah, She shall call to her husband, And shall call no more to the Baalim. And I will remove the names of the Baalim from her mouth. And they shall no more be mentioned by their names. And I will betroth her to me forever; Yea, I will betroth her to me in righteousness, And in judgment, and in kindness and in mercy; Yea, I will betroth her to me in faithfulness and she shall know Jehovah. 12. The evidences of Jehovah’s forgiveness and love (Hosea 2:21-23). And it shall come to pass in that day That I will speak,—it is the oracle of Jehovah,— I will speak to the heavens, And they will speak to the earth, And the earth will speak to the grain, And the new wine and the oil; And they shall speak to Jezreel, And I will sow her in the land. And I will have pity upon the Unpitied, And I will say to Not-my-people, Thou art my people, And they will say, Thou art my God. I. The Book of Hosea. The book of Hosea falls naturally into two divisions. The first, chapters 1–3, tells of that tragic experience in Hosea’s life which made him a prophet and of the way in which he applied his own experience in interpreting the relations between Jehovah and the nation Israel. The second division, chapters 4–14, consists of extracts from addresses which the prophet delivered during the latter part of his life. They deal with the grave political, social, moral and religious problems of his age. They lack the close-knit logical unity which characterizes the prophecies of Amos. They vividly reflect, however, the thought and activity of the prophet during the years of national decline, and the impassioned words of denunciation, warning and entreaty with which Hosea sought to turn his fellow-countrymen from their fatal course. II. Hosea’s Date and Nationality. The superscription to Hosea’s prophecy makes him contemporary of Isaiah, and assigns to his work a period of nearly a century (782–686 B.C.). The exact date of his activity must, however, be determined from the historical references within the prophecy itself. His call and earlier sermons found in chapters 1–3 are evidently to be dated before the death of Jeroboam II in 740 B.C.; for he refers in them to the overthrow of the house of Jehu as still in the future. The later sermons, chapters 4–14, reflect the period of anarchy and social and moral decay which followed soon after the death of Jeroboam. Since they contain no allusions to the invasion of Tiglath-pileser IV, in 734 B.C., but rather imply that the territory of Gilead, which was then annexed to Assyria, still belonged to the northern kingdom, their date is established between 740 and 735 B.C. Hosea, therefore, began his work during the same decade as did Amos, and labored, as the superscription implies, contemporaneously with the earlier period of Isaiah’s activity. Unlike Amos, Hosea was a native of the northern kingdom. This conclusion is established not only by the fact that practically all of the historical and geographical allusions are to places and events in Northern Israel, but also by that deep love and devotion for the larger Hebrew kingdom which Hosea betrays in his every utterance. Hosea is the one prophet of the north whose sermons have been preserved. Regarding the last days of Northern Israel, biblical historians are almost silent; but in the utterances of its noblest patriot it is possible to study as an eye-witness the forces which were rapidly carrying the nation on to its final destruction. III. The Prophet’s Private History. The first and second chapters of Hosea’s prophecy have evidently been reëdited by a later disciple who has added the appropriate sub-title, “The Beginning of Jehovah’s Revelation by Hosea.” In the third chapter the prophet’s experiences are told in the first person; but in the opening chapters his words have been incorporated in a framework in which the prophet is spoken of in the third person. In the second chapter also the account of his own personal experience, which binds together the narrative of the first and third chapters, has apparently been blended with one of Hosea’s sermons, in which he traces the close analogy between his own experience with his unfaithful wife, Gomer, and Jehovah’s experience with faithless Israel. Separating the narrative material of chapter 2 and introducing the sermon contained in that chapter in its logical position after chapter 3, a clear and consistent record of Hosea’s early life is secured. Briefly, but plainly, Hosea tells of the tragic domestic experience which opened his eyes to the appreciation of those fundamental truths which made him a prophet. Looking back from the vantage point of later years, he realized that the strong love which he had felt for Gomer the daughter of Diblaim, and all the pain which his marriage with her had brought to him, were not without their profound significance and permanent value. Dean Plumptre, in his poem, “Gomer” (in Lazarus and Other Poems), has nobly and truly voiced the feelings with which Hosea interpreted his early history. “Through all the mystery of my years, There runs a purpose which forbids the wail Of passionate despair. I have not lived At random, as a soul whom God forsakes; But evermore His Spirit led me on, Prompted each purpose, taught my lips to speak, Stirred up within me that deep love, and now Reveals the inner secret.” Later events had disclosed the base character of the woman who had commanded his youthful affection; but even as he rose above the ruins of his home and his fond ambitions, Hosea could declare in the light which the painful experience brought him, that in it all God was leading him on to his true life-work. IV. The Unfaithfulness of His Wife. In his earliest recorded prophetic utterance, Hosea reiterated the message of Amos to Northern Israel. That message was impressed upon the mind of his fellow-countrymen by the name which he gave to his oldest son. Jezreel was the plain on which Jehu, the founder of the reigning house, had slain his predecessor and thus become king of Israel. The name recalled Jehu’s bloody acts, and was interpreted by Hosea as a symbol of the coming judgment in which Northern Israel should pay with its life-blood for the crimes of the past. His little daughter also received the grim name, “Unpitied.” When it became known on the streets of Hosea’s native town, the prophet declared that it was intended to symbolize the ominous truth that, although Jehovah had long overlooked the crimes of the nation, he would no longer spare. The name of his youngest son, “Not-my-people,” proclaimed the same sad fact that Jehovah would soon be compelled to reject his people. The note struck in these early prophetic oracles is harsh and repellent, and perhaps suggests the bitterness in the prophet’s soul, as he recognized in his own domestic experiences the hideousness and awful consequences of sin. When he discovered that his wife, Gomer, was unfaithful, Hosea was justified by ancient Semitic custom and Hebrew law, in driving her from his home and thus severing the marriage bond. This would seem to have been his first impulse, and was in perfect keeping with his stern judicial spirit revealed in the child-oracles. The context implies that the impulse still to love and redeem the fallen woman who had wronged him so bitterly, came to Hosea only after he had already banished her or else she herself had fled from his home. At least he states that he bought her back from her life of ignominy and servitude for the price of a slave, and thus brought her again to his home. Immediate restoration to the former marriage relation was impossible. In silence and alone she must learn to appreciate the enormity of her guilt and the depth and greatness of the love which had followed her even in her shame. Whether or not she met Hosea’s love with true contrition and appreciation is not stated. The decision rested with her; for in the narrative Hosea stands waiting, the faithful lover, ready to forgive, when once penitence and contrition had done their purifying work. V. The Truths which Hosea Learned from His Tragic Experience. It is evident that Hosea told of his own private experience with the same purpose that influenced Isaiah and Jeremiah to recount the profound spiritual experiences which marked the beginning of their prophetic work, namely, that their own disciples and readers might appreciate their aims and teachings. The minds of these later prophets were opened by a study of the conditions and needs of their race and by the remarkable crisis through which their nation was passing. Hosea’s mind was divinely enlightened and his will was stirred to action by the tragic experiences which came to him in his domestic life. These taught him: (1) That having once truly loved his wife, he could not cease to love her, however much she sinned. (2) That the more he loved her the greater was the pain which her sin brought to him. (3) That in the presence of defiant wrong-doing, discipline is the noblest expression of love, for it alone will develop penitence in the heart of the guilty. (4) That forgiveness is impossible without penitence on the part of the sinner. (5) That he who loves truly is ever eager to forgive the penitent sinner. These simple but profound truths lie at the foundation of all of Hosea’s subsequent teaching. These convictions, won through infinite pain, and appreciated as no man had appreciated them before, made him not merely the prophet of stern justice but also the prophet of divine love and tenderness. Henceforth his task was to denounce the sins of Israel, for he now understood, as no one else, what they meant to Israel’s God. But his greater task was to reveal to the nation the Infinite Love which had guided them in their past and was ready and eager to forgive all the guilt of the present, if only they would reach out toward it with true repentance and contrition. VI. The Application of his Own Experience to that of His Nation. In the account of his own experience, Hosea traces the close analogies between his relation to his wife Gomer and Jehovah’s to the nation Israel. Even as Hosea wooed and married Gomer, so Jehovah, back in the wilderness days, entered into solemn covenant relations with Israel. As Hosea had been faithful to Gomer through all the years and loved her still, even so Jehovah had shown his unceasing love for Israel; but as Gomer had been faithless to Hosea and had bestowed her affection on her paramours, even so Northern Israel had turned to the worship of the ancient Canaanite Baalim. In the case of both Gomer and Israel, love and kindness had failed to evoke a corresponding love and fidelity. Hence, as Hosea had learned from his own experience, love must now find expression in discipline. With impassioned words, he pleads, in the name of Jehovah, with the citizens of Northern Israel, that they appeal to the nation, their mother, to repent and turn from her criminal course. In her blind folly Israel has regarded Jehovah’s blessings of plenty and prosperity as the gifts of the local gods of fertility. Only as the nation is deprived of them and covered with humility and shame will she learn the true source of these blessings. It is not certain that the closing paragraphs of this section are from Hosea, although on the whole they come most naturally from his lips. In any case they represent the conclusion suggested by his own personal experience. The object of his discipline of Gomer was that he might rouse within her that repentance which would make forgiveness and reconciliation possible. Jehovah’s withdrawal of plenty and prosperity from the nation was that the people of Israel might turn to him with that penitence which would make it possible for him again to bestow upon the nation the evidences of his favor. Even as in the days of the settlement, the valley of Achor, which had witnessed the punishment of the nation because of the sins of Achan (cf. § XXXII 10), had proved the gateway through which the Hebrews had entered into the possession and enjoyment of the blessings of the land of Canaan, so now, if the nation would but learn the lesson of divine discipline, the experience would open to them new revelations of Jehovah’s care and love. When once the nation should break with the Baal cults of Canaan and give its undivided love to Jehovah, he would renew, on the basis of the eternal principle of righteousness, justice and mercy, the old, close covenant between himself and his people. Then the heavens, as Jehovah’s messengers of love, would send down their fructifying rains upon the earth and the earth would send forth its rich products, so that Jezreel would no longer symbolize coming judgment, but rather, as its name suggests, represent the land which “God sows.” Then the unpitied people should be the object of Jehovah’s pity; they who had been rejected should again be called the people of Jehovah, and they in turn should recognize him as the one and only God. VII. Hosea’s Message to the World. In the pathetic story of his own experience and of its application to his nation, the prophet Hosea laid the eternal foundations of all true religion. He has also given the clearest and most vivid presentation of the divine necessity of repentance found in pre-exilic Hebrew literature. Interpreted into universal terms, Hosea’s message was: (1) Jehovah is a God of infinite love and demands in turn not only the loyalty but the love of his people. (2) The sin and infidelity of man bring infinite pain to the eternal heart of God. (3) Even for God himself forgiveness of the impenitent is impossible. (4) Toward those who are defiantly impenitent, divine justice and its expression in discipline is the supreme evidence of love. (5) That which is called divine judgment and punishment is but a means to an end, and that end is forgiveness and reconciliation. (6) God is ever ready to forgive even the most guilty, provided only they come to him with true contrition. (7) The goal of all life and human experience is that perfect peace and happiness which come through harmony with the eternal Father. ======================================================================== CHAPTER 99: 098. LXX. JEHOVAH’S CHARGES AGAINST GUILTY ISRAEL ======================================================================== § LXX. JEHOVAH’S CHARGES AGAINST GUILTY ISRAEL 1. General arraignment of the nation (Hosea 4:1-3). Hear the word of Jehovah, O Israelites, For Jehovah hath a charge against the inhabitants of the land, For there is no fidelity nor true love Nor knowledge of God in the land; But perjury, lying and murder, Stealing, committing adultery and deeds of violence, And acts of bloodshed quickly follow each other. Therefore the land mourns, And all its inhabitants languish, Together with the wild beasts and the birds of the heavens; While even the fish of the sea are swept away. 2. Responsibility of the priests (Hosea 4:4-5). Yet let none bring charges, And let none reprove, Since my people are but as their priestlings. O priest, thou shalt stumble by day, And the prophet also shall stumble with thee; By night I will destroy thy people. Thy people are being destroyed for lack of knowledge. Because thou hast rejected knowledge I reject thee from being priest to me. Since thou hast forgotten the instruction of thy God, I also will forget thy children. 3. Priests and princes betrayers of the people (Hosea 5:1-3). Hear this, O priests! And hearken, O house of Israel! O house of the king, give heed!— Since for you is the judgment. A snare have you become at Mizpeh, And a net spread out on Tabor, And a deep pit have they dug at Shittim, And there is no correction for any of them. I indeed know Ephraim, And Israel is not hid from me. For thou, O Ephraim, hast played the harlot; Israel is defiled. 4. Israel’s fitful, superficial repentance (Hosea 5:15toHosea 6:3). I will return to my place, Until they are confounded and seek my presence. When they are in distress they will quickly seek me, Saying, ‘Come let us return to Jehovah, For he hath torn and he will heal us, He hath smitten and he will bind us up, He will revive in a couple of days, On the third he will raise us up again, That we may live in his presence. Yea, let us know, let us eagerly seek to know Jehovah; As soon as we quickly seek him, Then he will come to us as the winter rain, As the spring rain that waters the earth.’ 5. The fatal lack of true love and knowledge (Hosea 6:4-6). What can I make of you, O Ephraim! What can I make of you, O Israel! Since your love is like a morning cloud, Yea, like the dew which early goes away. Therefore I have hewn them by the prophets, I have slain them by the words of my mouth. And my judgment is like the light that goes forth, For it is love that I delight in and not sacrifice, And knowledge of God and not burnt-offerings. 6. Israel’s hideous crimes (Hosea 6:7-10). But they after the manner of men have transgressed the covenant; There they have played me false. Gilead is a city of evil-doers Tracked with bloody footprints; And as bandits lie in wait for a man, So a band of priests murder on the way to Shechem; Verily they commit deliberate crime! In Bethel I have seen a horrible thing, There Ephraim plays the harlot; Israel is defiled. 7. Crimes that preclude forgiveness (Hosea 6:11b–Hosea 7:2). When I would turn, when I would heal Israel, Then Ephraim’s guilt is revealed, And Samaria’s crimes are seen: How they practice fraud and the thief enters in, While abroad bandits plunder. But they never think in their hearts That all their wickedness I remember. Now their deeds have encompassed them; They are ever before my face. 8. Corruption of the court (Hosea 7:3-7). In their wickedness they anoint kings And in their falsehood princes, Since they are all of them adulterers. They make our king sick, And the princes with fever from wine; He stretches forth his hand with dissolute fellows. For like an oven their heart burns with treachery; All night their anger slumbers; In the morning it blazes into a flame of fire. All of them glow like an oven, And they devour their rulers; All their kings have fallen, There is none among them who calls to me. 9. Israel’s sad degeneracy and stupidity (Hosea 7:8-10). Ephraim—he lets himself be mixed among the peoples. Ephraim—he has become a cake unturned. Strangers have devoured his strength, but he does not know it; Also gray hairs are sprinkled upon him, but he knows it not, And Israel’s pride has testified to his face. Yet they do not return to Jehovah their God, And in all this they seek him not. 10. Its foolish, faithless foreign policy (Hosea 7:11-11). Ephraim is like a simple, silly dove; To Egypt they call, after Assyria they go. As often as they go away, I will spread over them my net, Like birds of the heavens I will bring them down; I will chastise them because of their wickedness. Woe to them, that they have strayed from me! Destruction to them, because they have been untrue to me! 11. Its treachery and rebellion (Hosea 7:14-15). Although it was I who redeemed them, they spoke lies about me, And they have never cried to me with their heart. But they are ever howling beside their altars for corn and new wine; They cut themselves, they rebel against me, Although it was I who trained and strengthened their arms; Concerning me they plan only evil, they turn to Baal, They have become like a bow that swerves. 12. Its men made kings and idols (Hosea 8:4-5b, c, a,Hosea 8:8b, c). They themselves have made kings but without my consent; They have made princes but without my knowledge. Out of their silver and gold they have made idols to their destruction! Mine anger is kindled against them. Thy calf, O Samaria, is distasteful; A workman made it and it is no god. Like splinters shall Samaria’s calf become. 13. Its fatal foreign relations (Hosea 8:7-9b). For they sow the wind and reap a whirlwind; A shoot which has no stalk and yields no fruit! If it should yield, strangers would devour it. Israel is devoured; already it is among the nations As a vessel in which there is no pleasure. For by themselves they have gone up to Assyria As a wild ass which goes apart by itself. 14. Early nobility and later idolatry of the Israelites (Hosea 13:1-2). When Ephraim used to speak there was trembling; A prince was he in Israel. But he incurred guilt through Baal and died. And now they go on sinning; They make for themselves molten gods— From their silver, idols according to their own model; Smiths’ work, all of it! To such they speak! Men who sacrifice, kiss calves! 15. Sudden fate impending (Hosea 13:8). Therefore they shall be like the morning cloud, Like the dew that early disappears, Like the chaff which blows away from the threshing-floor, And like the smoke from the window. 16. Their forget-fulness of Jehovah’s care (Hosea 13:4-6). Yet it was I, Jehovah, thy God, Who brought thee up from the land of Egypt, And a God beside me thou knowest not, Nor has there been any saviour except me. It was I who shepherded thee in the wilderness, In the land of burning heat. As they fed, they were filled to the full; They were filled to the full so that their heart was lifted up; Therefore they forgot me! 17. Jehovah’s vengeance (Hosea 13:7-8). And so I will be to them like a lion, Like a leopard will I lie in wait by the way; I will fall upon them like a bear robbed of its young, And will tear open that which encloses their hearts, And there the lions of the forest shall devour them, And the wild beasts shall tear them in pieces. 18. None to deliver (Hosea 13:9-11). In the time of destruction, O Israel, who will help thee? Where is thy king now, that he may deliver thee? And all thy princes that they may secure for thee justice? Those of whom thou hast said, ‘Give me kings and princes.’ I give thee kings in my anger And take them away in my wrath. 19. Unfitted to meet the coming crisis (Hosea 13:12-13). Ephraim’s iniquity is gathered up, his sin is laid by in store. The pangs of childbirth come upon him, but he is an unwise child; For this is no time to stand in the mouth of the womb. 20. Left by Jehovah to their fate (Hosea 13:14). Shall I deliver them from the power of Sheol? Shall I redeem them from death? Come, on with thy plagues, O death! On with thy pestilence, O Sheol! Repentance is forever hid from mine eyes. 21. The prey of foreign invaders (Hosea 13:15). Though he is flourishing in the midst of the reed grass, There shall come an east wind, Jehovah’s wind, Coming up from the wilderness; And his fountain shall dry up, And his spring shall be parched; While the foe shall strip the treasure Consisting of all precious things. 22. Guilty Samaria’s fate (Hosea 13:16). Samaria shall bear her guilt For she has rebelled against her God. They shall fall by the sword, Their children shall be dashed to pieces And their women with child shall be ripped up. I. The Background and Literary Form of Hosea’s Later Prophecies. When the strong hand of Jeroboam II was relaxed by death, there came a sudden and radical change in the character and fortunes of Northern Israel. Zechariah, Jeroboam’s son, was killed by an assassin after a reign of only six months. Within a month the assassin was in turn put to death by a certain Menahem who instituted a reign of terror, ignominiously buying immunity from Assyrian attack by the payment of an enormous tribute which he extracted from the wealthy men of his kingdom. Almost instantly the evils which Amos had detected and denounced became glaringly apparent: the lack of a broad and consistent national policy, class hatreds, the oppression of the weak by the strong, and a form of religion which was but a cloak for loathsome acts of cruelty, oppression and immorality. It is not strange that Hosea’s sermons during this period are filled with bitter denunciations. His words are those of a patriot whose heart was breaking as he saw rulers and people deliberately committing crimes which were rapidly hurrying the nation on to its final destruction. One recognizes in the abrupt, epigrammatic, almost explosive style of these sermons the pent up emotion and the intense feeling under which they were uttered. The great thoughts that filled his soul were expressed most naturally in abrupt, jagged, forceful figures, which call for keenest attention and thought on the part of the reader, but leave an impression on the mind that never vanishes. In his use of literary figures, as well as in his message, Hosea is the most original of all the Hebrew prophets, and yet he is to-day one of the least read and understood. This neglect is partially due to the ruggedness and obscurities of his style. The text of the prophecy has also suffered greatly in the process of transmission. Many of his allusions are to events otherwise unrecorded in Israel’s history, so that the modern reader constantly finds himself baffled by his ignorance of the facts to which the prophet alludes. And yet of all the prophets Hosea best rewards careful study. In the text adopted above most of the passages containing the obscure allusions have been omitted, and those which represent best the prophet’s teachings and activity during the years of Israel’s rapid decline have been selected. II. The Guilt of Israel’s Prophets, Priests and Rulers. Hosea, like Amos, opens the main body of his addresses with a sweeping arraignment of the nation. The prophet, as the spokesman for the plaintiff, Jehovah, states in detail the crimes of which the people of Israel are guilty. Honesty, love and the knowledge of God are lacking, and in their place are hideous crimes condemned by the moral code of any race or age. With true insight Hosea states that the responsibility for Israel’s guilt lies, however, not primarily with the common people but with the leaders of the nation, the priests and the prophets, who in failing faithfully to instruct the people have proved their misleaders. The political leaders, also, are intent only on luxury and debauchery. Little wonder, therefore, that the people who follow their example are corrupt. Priests, prophets and rulers prey upon the people and are so blind to all warnings or corrections, that they make it impossible for Jehovah to deliver the guilty nation. III. The Fatal Lack of True Repentance and Character. In his own private experience, Hosea had learned how necessary was repentance, and that true repentance meant far more than mere words and a shrinking from the consequences of one’s evil acts. With pathetic sarcasm he describes, in the form of a dialogue between the people and Jehovah, the false popular conception of repentance. To the prevailing belief that no fundamental reform is required, but that all that is necessary in a time of disaster is to turn for help and deliverance to the God of their nation, comes Jehovah’s pathetic rejoinder: What can I make of you, O Ephraim, What can I make of you, O Israel? Israel’s love and repentance are, alas, like the fleecy morning clouds, utterly lacking in content and permanence. By the fearless, unsparing words of his prophets Jehovah has endeavored to instil in the minds of the people a true conception of his demands and to make clear to them the crime and folly of their acts. By severe and startling judgments he has endeavored to impress upon them his supreme teaching: It is love I delight in and not sacrifice, And knowledge of God and not burnt-offering. Yet through all their history the Israelites have disregarded their most solemn obligations. Falsehood, murder, highway robbery, instigated by the very priests who were charged with the task of guarding the law and of teaching the people what is right, unspeakable crimes, even at the ancient sanctuary of Bethel, apostasy and gross immorality, testify to the need of a fundamental change of heart and reveal the insufficiency of that superficial repentance with which the people think to win Jehovah’s favor. Jehovah is eager to forgive; but how can he when he is confronted at every turn by public and private crimes. In commercial and civic life men defraud and steal under the guise of law or authority, while on the throne of Israel itself there sits a dissolute, drunken king (probably Menahem or his son Pekahiah), surrounded by a group of cutthroats, sharing his debauchery and shame, seeking only a favorable opportunity to wield the sword of the assassin; while not one of them thinks for a moment of turning to Jehovah in penitence or for guidance. IV. The Evidences of National Degeneracy. In a series of remarkable passages, Hosea, with the intimate knowledge of a patriot and the inspired insight of a prophet, diagnoses Israel’s malady. His favorite designation of Northern Israel is by the name of the larger and leading tribe, Ephraim. With deep yearning and sorrow he pronounces the name of his beloved nation, and then with unshrinking courage and thoroughness proceeds in a few epigrammatic words to characterize the evils which are proving its destruction. As a clear-eyed, fearless statesman, he declares that one of the fundamental mistakes in Israel’s policy is its vacillating foreign alliances. Ephraim is like a cake unturned—burnt on the one side, raw on the other. No consistent policy nor trust in Jehovah binds together all parts of the nation. Instead, it is so dominated by foreign customs and ideas that its true character and strength remain undeveloped. Already the signs of national decay are beginning to appear; but, saddest of all, the nation is ignorant of its actual condition. Like a silly dove, they make alliances, first with their betrayers, the Egyptians, and then with the Assyrians, their deadliest foes; but they never turn with true faith and contrition to the God who has tenderly cared for them through all their past. Thus they compel Jehovah, whose heart burns to deliver them, to become instead their harsh judge and to execute the sentence which he is forced to pronounce upon them. Instead of trusting Jehovah, they put their faith in the kings whom they have raised up without the divine approval, and in the idols of silver and gold which they have set up as the objects of their worship. Thus in their blindness they are sowing the wind and shall soon reap a whirlwind. V. Hosea’s Attitude Toward the Kingship and Idolatry. Hosea puts himself on record as absolutely condemning the kings of Northern Israel, not because he was opposed, as were certain of his later spiritual disciples, to the institution of the kingship itself, but rather because he realized that the type of men who ruled over Northern Israel were foes to its best interests. With his clear spiritual and ethical vision, he also saw that the images of wood overlaid with silver and gold, which had been tolerated by the earlier prophets even in the temple at Jerusalem and in the sanctuaries of Dan and Bethel, were harmful rather than helpful to the cause of true religion. He therefore openly declared that the sooner they are chopped up by the hands of foreign conquerors the better for Israel’s faith. VI. The Inevitable Fate Awaiting the Nation. Hosea, like Amos, after his searching diagnosis of the maladies of Northern Israel, saw no hope of the nation’s ultimate recovery. Already the process of dissolution had begun. The strong and influential position which Israel enjoyed in the days of Jeroboam II had been lost. Saddest and most significant of all, the nation had no strong virile religious faith to give strength and consistency to its political policy, to bind together all classes in the community, to arouse the rulers to unselfish and patriotic activity, and to guide the nation through its present and future perils. Thus, Jehovah, who stood ready and eager to deliver a truly penitent people, was compelled to become the agent of Israel’s destruction. Hence, as a prophet who faithfully interpreted existing conditions and tendencies, Hosea, though with breaking heart, was forced to proclaim to this nation, while it remained in its attitude of defiant unrepentance, an unmitigated message of doom. ======================================================================== Source: https://sermonindex.net/books/kent-charles-foster-the-historical-bible-volume-1/ ========================================================================