The Sixteen Questions

The Sixteen Questions

continued

3. How does he copy Christ?

This is the question the Fathers return to most, and the one a modern reader is least prepared for. In their working picture the Antichrist is less a monster than a rival: the Greek prefix anti can mean “in place of” as well as “against”. He comes in his own name, gathers the scattered, appears as a man, works wonders, rebuilds a temple, and in some accounts stages a death and a rising. Hippolytus lists the points one by one. Chrysostom gives the rule in a sentence: wherever God sows true seed, the devil sows false after it.

In this chapter

This question draws on 106 quotations from 37 voices. 67 of them are printed in full below, at the end of the chapter, because their main concern is this question; the other 39 belong chiefly to other questions and are listed here by number.

Point by point, like Christ (Hippolytus, Pseudo-Hippolytus)

Hippolytus lays out the pattern: Antichrist appears as a lamb though a wolf within, gathers the scattered people, gives a seal, comes as a man, sends out false apostles and raises a stone temple in Jerusalem. The pseudo-Hippolytan sermon lengthens the list to include counterfeit miracles of cleansing and raising the dead, a mock birth, and a counterfeit ascension.

In his own name (Irenaeus, Hilary, Ambrose, Chrysostom, Bede, Alcuin)

The Fathers read John 5:43, “another shall come in his own name”, as a prophecy of him. Where Christ came in the Father’s name and sought the Father’s glory, Antichrist comes in his own and seeks his own. Chrysostom adds that he will not claim to be sent but will take divine honour for himself; Hilary says he will pretend to come in the Father’s name.

The second coming counterfeited, and the test that exposes it (Rufinus, Athanasius, Chrysostom, Eusebius, Hilary)

Rufinus says the enemy counterfeits Christ’s second advent with prodigies and lying signs. The Fathers’ answer is not a better prediction but a test. Chrysostom: Christ’s coming will be open and everywhere at once, like lightning, so any Christ shown in a desert or an inner room is false. Athanasius reads even “the Son does not know the day” as protection against a deceiver who would claim to know it.

Dressed in the Church’s own clothes (Cyprian, Ambrose, Jerome, Athanasius, Origen)

The counterfeit does not come against Christ’s name but under it. Cyprian: the adversary’s ministers present antichrist under the name of Christ. Ambrose: he will argue from Scripture that he is Christ. Jerome: heretics speak of Christ while hiding Antichrist, since no one would follow if they revealed him. Origen: evil reaches its peak by imitating the good.

Wonders like the magicians of Egypt (Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Irenaeus, Solomon of Basra)

Origen compares his wonders to the Egyptian magicians who copied Moses: lying signs unlike Christ’s saving works. Cyril says they are illusions, such as seeming resurrections and cures that never happened. Chrysostom adds that God permits it so that unbelievers lose their excuse.

A counterfeit death and rising (Bede, Gregory the Great, Victorinus)

Several late sources expect a staged resurrection. Bede says Antichrist will present himself as mortally wounded and risen so as to be accepted in Christ’s place; Gregory the Great says he will feign death and resurrection; Victorinus has the false prophet make the dead seem to rise.

The Scripture behind it

The Scripture on which the Fathers drew for this question is set out here in the King James text.

Another shall come in his own name (John 5:43–44)

I am come in my Father's name, and ye receive me not: if another shall come in his own name, him ye will receive. How can ye believe, which receive honour one of another, and seek not the honour that cometh from God only? [John 5:43-44]

The man of sin (2 Thess 2:1–17)

Now we beseech you, brethren, by the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by our gathering together unto him, That ye be not soon shaken in mind, or be troubled, neither by spirit, nor by word, nor by letter as from us, as that the day of Christ is at hand. Let no man deceive you by any means: for that day shall not come, except there come a falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition; Who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped; so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God. Remember ye not, that, when I was yet with you, I told you these things? And now ye know what withholdeth that he might be revealed in his time. For the mystery of iniquity doth already work: only he who now letteth will let, until he be taken out of the way. And then shall that Wicked be revealed, whom the Lord shall consume with the spirit of his mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of his coming: Even him, whose coming is after the working of Satan with all power and signs and lying wonders, And with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish; because they received not the love of the truth, that they might be saved. And for this cause God shall send them strong delusion, that they should believe a lie: That they all might be damned who believed not the truth, but had pleasure … [2 Thessalonians 2:1-17]

Satan transformed into an angel of light (2 Cor 11:13–15)

For such are false apostles, deceitful workers, transforming themselves into the apostles of Christ. And no marvel; for Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light. Therefore it is no great thing if his ministers also be transformed as the ministers of righteousness; whose end shall be according to their works. [2 Corinthians 11:13-15]

Wolves in sheep’s clothing (Matt 7:15–23)

Beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves. Ye shall know them by their fruits. Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit. A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire. Wherefore by their fruits ye shall know them. Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of heaven; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in heaven. Many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name? and in thy name have cast out devils? and in thy name done many wonderful works? And then will I profess unto them, I never knew you: depart from me, ye that work iniquity. [Matthew 7:15-23]

Take heed that no man deceive you (Matt 24:4–14)

And Jesus answered and said unto them, Take heed that no man deceive you. For many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ; and shall deceive many. And ye shall hear of wars and rumours of wars: see that ye be not troubled: for all these things must come to pass, but the end is not yet. For nation shall rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom: and there shall be famines, and pestilences, and earthquakes, in divers places. All these are the beginning of sorrows. Then shall they deliver you up to be afflicted, and shall kill you: and ye shall be hated of all nations for my name's sake. And then shall many be offended, and shall betray one another, and shall hate one another. And many false prophets shall rise, and shall deceive many. And because iniquity shall abound, the love of many shall wax cold. But he that shall endure unto the end, the same shall be saved. And this gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all the world for a witness unto all nations; and then shall the end come. [Matthew 24:4-14]

The abomination of desolation (Matt 24:15–28)

When ye therefore shall see the abomination of desolation, spoken of by Daniel the prophet, stand in the holy place, (whoso readeth, let him understand:) Then let them which be in Judaea flee into the mountains: Let him which is on the housetop not come down to take any thing out of his house: Neither let him which is in the field return back to take his clothes. And woe unto them that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days! But pray ye that your flight be not in the winter, neither on the sabbath day: For then shall be great tribulation, such as was not since the beginning of the world to this time, no, nor ever shall be. And except those days should be shortened, there should no flesh be saved: but for the elect's sake those days shall be shortened. Then if any man shall say unto you, Lo, here is Christ, or there; believe it not. For there shall arise false Christs, and false prophets, and shall shew great signs and wonders; insomuch that, if it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect. Behold, I have told you before. Wherefore if they shall say unto you, Behold, he is in the desert; go not forth: behold, he is in the secret chambers; believe it not. For as the lightning cometh out of the east, and shineth even unto the west; so shall also the coming of the Son of man be. For wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together. [Matthew 24:15-28]

The beast and his number (Rev 13:1–18)

And I stood upon the sand of the sea, and saw a beast rise up out of the sea, having seven heads and ten horns, and upon his horns ten crowns, and upon his heads the name of blasphemy. And the beast which I saw was like unto a leopard, and his feet were as the feet of a bear, and his mouth as the mouth of a lion: and the dragon gave him his power, and his seat, and great authority. And I saw one of his heads as it were wounded to death; and his deadly wound was healed: and all the world wondered after the beast. And they worshipped the dragon which gave power unto the beast: and they worshipped the beast, saying, Who is like unto the beast? who is able to make war with him? And there was given unto him a mouth speaking great things and blasphemies; and power was given unto him to continue forty and two months. And he opened his mouth in blasphemy against God, to blaspheme his name, and his tabernacle, and them that dwell in heaven. And it was given unto him to make war with the saints, and to overcome them: and power was given him over all kindreds, and tongues, and nations. And all that dwell upon the earth shall worship him, whose names are not written in the book of life of the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world. If any man have an ear, let him hear. He that leadeth into captivity shall go into captivity: he that killeth with the sword must be killed with the … [Revelation 13:1-18]

Also relevant: quotations printed under other questions

Ascension of Isaiah, He speaks like the Beloved and claims deity (6.1); Sibylline Oracles, Beliar from the Caesars (2.3); Irenaeus of Lyons, Sits in Jerusalem temple as Christ (6.3); Hippolytus of Rome, Rebuilds Jerusalem; taken for Christ (6.11); Hippolytus of Rome, Gathers the dispersion of Israel (2.13); Hippolytus of Rome, Imitates Christ point by point (6.16); Commodian, Latin conqueror says 'I am Christ' (16.5); Commodian, The Latin conqueror says 'I am Christ' (6.23); Gospel of Bartholomew, Satan: 'I will be as he is' (2.15); Origen of Alexandria, Evil peaks by simulating the good (2.16); Origen of Alexandria, The wicked one's 'son' opposed to Christ (2.18); Victorinus of Pettau, Nero raised up, received as Christ (2.20); Victorinus of Pettau, Calls to circumcision; rises from hell (16.8); Lactantius, Syrian king, evil spirit's offspring (2.22); Pseudo-Hippolytus, Longer list of imitations (6.31); Pseudo-Hippolytus, Pseudo-virgin birth; phantom flesh (2.25); Pseudo-Hippolytus, Begins gentle, pious, loves the Jews (16.10); Hilary of Poitiers, They receive Antichrist, not Christ (16.16); Cyril of Jerusalem, A magician seizes Rome (2.27); Cyril of Jerusalem, Jewish temple, not the Church (6.36); John Chrysostom, Antichrist follows Christ as imitation (2.29); John Chrysostom, A man, not Satan (6.40); John Chrysostom, He comes in his own name (16.20); Rufinus of Aquileia, The enemy counterfeits the second advent (6.42); Jerome, A painted face belongs to Antichrist (13.21); Sulpicius Severus, Nero destroyed by Antichrist (2.30); Sulpicius Severus, False Elias; Antichrist at hand (13.22); Cave of Treasures, Danite in Jerusalem temple (2.35); Gregory of Tours, Circumcision, then his statue in the Jerusalem temple (6.49); Coptic Apocalypse of Daniel, 19th king, mixed race, 666 (8.28); Bede, Comes in his own name, calls himself Son of God (16.44); Bede, Barabbas as a type of Antichrist (2.46); Bede, 666 as Titan; Solomon's 666 talents (8.31); Bede, Witch's calf as Antichrist's birth and reign (16.45); John of Damascus, Offspring of fornication, not incarnation (2.50); John of Damascus, Hidden upbringing, feigned sanctity (2.51); Alcuin, Comes in his own name (16.48); Solomon of Basra, Sits in temple as Christ (6.58); Solomon of Basra, Devil-indwelt man of Dan (2.56).

The quotations

The quotations that follow are in order of date, from the earliest writers to the latest. Each is word for word from the translation named after it. The short note is ours, and says only what the passage claims.

3.1. Didache: The world-deceiver as a 'son of God'

“Then the deceiver of the world will appear, claiming to be a son of God. He will do signs and wonders, and the earth will be handed over to him, and he will commit lawless acts such as have never happened since the beginning of the world.” — Didache, The Didache. Note: The earliest Christian handbook describes the world-deceiver posing as a son of God, working wonders, ruling the earth and committing unprecedented lawlessness. [Matthew 24:24; 2 Thessalonians 2:9]

3.2. Ascension of Isaiah: Sun rises at night at his word

“And at his word the sun will rise at night and he will make the moon to appear at the sixth hour.” — Ascension of Isaiah, The Ascension of Isaiah (Charles translation); scanned text. Note: His powers include making the sun rise at night and the moon appear at midday. [2 Thessalonians 2:9; Revelation 13:13]

3.3. Ascension of Isaiah: His image set up in every city

“10. And there will be the power of his miracles in every city and region. 11. And he will set up his image before him in every city.” — Ascension of Isaiah, The Ascension of Isaiah (Charles translation); scanned text. Note: He works miracles in every city and sets up his image in each. [Revelation 13:14-15]

3.4. Sibylline Oracles: Beliar will come working signs

“And Beliar will come, and many signs / Will work for men. And then of holy men / Elect and faithful there will be confusion, / And a plundering of them and of the Hebrews.” — Sibylline Oracles, The Sibylline Oracles (Terry translation); scanned text. Note: The Sibyl says Beliar will come working many signs, bringing confusion and plundering of the elect. [2 Thessalonians 2:9; Matthew 24:24]

3.5. Irenaeus of Lyons: Exalted above idols

“And again, speaking of Antichrist, he says, "who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped." He points out here those who are called gods, by such as know not God, that is, idols. For the Father of all is called God, and is so; and Antichrist shall be lifted up, not above Him, but above those which are indeed called gods, but are not.” — Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies. Note: Antichrist exalts himself above idols (so-called gods), not above the true God. [2 Thessalonians 2:4]

3.6. Irenaeus of Lyons: Apostate robber who wants worship

“he, being an apostate and a robber, is anxious to be adored as God; and that, although a mere slave, he wishes himself to be proclaimed as a king. For he (Antichrist) being endued with all the power of the devil, shall come, not as a righteous king, nor as a legitimate king, [i.e., one] in subjection to God, but an impious, unjust, and lawless one” — Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies. Note: Antichrist is an apostate and robber with the devil's full power who claims kingship and divine worship, not a lawful king under God. [2 Thessalonians 2:3-4]

3.7. Irenaeus of Lyons: Becomes the one idol

“setting aside idols to persuade [men] that he himself is God, raising up himself as the only idol, having in himself the multifarious errors of the other idols. This he does, in order that they who do [now] worship the devil by means of many abominations, may serve himself by this one idol” — Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies. Note: He removes the many idols and sets himself up as the one idol, gathering all idolatrous error into his own person. [2 Thessalonians 2:3-4]

3.8. Irenaeus of Lyons: 'Another' in his own name

“The Lord also spoke as follows to those who did not believe in Him: "I have come in my Father's name, and ye have not received Me: when another shall come in his own name, him ye will receive," calling Antichrist "the other," because he is alienated from the Lord.” — Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies. Note: The 'other' who comes in his own name (John 5:43) is Antichrist, alienated from the Lord. [John 5:43; Luke 18:2-5]

3.9. Hippolytus of Rome: Conquers all ten, seeks worship

“And amid these another little horn shall rise, which is that of Antichrist. And it shall pluck by the roots the three others before it; that is to say, he shall subvert the three kings of Egypt, Libya, and Ethiopia, with the view of acquiring for himself universal dominion. And after conquering the remaining seven horns, he will at last begin, inflated by a strange and wicked spirit, to stir up war against the saints, and to persecute all everywhere, with the aim of being glorified by all, and being worshipped as God.” — Hippolytus of Rome, Fragments - Exegetical. Fragments from Commentaries on Various Books of Scripture. Note: Antichrist conquers three kings, then the other seven, and puffed up by a wicked spirit persecutes everywhere, aiming to be worshipped as God. [Daniel 7:8,20-25]

3.10. Hippolytus of Rome: Lamb-horns: imitates the Son of God

“By the beast, then, coming up out of the earth, he means the kingdom of Antichrist; and by the two horns he means him and the false prophet after him. And in speaking of "the horns being like a lamb," he means that he will make himself like the Son of God, and set himself forward as king. And the terms, "he spake like a dragon," mean that he is a deceiver, and not truthful.” — Hippolytus of Rome, On Christ and Antichrist. Note: The earth-beast is Antichrist's kingdom, its two horns are he and the false prophet; the lamb-like horns mean he makes himself like the Son of God, speaking falsely as a dragon. [Revelation 13:11-14]

3.11. Hippolytus of Rome: Partridge luring others' young

“For he will allure mankind to himself, wishing to gain possession of those who are not his own, and promising deliverance to all, while he is unable to save himself.” — Hippolytus of Rome, On Christ and Antichrist. Note: The partridge simile: Antichrist lures people who are not his own with promises of deliverance he cannot give. [Jeremiah 17:11]

3.12. Hippolytus of Rome: Christ a lion, Antichrist a lion

“Now, as our Lord Jesus Christ, who is also God, was prophesied of under the figure of a lion, on account of His royalty and glory, in the same way have the Scriptures also aforetime spoken of Antichrist as a lion, on account of his tyranny and violence. For the deceiver seeks to liken himself in all things to the Son of God. Christ is a lion, so Antichrist is also a lion; Christ is a king, so Antichrist is also a king.” — Hippolytus of Rome, On Christ and Antichrist. Note: Scripture speaks of Antichrist as a lion for his tyranny, because the deceiver seeks to resemble the Son of God in everything. [Genesis 49:9; Revelation 5:5]

3.13. Hippolytus of Rome: Lamb outside, wolf within

“The Saviour was manifested as a lamb; so he too, in like manner, will appear as a lamb, though within he is a wolf. The Saviour came into the world in the circumcision, and he will come in the same manner. The Lord sent apostles among all the nations, and he in like manner will send false apostles.” — Hippolytus of Rome, On Christ and Antichrist. Note: Antichrist will appear as a lamb though a wolf within, come in circumcision like Christ, and send out false apostles. [John 10:12; Revelation 13:11]

3.14. Origen of Alexandria: Not every sign proves God

“There are different kinds of signs. According to the apostle, the man in the law does them, and so does the lawless one whom the Lord will destroy with the breath of his mouth, with all power, signs and wonders of falsehood. God also does them through the prophets.” — Origen of Alexandria, Fragments on the Gospel of John. Note: Signs differ in kind: God, and the lawless one whom the Lord destroys, both work signs. [2 Thessalonians 2:8-9]

3.15. Origen of Alexandria: Antichrist's wonders like Egypt's magicians

“For as the power of the Egyptian magicians was not similar to the divinely-bestowed grace of Moses, but the issue clearly proved that the acts of the former were the effect of magic, while those of Moses were wrought by divine power; so the proceedings of the antichrists, and of those who feign that they can work miracles as being the disciples of Christ, are said to be lying signs and wonders” — Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus (part 1 of 2). Note: Antichrist's wonders are likened to the Egyptian magicians' imitation of Moses: lying signs, unlike Christ's saving works. [2 Thessalonians 2:9; Exodus 7:11]

3.16. Origen of Alexandria: The man of sin imitates true wonders

“the Apostle about the man of sin, the son of perdition, that, "with all power and signs and lying wonders and with all deceit of unrighteousness," he shall be manifested to them that are perishing, imitating all kinds of wonders, to-wit, those of truth.” — Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on Matthew. Note: The man of sin imitates true wonders, as Egypt's magicians imitated Moses. [2 Thessalonians 2:9; Exodus 7:11]

3.17. Cyprian of Carthage: Antichrist under the name of Christ

“the adversary is flattering and deceiving, who, according to the apostle's word, transforms himself into an angel of light, and equips his ministers as if they were the ministers of righteousness, who maintain night instead of day, death for salvation, despair under the offer of hope, perfidy under the pretext of faith, antichrist under the name of Christ” — Cyprian of Carthage, Treatise 1. On the Unity of the Church. Note: The adversary's ministers pose as ministers of righteousness, presenting antichrist under the name of Christ. [2 Corinthians 11:14]

3.18. Acts of Archelaus: Mani as Antichrist's forerunner vessel

“You are a vessel of Antichrist; and no vessel of honour, in sooth, but a mean and base one … And so it is that your king, Antichrist, has despatched you in a similar character, and as it were destined to death” — Acts of Archelaus, The Acts of the Disputation with the Heresiarch Manes. Note: Archelaus tells Mani he is a base vessel of Antichrist, sent ahead to test the Church's strength. [2 Corinthians 11:14]

3.19. Acts of Archelaus: Mani claims to be the Paraclete

“I, in sooth, am the Paraclete, whose mission was announced of old time by Jesus” — Acts of Archelaus, The Acts of the Disputation with the Heresiarch Manes. Note: In the Acts, Mani presents himself as the promised Paraclete, claim that Archelaus rejects. [John 14:16]

3.20. Victorinus of Pettau: False prophet; counterfeit resurrections

“He is speaking of the great and false prophet who is to do signs, and portents, and falsehoods before him in the presence of men. "And he had two horns like a lamb-that is, the appearance within of a man-and he spoke like a dragon." … so that even the dead appear to rise again.” — Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse of the Blessed John. Note: The second beast is the false prophet who does signs and falsehoods before Antichrist, even making the dead seem to rise. [Revelation 13:11-12]

3.21. Pseudo-Clement: The false precedes the true

“as the true Prophet has told us, a false prophet must first come from some deceiver; and then, in like manner, after the removal of the holy place, the true Gospel must be secretly sent abroad for the rectification of the heresies that shall be. After this, also, towards the end, Antichrist must first come, and then our Jesus must be revealed to be indeed the Christ” — Pseudo-Clement, Clementine Homilies. Note: In the Homilies the false always comes before the true: a false prophet before the true, and Antichrist before the manifestation of Jesus as Christ. [Matthew 24:5]

3.22. Pseudo-Clement: Tenth pair: Antichrist and Christ

“the seventh, the tempter and the Son of man; the eighth, Simon and I, Peter; the ninth, all nations, and he who shall be sent to sow the word among the nations; the tenth, Antichrist and Christ.” — Pseudo-Clement, Clementine Recognitions. Note: The Recognitions' ten pairs end with Antichrist and Christ, after Simon Magus and Peter.

3.23. Lactantius: Claims to be God's Son

“But that king will not only be most disgraceful in himself, but he will also be a prophet of lies; and he will constitute and call himself God, and will order himself to be worshipped as the Son of God” — Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Book 7. Note: The Syrian king is also a prophet of lies who calls himself God and demands worship as the Son of God. [2 Thessalonians 2:4]

3.24. Lactantius: Antichrist falsely calls himself Christ

“Now this is he who is called Antichrist; but he shall falsely call himself Christ, and shall fight against the truth, and being overcome shall flee; and shall often renew the war, and often be conquered, until in the fourth battle, all the wicked being slain, subdued, and captured, he shall at length pay the penalty of his crimes.” — Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Book 7. Note: The wicked one is Antichrist, who falsely calls himself Christ, is repeatedly defeated and finally punished after a fourth battle. [1 John 2:18; Revelation 20:10]

3.25. Eusebius of Caesarea: Do not follow the false appearing

“If at the coming of Antichrist, his fame shall be spread abroad, as though Christ had appeared, go not out, nor follow him. For it cannot be that He who was once seen on earth, shall any more dwell in the corners of the earth. It will therefore be he of whom we speak, not the true Christ.” — Eusebius of Caesarea, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Luke, part 2 (chapters 11–24) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Eusebius says that if Antichrist's fame spreads as though Christ had appeared, believers must not follow, since the true Christ's return will light the whole world like lightning. [Luke 17:23; Luke 17:24]

3.26. Pseudo-Hippolytus: Gathers disciples like Christ's apostles

“For this reason also is he to be born of a virgin, as if a spirit, and then to the rest he will be manifested as flesh. … And even as Christ chose His apostles, so will he too assume a whole people of disciples like himself in wickedness.” — Pseudo-Hippolytus, Dubious and Spurious Pieces Attributed to Hippolytus. Note: He will be born of a virgin as if a spirit, appearing as flesh to others, not truly circumcised, and gather disciples as Christ chose apostles. [Exodus 13:2]

3.27. Pseudo-Hippolytus: Counterfeits Christ's miracles

“And then he will work wonders, cleansing lepers, raising paralytics, expelling demons, proclaiming things remote just as things present, raising the dead, helping widows, defending orphans, loving all, reconciling in love men who contend” — Pseudo-Hippolytus, Dubious and Spurious Pieces Attributed to Hippolytus. Note: He will counterfeit Christ's miracles: cleansing lepers, raising paralytics, casting out demons, raising the dead. [2 Thessalonians 2:9; Matthew 24:24]

3.28. Pseudo-Hippolytus: Counterfeit ascension

“And in the presence of all he exhibits himself as taken up into heaven with trumpets and sounds, and the mighty shouting of those who hail him with indescribable hymns; the heir of darkness himself shining like light, and at one time soaring to the heavens, and at another descending to the earth with great glory” — Pseudo-Hippolytus, Dubious and Spurious Pieces Attributed to Hippolytus. Note: Antichrist will stage a counterfeit ascension and glorious descent with demon hosts masquerading as angels. [Revelation 13:13; Acts 1:9-11]

3.29. Revelation of Esdras (apocryphal): Claimed to be the Son of God

“And I asked: Who is this? And he said to me: This is he who said, I am the Son of God, that made stones bread, and water wine.” — Revelation of Esdras (apocryphal), Revelation of Esdras. Note: Esdras sees a man bound in chains who claimed to be the Son of God, turning stones to bread and water to wine. [Matthew 4:3]

3.30. Revelation of Esdras (apocryphal): Inscribed 'Antichrist'; child or old man

“and in his face an inscription, Antichrist. He has been exalted to heaven; he shall go down to Hades. At one time he shall become a child; at another, an old man.” — Revelation of Esdras (apocryphal), Revelation of Esdras. Note: His face bears the inscription Antichrist; he is exalted to heaven, cast to Hades, and changes shape between child and old man. [Revelation 13:5]

3.31. Revelation of John (apocryphal): The denier called Antichrist

“Then shall appear the denier, and he who is set apart in the darkness, who is called Antichrist.” — Revelation of John (apocryphal), Revelation of John. Note: In the apocryphal Revelation of John the voice calls the future figure the denier called Antichrist. [Revelation 13:5]

3.32. Hilary of Poitiers: Draw the distracted into his service

“false prophets promising to shew aid present from Christ, will falsely affirm that Christ is present in divers places, that they may draw into the service of Antichrist men discouraged and distracted.” — Hilary of Poitiers, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Matthew, part 3 (chapters 22–28) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Hilary says that false prophets, amid great tribulation, will claim Christ is present in various places in order to draw the discouraged into Antichrist's service. [Matthew 24:23-24]

3.33. Hilary of Poitiers: Desert and chambers: under his rule

“The false prophets, of whom He had spoken above, shall say of Christ one while, Lo, He is in the desert, in order that they may cause men to wander astray; another while, Lo, He is in the secret chambers, that they may enthral men under the dominion of Antichrist.” — Hilary of Poitiers, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Matthew, part 3 (chapters 22–28) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Hilary says false prophets will point to Christ in the desert or in secret chambers to bring people under Antichrist's dominion. [Matthew 24:26-27]

3.34. Hilary of Poitiers: Feigns the Father's name

“Then, another coming in the same name they will receive: but he is one from whom men will expect glory, and to whom they will give glory in return, though he will feign to have come in the name of the Father. By this, doubtless, is signified the Antichrist, glorying in his false use of the Father's name.” — Hilary of Poitiers, On the Trinity (part 2 of 2). Note: Hilary reads John 5:43 as foretelling Antichrist, who will pretend to come in the Father's name and seek glory from men. [John 5:43]

3.35. Athanasius of Alexandria: Devil hides behind a desirable name

“For seeing that the devil is the hateful inventor of evil, what he himself is he conceals, but craftily assumes a name desirable to all” — Athanasius of Alexandria, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Luke, part 2 (chapters 11–24) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Athanasius says the devil, the inventor of evil, conceals what he is and craftily assumes a name desirable to all. [Luke 21:8]

3.36. Athanasius of Alexandria: Devil counterfeits Christ in heresy

“just as if a man wishing to get into his power some children not His own, should in the absence of the parents counterfeit their looks, and lead away the children who were longing for them. In every heresy then the devil says in disguise, "I am Christ, and with me there is truth.” — Athanasius of Alexandria, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Luke, part 2 (chapters 11–24) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Athanasius compares the devil to a man counterfeiting absent parents' looks to lead children away; in every heresy the devil says in disguise 'I am Christ'. [Luke 21:8]

3.37. Athanasius of Alexandria: Ignorance of the day protects

“because of the deceivers which shall be afterwards; that though demons should be transfigured as Angels, and should attempt to speak concerning the end, you should not believe, since they are ignorant … and that, if Antichrist too, disguising himself, should say, `I am Christ,' and should try in his turn to speak of that day and end, to deceive the hearers, ye, having these words from Me, `No, not the Son,' may disbelieve him also” — Athanasius of Alexandria, Four Discourses Against the Arians. Note: Athanasius reads 'neither the Son' as protection against deceivers: if Antichrist, disguised, claims to be Christ and speaks of the day, believers may disbelieve; ignorance of the time also keeps men attentive. [Mark 13:32; Matthew 24:36]

3.38. Cyril of Jerusalem: Christ comes from heaven

“The true Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God, comes no more from the earth. If any come making false shows in the wilderness, go not forth; if they say, Lo, here is the Christ, Lo, there, believe it not” — Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lectures. Note: The true Christ no longer comes from the earth; claims that he is here or there in the wilderness are to be disbelieved. [Matthew 24:26-27]

3.39. Ambrose of Milan: Antichrist comes in his own name

“since Christ came in the oneness of the Name, but Antichrist will come in his own name” — Ambrose of Milan, On the Holy Spirit. Note: Ambrose contrasts Christ, who came in the unity of the Father's Name, with Antichrist, who will come in his own name. [John 5:43]

3.40. Ambrose of Milan: Argues from Scripture he is Christ

“he desires to impress firmly on the affections the footstep of his unbelief, disputing from the Scriptures that he is Christ. Then shall come desolation, for very many falling away shall depart from the true religion.” — Ambrose of Milan, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Luke, part 2 (chapters 11–24) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Ambrose says Antichrist will argue from the Scriptures that he is Christ, and many will fall away from true religion. [Luke 21:20; 2 Thessalonians 2:4]

3.41. Ambrose of Milan: The hour of darkness

“He rightly says, night, for Antichrist is the hour of darkness, because he pours a dark cloud over the minds of men while he declares himself to be Christ.” — Ambrose of Milan, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Luke, part 2 (chapters 11–24) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Ambrose calls Antichrist the hour of darkness, who dulls men's minds while claiming to be Christ. [Luke 17:34]

3.42. John Chrysostom: Thief and robber alludes to him

“There is an allusion here to Antichrist, and to certain false Christs who had been, and were to be.” — John Chrysostom, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. John, part 1 (chapters 1–10) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Chrysostom finds in the 'thief and robber' who climbs another way an allusion to Antichrist and to false Christs past and future. [John 10:1]

3.43. John Chrysostom: Christ's coming needs no herald

“For it shall not be then as at His former coming, when He appeared in Bethlehem, in a corner of the world, unknown of any; but He shall come openly so as not to need any to announce His approach” — John Chrysostom, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Matthew, part 3 (chapters 22–28) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Chrysostom says Christ's second coming will be open and self-evident, unlike His hidden first coming, so claims that He is here or there are to be rejected. [Matthew 24:23; Matthew 24:27]

3.44. John Chrysostom: Antichrist's guise versus lightning

“As He had above described in what guise Antichrist should come, so here He describes how He Himself shall come. For as the lightning needeth none to herald or announce it, but is in an instant of time visible throughout the whole world” — John Chrysostom, Catena Aurea: Commentary on St. Matthew, part 3 (chapters 22–28) (quoted by Thomas Aquinas); scanned text. Note: Chrysostom contrasts Antichrist's guise with Christ's own coming, which like lightning is visible everywhere at once. [Matthew 24:27]

3.45. John Chrysostom: Antichrist removes every excuse

“That these very men who are perishing will be put to silence. How? Because both if he had come, and if he had not come, they would not have believed in Christ; He comes therefore to convict them. For that they may not have occasion to say, that since Christ said that He was God,-although He nowhere said this openly,-but since those who came after proclaimed it, we have not believed. Because we have heard that there is One God from whom are all things, therefore we have not believed. This their pretext then Antichrist will take away. For when he comes, and comes commanding nothing good, but all things unlawful, and is yet believed from false signs alone, he will stop their mouths … For if thou believest not in Christ, much more oughtest thou not to believe in Antichrist. For the former said that He was sent from the Father, but the latter the contrary” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Thessalonians. Note: God permits his coming so that unbelievers lose their excuse: he commands only unlawful things yet is believed for false signs, and unlike Christ he claims a different origin. [2 Thessalonians 2:10; John 5:43]

3.46. John Chrysostom: Compare the signs: Christ and Antichrist

“But many and great signs were also wrought in the case of Christ” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Thessalonians. Note: Christ also worked great signs, so more reason to believe Him; Antichrist is foretold as lawless, son of perdition, coming by Satan's working, whereas Christ is Saviour. [2 Thessalonians 2:9-10]

3.47. John Chrysostom: Thieves who skip the Scriptures

“Antichrist and the false Christs, Judasand Theudas” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on John (part 2 of 2). Note: Chrysostom lists Antichrist with false Christs, Judas and Theudas as thieves who do not enter by the Scriptures, which are the door that bars the heretics. [John 10:1]

3.48. John Chrysostom: Error follows truth: Antichrist after Christ

“after the prophets, were the false prophets; and after the apostles, the false apostles; and after Christ, Antichrist For unless the devil see what to imitate” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew (part 2 of 3). Note: Falsehood follows truth: false prophets after prophets, false apostles after apostles, Antichrist after Christ, since the devil only acts where he has something to imitate. [Matthew 13:25]

3.49. John Chrysostom: Matt 24 deceivers include him

“For some in the days of the apostles deceived the multitude, "for they shall come," saith He, "and shall deceive many;" and others shall do so before His second coming, who shall also be more grievous than the former. "For they shall show," He saith, "signs and wonders, so as to deceive if possible the very elect:" here He is speaking of Antichrist, and indicates that some also shall minister to him … Of him Paul too speaks on this wise. Having called him "man of sin," and "son of perdition," He added, "Whose coming is after the working of Satan, with all power and signs and lying wonders; and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew (part 3 of 3). Note: Deceivers appeared in apostolic days and worse ones will come before the second coming; Chrysostom takes Christ's signs-and-wonders warning as speaking of Antichrist, linking it to Paul's man of sin. [Matthew 24:24; 2 Thessalonians 2:3-9]

3.50. John Chrysostom: Antichrist is local; Christ like lightning

“For great then will be the deceiving, because that even deceiving miracles are wrought … Having told them how Antichrist cometh, as, for instance, that it will be in a place; He saith how Himself also cometh” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on Matthew (part 3 of 3). Note: Because deceiving miracles will be wrought, believers must not go out to desert or inner room; Antichrist comes in a place, Christ visibly everywhere like lightning. [Matthew 24:26-27]

3.51. Jerome: Heretics hide Antichrist behind Christ

“they speak of Christ, and hide the Antichrist: for they know that no one can be led on, if they bring forth the Antichrist” — Jerome, Homilies on Psalms. Note: On Psalm 5, Jerome says heretics speak of Christ while hiding Antichrist, since no one would follow if they revealed him. [Psalm 5:9]

3.52. Jerome: Antichrist pretends to be Christ

“As antichrist pretends to be Christ, such virginsassume an honorable name” — Jerome, Letters (part 1 of 3). Note: In Letter 22, Jerome says heretical 'virgins' take an honourable name to cloak a disreputable life, as antichrist pretends to be Christ. [Matthew 7:15]

3.53. Palladius of Galatia: Valens worships a false Christ

“that devil, who had completely led him astray, went and made unto himself a form wherein he resembled our Redeemer; and he came unto him by night, together with phantoms of angels in great numbers who marched along bearing lamps and wax candles, and they advanced with chariots and carriages of fire, as if that devil were Christ Himself … and Antichrist himself sitting upon a chariot of fire—now he was distant from him about a mile—he fell down and worshipped him.” — Palladius of Galatia, The Lausiac History of Palladius, first book (Syriac version, Budge translation); scanned text. Note: In the Syriac Palladius the devil imitates the Redeemer with phantom angels, and Valens sees 'Antichrist himself' sitting on a chariot of fire and worships.

3.54. Palladius of Galatia: Demon plays Christ

“went away and disguised himself as the Saviour, and came by night in a vision of a thousand angels bearing lamps and a fiery wheel … So he went out and saw them in ranks carrying lamps, and antichrist about a stade away, and he fell down and worshipped.” — Palladius of Galatia, The Lausiac History. Note: In Palladius's story of the monk Valens, a demon disguised as the Saviour, with a host of lamp-bearing angels and 'antichrist' nearby, deceives him into worshipping; the fathers cured his pride.

3.55. Sulpicius Severus: Martin and the devil as 'Christ'

“the fiend himself being surrounded by a purple light, in order that he might the more easily deceive people by the brilliance of the splendor assumed, clothed also in a royal robe, and with a crown of precious stones and gold encircling his head … I am Christ; and being just about to descend to earth, I wished first to manifest myself to thee … The Lord Jesus did not predict that he would come clothed in purple, and with a glittering crown upon his head. I will not believe that Christ has come, unless he appears with that appearance and form in which he suffered, and openly displaying the marks of his wounds upon the cross” — Sulpicius Severus, On the Life of St. Martin. Note: Sulpicius tells how the devil, dressed in royal splendour, claimed to be Christ to Martin, who refused to believe unless Christ appeared in the form in which He suffered, with the wounds. [Matthew 24:23-26]

3.56. Gregory the Great: Antichrist feigns death and resurrection

“What else can I call these but preachers of Antichrist, who, when he comes, will cause the Sabbath day as well as the Lord's day to be kept free from all work. … because he pretends to die and rise again, he wishes the Lord's day to be had in reverence; and, because he compels the people to judaize” — Gregory the Great, Register of Epistles (part 2 of 2). Note: Gregory calls those who forbid work on the Sabbath preachers of Antichrist, who will keep both the Lord's Day and the Sabbath because he feigns to die and rise again and compels Judaizing. [Jeremiah 17:24]

3.57. Coptic Texts from St. Macarius’ Monastery: Antichrist bound; Devil claims God

“In that day I will cause the Angels of Wrath to go forth in the whole world, that they may bind the anti-Christ and them that are with him and cast them into chains of fire. Straightway the Shameless One shall wax wroth, the Great Devil shall arise: 'he shall show himself forth in the world, he shall cause error, he shall make the multitudes to err, (saying): I am God; there is none other save me.'” — Coptic Texts from St. Macarius’ Monastery, New Coptic Texts from the Monastery of Saint Macarius (Evelyn White translation); scanned text. Note: Angels bind Antichrist and followers in chains of fire, whereupon the Great Devil arises claiming to be God. [Revelation 20:2; Matthew 11:21]

3.58. Bede: Mimics Christ's death and resurrection

“The Antichrist, pertaining to the heads of the earthly kingdom, in imitation of our true head, dares to present himself as if he were mortally wounded and had resurrected, to be accepted in place of Christ, who truly accomplished this. It is said that the deception in Simon Magus prefigured this deceit.” — Bede, Commentary on Revelation. Note: Bede says Antichrist, imitating Christ, will present himself as mortally wounded and risen so as to be accepted in Christ's place, a deceit said to be prefigured by Simon Magus. [Revelation 13:3; 2 Thessalonians 2:9]

3.59. Bede: Two phases: hidden, then open

“Who is like the beast? They say: Who is like Christ? Or who can defeat him? [Revelation 13:5] -- And there was given to him a mouth speaking great things and blasphemies. He exalts himself above all that is called God or that is worshipped … For the first three and a half years, he does not openly blaspheme but acts in the mystery of iniquity” — Bede, Commentary on Revelation. Note: Bede says Antichrist's followers will say 'Who is like the beast?' in imitation of Christ; for the first three and a half years he acts in the mystery of iniquity, afterwards blaspheming openly. [Revelation 13:4-5; 2 Thessalonians 2:7]

3.60. Bede: False mediator between God and followers

“just as he claims to constitute himself as God and mediator between himself and his followers, unlike our Lord Jesus Christ, who has no other mediator between himself and his followers.” — Bede, Commentary on Revelation. Note: Bede says Antichrist will claim to make himself both God and mediator for his followers and pretend to give them the spirit of truth, whereas Christ needs no other mediator. [Revelation 13:14-15]

3.61. Paulician Church of Armenia: Satan's twelve disguises

“At the first this gate of hell took the form of a serpent; secondly, of a raven; thirdly, of a calf; fourthly, of wild beasts; fifthly, of light; sixthly, of women; seventhly, of men; eighthly, of clerics; ninthly, of teachers of the school; tenthly, of apostles; eleventhly, of bishops; twelfthly, of monks.” — Paulician Church of Armenia, The Key of Truth: a Manual of the Paulician Church of Armenia (Conybeare translation); scanned text. Note: The Paulicians list twelve disguises of the Adversary, culminating in clerics, apostles, bishops and monks. [2 Corinthians 11:14]

3.62. Solomon of Basra: Mimics Christ's healings

“for the simple will see the lepers cleansed, the blind with their eyes opened, the paralytic walking, the devils cast out, the sun when he looks upon it becoming black, the moon when he commands it becoming changed” — Solomon of Basra, The Book of the Bee (Budge translation); scanned text. Note: His apparent miracles copy Christ's healings, and include commanding sun and moon, but are illusions. [Matthew 11:5]

3.63. Neale and Littledale (compilers): Five marks: guile, opposition

“They take occasion then to point out five characteristics of the empire of Antichrist. 1. It will be an empire of guile, "the crafty wiliness" of David, the "deceivableness of unrighteousness," of S. Paul. 2. Of direct opposition to GOD” — Neale and Littledale (compilers), A Commentary on the Psalms from Primitive and Mediaeval Writers, volume 1 (Psalms 1–38) (part 1 of 2); scanned text. Note: Drawing on the Fathers' reading of the psalm, the compilers list the first characteristics of Antichrist's empire: guile, and open opposition to God. [Psalm 10:3; 2 Thessalonians 2:10]

3.64. Neale and Littledale (compilers): Appearance of goodness; flattery

“4. That it will have a certain appearance of goodness, "He falleth down and humbleth himself: "He doeth great wonders, so that he maketh fire come down from heaven on the earth in the sight of men," and deceiveth them that dwell on the earth by the means of those miracles. 5. That it will be an empire of flattery” — Neale and Littledale (compilers), A Commentary on the Psalms from Primitive and Mediaeval Writers, volume 1 (Psalms 1–38) (part 1 of 2); scanned text. Note: Further characteristics: an appearance of goodness with wonders and fire from heaven that deceive earth-dwellers, and an empire of flattery. [Psalm 10:5; Revelation 13:11-14]

3.65. Neale and Littledale (compilers): Parody: Antichrist's incarnation, resurrection

“it seems to be one of Satan's chief delights to parody the works of GOD … In like manner, that which those saints who most deeply studied the Apocalypse tell us, of the probable Incarnation, the Resurrection from the dead, of the Antichrist.” — Neale and Littledale (compilers), A Commentary on the Psalms from Primitive and Mediaeval Writers, volume 2 (Psalms 39–80) (part 1 of 2); scanned text. Note: The compilers say Satan delights to parody God's works, and the saints who studied the Apocalypse speak of a probable counterfeit incarnation and resurrection of Antichrist. [Psalm 59:6; Joshua 6:3]

3.66. Neale and Littledale (compilers): Proud = the Lawless One

“And there may also be a dim allusion to the "Lawless One,"—"who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called GOD, and that is worshipped,"—under the name proud: and in them that go about with lies to the Beast, "who doeth great wonders, and deceiveth them that dwell on the earth by the means of those miracles.” — Neale and Littledale (compilers), A Commentary on the Psalms from Primitive and Mediaeval Writers, volume 2 (Psalms 39–80) (part 1 of 2); scanned text. Note: The compilers find a dim allusion in Psalm 40 to the Lawless One, who exalts himself above all that is called God, and to the Beast who deceives by miracles. [Psalm 40:4; 2 Thessalonians 2:4; Revelation 13:13]

3.67. Neale and Littledale (compilers): 'Like the Most High' but smitten

“Least of all can that Wicked One, the Antichrist, attain to such resemblance, albeit he hath said, "I will be like the Most High," for he shall be smitten when the LORD comes again to judgment” — Neale and Littledale (compilers), A Commentary on the Psalms from Primitive and Mediaeval Writers, volume 3 (Psalms 81–118) (part 1 of 2); scanned text. Note: The compilers say Antichrist can never attain likeness to God, though he says he will be like the Most High, and will be smitten at the Lord's return. [Psalm 83:1; Isaiah 14:14]

4. What holds him back?

Paul says that something (“what withholdeth”) and someone (“he who now letteth”) is holding the lawless one back until it is taken out of the way (2 Thessalonians 2:6–7). He adds that the Thessalonians already knew what it was, and he did not write it down. The Fathers had to guess. The largest group, from Tertullian to Chrysostom and Jerome, say the Roman empire, which is why Christians prayed for the emperor and for the empire to last. Others say the Spirit, the angels, God’s decision, or the hidden wicked inside the Church. Augustine says plainly that he does not know what Paul means.

In this chapter

This question draws on 34 quotations from 18 voices. 34 of them are printed in full below, at the end of the chapter, because their main concern is this question; the other 0 belong chiefly to other questions and are listed here by number.

The Roman empire (Tertullian, Lactantius, Chrysostom, Jerome)

Tertullian, about AD 200, says the Roman state restrains him and that Christians pray for the emperors because the empire’s continuance delays the end of all things. Lactantius, a century later, says that while the city of Rome stands nothing is to be feared. Chrysostom, asked what withholds the man of sin, notes that some say the grace of the Spirit and others the Roman empire, and mostly accepts the second. Jerome, in the age of the barbarian invasions, says the one who letteth is taken out of the way.

God’s power, the Spirit or the angels (Chrysostom (as one view), Hermas, Bede, Testaments of the Patriarchs)

A second line looks past Rome to the one who stands behind it. Chrysostom mentions the grace of the Spirit as the view of some. In the Shepherd of Hermas an angel set over the beasts shuts the monster’s mouth. Bede speaks of the ancient enemy shut up since Christ’s passion and restrained by divine power. The Testaments of the Patriarchs say the enemy fears Israel’s repentance, because on that day his kingdom ends.

The hidden wicked inside the Church (Augustine (reporting a view), Gregory the Great)

Augustine reports that others take “the mystery of iniquity” to mean the wicked and the hypocrites who are in the Church, hidden until they are numerous enough to furnish Antichrist with a great people. Gregory the Great says all the wicked are Antichrist’s members and that the mystery of iniquity is already at work in them. On this view the thing held back is not an empire outside but a growth within.

“I do not know” (Augustine, Origen, Hippolytus, Victorinus)

Augustine confesses that he cannot work out what Paul means by what withholds and by the one who now holds, and lists only the guesses he has heard or read. Origen notes that Paul speaks with reserve about the manner, time and cause of Antichrist’s coming. Hippolytus quotes the passage in full and Victorinus cites it, and neither names the restrainer.

Permitted by God, as a judgment (Origen, Victorinus)

Origen stresses that the man of sin is permitted because people refused the love of truth, and that Paul says even he is “sent” by God as a judgment. Victorinus has Antichrist rise by God’s command rather than by his own power. On this view the question is not what holds him back but why God lets him go.

The last emperor and the withdrawal of providence (Aphrahat, Solomon of Basra, Cave of Treasures, Coptic Martyrdoms)

The idea of Rome as restrainer grew into a legend of a last Christian emperor. Aphrahat says Christ handed the kingdom to the Romans, who hold it for its giver until he returns. Later Syriac writers have the last king surrender his crown on Golgotha as Antichrist is revealed, and Solomon of Basra says that when the Cross is raised all rule ends and God withdraws providence.

The Scripture behind it

The Scripture on which the Fathers drew for this question is set out here in the King James text.

The man of sin (2 Thess 2:1–17)

Now we beseech you, brethren, by the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by our gathering together unto him, That ye be not soon shaken in mind, or be troubled, neither by spirit, nor by word, nor by letter as from us, as that the day of Christ is at hand. Let no man deceive you by any means: for that day shall not come, except there come a falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition; Who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped; so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God. Remember ye not, that, when I was yet with you, I told you these things? And now ye know what withholdeth that he might be revealed in his time. For the mystery of iniquity doth already work: only he who now letteth will let, until he be taken out of the way. And then shall that Wicked be revealed, whom the Lord shall consume with the spirit of his mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of his coming: Even him, whose coming is after the working of Satan with all power and signs and lying wonders, And with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish; because they received not the love of the truth, that they might be saved. And for this cause God shall send them strong delusion, that they should believe a lie: That they all might be damned who believed not the truth, but had pleasure … [2 Thessalonians 2:1-17]

The breath of his lips shall slay the wicked (Isa 11:4–5)

But with righteousness shall he judge the poor, and reprove with equity for the meek of the earth: and he shall smite the earth with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked. And righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins, and faithfulness the girdle of his reins. [Isaiah 11:4-5]

The image and the four kingdoms (Dan 2:31–45)

Thou, O king, sawest, and behold a great image. This great image, whose brightness was excellent, stood before thee; and the form thereof was terrible. This image's head was of fine gold, his breast and his arms of silver, his belly and his thighs of brass, His legs of iron, his feet part of iron and part of clay. Thou sawest till that a stone was cut out without hands, which smote the image upon his feet that were of iron and clay, and brake them to pieces. Then was the iron, the clay, the brass, the silver, and the gold, broken to pieces together, and became like the chaff of the summer threshingfloors; and the wind carried them away, that no place was found for them: and the stone that smote the image became a great mountain, and filled the whole earth. This is the dream; and we will tell the interpretation thereof before the king. Thou, O king, art a king of kings: for the God of heaven hath given thee a kingdom, power, and strength, and glory. And wheresoever the children of men dwell, the beasts of the field and the fowls of the heaven hath he given into thine hand, and hath made thee ruler over them all. Thou art this head of gold. And after thee shall arise another kingdom inferior to thee, and another third kingdom of brass, which shall bear rule over all the earth. And the fourth kingdom shall be strong as iron: forasmuch as iron breaketh in pieces and subdueth all … [Daniel 2:31-45]

The fourth beast explained (Dan 7:15–28)

I Daniel was grieved in my spirit in the midst of my body, and the visions of my head troubled me. I came near unto one of them that stood by, and asked him the truth of all this. So he told me, and made me know the interpretation of the things. These great beasts, which are four, are four kings, which shall arise out of the earth. But the saints of the most High shall take the kingdom, and possess the kingdom for ever, even for ever and ever. Then I would know the truth of the fourth beast, which was diverse from all the others, exceeding dreadful, whose teeth were of iron, and his nails of brass; which devoured, brake in pieces, and stamped the residue with his feet; And of the ten horns that were in his head, and of the other which came up, and before whom three fell; even of that horn that had eyes, and a mouth that spake very great things, whose look was more stout than his fellows. I beheld, and the same horn made war with the saints, and prevailed against them; Until the Ancient of days came, and judgment was given to the saints of the most High; and the time came that the saints possessed the kingdom. Thus he said, The fourth beast shall be the fourth kingdom upon earth, which shall be diverse from all kingdoms, and shall devour the whole earth, and shall tread it down, and break it in pieces. And the ten horns out of this kingdom are ten kings that shall arise: and … [Daniel 7:15-28]

The thousand years and Gog and Magog (Rev 20:1–10)

And I saw an angel come down from heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit and a great chain in his hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years, And cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years should be fulfilled: and after that he must be loosed a little season. And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto them: and I saw the souls of them that were beheaded for the witness of Jesus, and for the word of God, and which had not worshipped the beast, neither his image, neither had received his mark upon their foreheads, or in their hands; and they lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years. But the rest of the dead lived not again until the thousand years were finished. This is the first resurrection. Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection: on such the second death hath no power, but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with him a thousand years. And when the thousand years are expired, Satan shall be loosed out of his prison, And shall go out to deceive the nations which are in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them together to battle: the number of whom is as the sand of the sea. And they went up on the … [Revelation 20:1-10]

The quotations

The quotations that follow are in order of date, from the earliest writers to the latest. Each is word for word from the translation named after it. The short note is ours, and says only what the passage claims.

4.1. Shepherd of Hermas: Angel Thegri shuts the beast's mouth

“That is why the Lord sent his angel who is over the beasts, whose name is Thegri, and shut its mouth so that it would not harm you. You escaped a great tribulation because of your faith, and because you were not double-minded when you saw such a beast.” — Shepherd of Hermas, The Shepherd of Hermas. Note: An angel named Thegri, set over the beasts, shuts the monster's mouth; faith and single-mindedness bring escape.

4.2. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs: Israel's repentance ends the enemy's kingdom

“For he knoweth that upon the day on which Israel shall repent, the kingdom of the enemy shall be brought to an end.” — Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (Charles translation); scanned text. Note: The enemy fears Israel's repentance, because on that day his kingdom ends.

4.3. Tertullian: Falling away: empire falls

“For that day shall not come, unless indeed there first come a falling away," he means indeed of this present empire, "and that man of sin be revealed," that is to say, Antichrist” — Tertullian, On the Resurrection of the Flesh. Note: Tertullian reads the 'falling away' as the collapse of the present Roman empire, and the man of sin as Antichrist. [2 Thessalonians 2:1-8]

4.4. Tertullian: Roman state restrains him

“What obstacle is there but the Roman state, the falling away of which, by being scattered into ten kingdoms, shall introduce Antichrist upon (its own ruins)?” — Tertullian, On the Resurrection of the Flesh. Note: The restrainer is the Roman state; its breakup into ten kingdoms will bring Antichrist in on its ruins. [2 Thessalonians 2:6-7; Daniel 7:24]

4.5. Tertullian: Roman empire delays the end

“For we know that a mighty shock impending over the whole earth-in fact, the very end of all things threatening dreadful woes--is only retarded by the continued existence of the Roman empire. We have no desire, then, to be overtaken by these dire events; and in praying that their coming may be delayed, we are lending our aid to Rome's duration.” — Tertullian, The Apology. Note: Christians pray for the emperors because the empire's continuance delays the end of all things. [2 Thessalonians 2:7]

4.6. Tertullian: Praying for the end's delay

“We pray, too, for the emperors, for their ministers and for all in authority, for the welfare of the world, for the prevalence of peace, for the delay of the final consummation.” — Tertullian, The Apology. Note: Christian assemblies pray for rulers, peace and the delay of the final consummation.

4.7. Hippolytus of Rome: Loosed nations at Antichrist's time

“a certain bond of the power of the word is indicated, which restrains them until the day shall arrive and the Lord of all shall command. And this then is to happen when Antichrist shall come.” — Hippolytus of Rome, Commentary on Revelation (quoted by reported by Dionysius bar Salibi). Note: Four nation-angels around the Euphrates are bound by God's word until released at Antichrist's coming, in Hippolytus's reply to Caius. [Revelation 9:14-15; Deuteronomy 32:8]

4.8. Hippolytus of Rome: 2 Thess 2 quoted; restrainer unnamed

“Let no man deceive you by any means; for (that day shall not come) except there come the falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition … And now ye know what withholdeth, that he might be revealed in his time. For the mystery of iniquity doth already work; only he who now letteth (will let), until he be taken out of the way.” — Hippolytus of Rome, On Christ and Antichrist. Note: Hippolytus quotes 2 Thessalonians 2 in full, including the falling away, the withholder and the mystery of iniquity already at work, without comment on the restrainer's identity. [2 Thessalonians 2:1-12]

4.9. Origen of Alexandria: The man of sin permitted by God's judgment

“And in assigning the reason why the man of sin is permitted to continue in existence, he says: "Because they received not the love of the truth, that they might be saved. And for this cause God shall send them strong delusion, that they should believe a lie” — Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus (part 1 of 2). Note: Origen stresses that the man of sin is permitted because people refused the love of truth. [2 Thessalonians 2:3-12]

4.10. Origen of Alexandria: Paul speaks of Antichrist with reserve

“Paul, indeed, speaks of him who is called Antichrist, describing, though with a certain reserve, both the manner, and time, and cause of his coming to the human race.” — Origen of Alexandria, Against Celsus (part 2 of 2). Note: Origen says Paul speaks with reserve about the manner, time and cause of Antichrist's coming. [2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.11. Origen of Alexandria: Even the man of sin is permitted by God

“The most evil of all, the man of sin, the son of perdition, is said by Paul to be sent by God: "God sendeth them a working of error that they should believe a lie” — Origen of Alexandria, Commentary on John. Note: Origen notes Paul says even the most evil man of sin is 'sent' by God as a judgment. [2 Thessalonians 2:11-12]

4.12. Victorinus of Pettau: Beast arises among the Caesars

“Behold, Assur was a cypress in Mount Lebanon … in the kingdom of kingdoms, that is, of the Romans. … For even Isaiah speaks almost in the same words; moreover, that he was in the kingdom of the Romans, and that he was among the Caesars.” — Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse of the Blessed John. Note: Victorinus finds in Ezekiel 31 that the beast from the abyss is Assur in the kingdom of the Romans, among the Caesars. [Ezekiel 31; 2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.13. Victorinus of Pettau: Secretly at work in the prince

“The Apostle Paul also bears witness, for he says to the Thessalonians: "Let him who now restraineth restrain, until he be taken out of the way; and then shall appear that Wicked One, even he whose coining is after the working of Satan, with signs and lying wonders. And that they might know that he should come who then was the prince, he added: "He already endeavours after the secret of mischief" -that is, the mischief which he is about to do he strives to do secretly;” — Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse of the Blessed John. Note: Victorinus cites 2 Thessalonians 2 to show that the coming Wicked One was already secretly at work in the prince then reigning, without naming the restrainer. [2 Thessalonians 2:7-9]

4.14. Lactantius: Rome falls; rule returns Eastward

“the cause of this desolation and confusion will be this; because the Roman name, by which the world is now ruled, will be taken away from the earth, and the government return to Asia; and the East will again bear rule, and the West he reduced to servitude.” — Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Book 7. Note: The end-time desolation is caused by the removal of the Roman name; rule will return to Asia and the West be enslaved. [Daniel 2:40-44]

4.15. Lactantius: While Rome stands, pray for delay

“The subject itself declares that the fall and ruin of the world will shortly take place; except that while the city of Rome remains it appears that nothing of this kind is to be feared. … It is that city, that only, which still sustains all things; and the God of heaven is to be entreated by us and implored-if, indeed, His arrangements and decrees can be delayed-lest, sooner than we think for, that detestable tyrant should come” — Lactantius, The Divine Institutes Book 7. Note: Lactantius, writing in the early fourth century, says that while Rome stands nothing is to be feared; Christians should pray that the city not fall and that the detestable tyrant not come sooner. [2 Thessalonians 2:7]

4.16. Aphrahat: Rome keeps the kingdom for its giver

“And furthermore at His coming He handed over the kingdom to the Romans, as the children of Esau are called. And these children of Esau will keep the kingdom for its giver.” — Aphrahat, The Demonstrations. Note: Christ at his coming handed the kingdom to the Romans, who will hold it for its giver until he returns. [Daniel 2:44]

4.17. Cyril of Jerusalem: Division prepares his way

“Hatred of the brethren makes room next for Antichrist; for the devil prepares beforehand the divisions among the people, that he who is to come may be acceptable to them … For that day shall not come, except there came first the falling away, and the man of sin be revealed, the son of perdition, who opposeth and exalteth himself against all that is called God, or that is worshipped; so that he sitteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he is God. Remember ye not that when I was yet with you, I told you these things? And now ye know that which restraineth, to the end that he may be revealed in his own season. For the mystery of iniquity cloth already work, only there is one that restraineth now, until he be taken out of the way. And then shall the lawless one be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus shall slay with the breath of His mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of His coming” — Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lectures. Note: Hatred among brethren prepares for Antichrist; Cyril then cites 2 Thessalonians 2 in full, with the falling away, the man of sin, the one who restrains, and his slaying by Christ. [2 Thessalonians 2:3-8; Matthew 24:15; Daniel 9:27]

4.18. Cyril of Jerusalem: Gospel preached to all the world

“this Gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in all the world for a witness unto all nations, and then shall the end come . And as we see, nearly the whole world is now filled with the doctrine of Christ” — Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechetical Lectures. Note: The sign that the gospel is preached in all the world is, Cyril says, nearly fulfilled in his day. [Matthew 24:14]

4.19. Optatus of Milevis: Translator's note: Empire's fall and Antichrist

“inasmuch as the fall of the Empire was commonly expected to synchronise with the coming of Antichrist and the end of the world” — Optatus of Milevis, Against the Donatists. Note: This is a modern translator's note to Optatus: the Church prayed for the Empire because its fall was commonly expected to coincide with Antichrist's coming and the world's end. [2 Thessalonians 2:7]

4.20. John Chrysostom: Restrainer: the Roman empire

“what is that which withholdeth, and after that would know, why Paul expresses it so obscurely. What then is it that withholdeth, that is, hindereth him from being revealed? Some indeed say, the grace of the Spirit, but others the Roman empire, to whom I most of all accede … Because if he meant to say the Spirit, he would not have spoken obscurely, but plainly, that even now the grace of the Spirit, that is the gifts, withhold him. And otherwise he ought now to have come, if he was about to come when the gifts ceased; for they have long since ceased. But because he said this of the Roman empire, he naturally glanced at it, and speaks covertly and darkly” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Thessalonians. Note: Asked what withholds the man of sin, Chrysostom notes some say the grace of the Spirit, others the Roman empire, and he mostly accepts the latter; Paul spoke obscurely to avoid needless danger. [2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.21. John Chrysostom: Nero his type; Rome removed

“He speaks here of Nero, as if he were the type of Antichrist. For he too wished to be thought a god … that is, when the Roman empire is taken out of the way, then he shall come. And naturally. … as long as the fear of this empire lasts, no one will willingly exit himself, but when that is dissolved, he will attack the anarchy, and endeavor to seize upon the government both of man and of God … that of the Macedonians by the Romans: so will this also be by the Antichrist, and he by Christ, and it will no longer withhold” — John Chrysostom, Homilies on 2 Thessalonians. Note: The mystery of lawlessness points to Nero as a type of Antichrist; when the Roman empire is removed he will come, as earlier empires fell, and Christ will end him. [2 Thessalonians 2:7; Daniel 2]

4.22. Jerome: 'He that letteth' removed

“He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth."” — Jerome, Letters (part 2 of 3). Note: Writing in the age of barbarian invasions, Jerome says that 'he that letteth' is taken out of the way and Antichrist is near, to be consumed by the Lord Jesus. [2 Thessalonians 2:7-8]

4.23. Jerome: Rome fights for bare life

“Rome has to fight within her own borders not for glory but for bare life; and that she does not even fight but buys the right to exist by giving gold and sacrificing all her substance?” — Jerome, Letters (part 2 of 3). Note: Following the 'he that letteth' passage, Jerome laments that Rome fights in her own borders for bare life and buys her existence with gold; he does not say here who 'he that letteth' is. [2 Thessalonians 2:7]

4.24. Augustine of Hippo: 'I frankly confess I do not know'

“they show that he was unwilling to make an explicit statement, because he said that they knew. And thus we who have not their knowledge wish and are not able even with pains to understand what the apostle referred to, especially as his meaning is made still more obscure by what he adds. For what does he mean by "For the mystery of iniquity doth already work: only he who now holdeth, let him hold until he be taken out of the way: and then shall the wicked be revealed?" I frankly confess I do not know what he means. I will nevertheless mention such conjectures as I have heard or read.” — Augustine of Hippo, The City of God (part 3 of 3). Note: Augustine admits that he cannot understand what Paul means by what withholds and by 'he who now holdeth', and proceeds to list only the conjectures he has heard or read. [2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.25. Augustine of Hippo: Roman empire restrains him

“Some think that the Apostle Paul referred to the Roman empire, and that he was unwilling to use language more explicit, lest he should incur the calumnious charge of wishing ill to the empire which it was hoped would be eternal … However, it is not absurd to believe that these words of the apostle, "Only he who now holdeth, let him hold until he be taken out of the way," refer to the Roman empire, as if it were said, "Only he who now reigneth, let him reign until he be taken out of the way. "And then shall the wicked be revealed: no one doubts that this means Antichrist.” — Augustine of Hippo, The City of God (part 3 of 3). Note: Augustine reports the view that the restrainer is the Roman empire and judges it not absurd, while stressing that 'the wicked' revealed afterwards is understood by all to be Antichrist. [2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.26. Augustine of Hippo: Restrainer: the hidden wicked in the Church

“But others think that the words, "Ye know what withholdeth," and "The mystery of iniquity worketh," refer only to the wicked and the hypocrites who are in the Church, until they reach a number so great as to furnish Antichrist with a great people, and that this is the mystery of iniquity, because it seems hidden; also that the apostle is exhorting the faithful tenaciously to hold the faith they hold when he says, "Only he who now holdeth, let him hold until he be taken out of the way," that is, until the mystery of iniquity which now is hidden departs from the Church.” — Augustine of Hippo, The City of God (part 3 of 3). Note: Augustine reports a view that the 'mystery of iniquity' is the hidden wicked and hypocrites within the Church, who will grow into a great people for Antichrist. [2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.27. Gregory the Great: All the wicked are his members

“every wicked person, who has already gone by, survives in his perverse imitators, and that the author of iniquity, who has not yet come, is already visible in those who do his works. Hence John says; Now are there become many Antichrists … As if he were saying; Then Antichrist will be manifestly seen; for he now secretly works his hidden works in the hearts of the unrighteous.” — Gregory the Great, Morals on the Book of Job (part 4 of 5). Note: Gregory explains John's 'many Antichrists' and Paul's 'mystery of iniquity' as meaning that all wicked persons are Antichrist's members, while he works secretly in their hearts until he is revealed. [1 John 2:18; 2 Thessalonians 2:6-7]

4.28. Coptic Martyrdoms and Lives: Roman Empire's end, then Antichrist

“The day is drawing nigh, and the things which are written shall be fulfilled, and they shall come to an end, and then there shall be nothing left except the works of Antichrist. For needs must that his wickedness be completed, when the Roman Empire shall have come to an end.” — Coptic Martyrdoms and Lives, Coptic Martyrdoms and Lives in the Dialect of Upper Egypt (Budge translation); scanned text. Note: In the Askêtikon of Apa Ephraim the end of the Roman Empire is the sign after which only Antichrist's works remain. [2 Thessalonians 2:7; Matthew 24:37-38]

4.29. Bede: Restrained until released at the end

“how much the ancient enemy with his satellites will persecute the Church at the end of the world, who from the time of the Lord's passion has been shut up in the hearts of the impious, so that he cannot harm as much as he would like, restrained by divine power.” — Bede, Commentary on Revelation. Note: Bede says the ancient enemy, shut up since Christ's passion in the hearts of the impious and restrained by divine power, will persecute the Church greatly at the end of the world. [Revelation 9:14]

4.30. Bede: 1260 days = the whole Christian era

“This number of days, which makes three and a half years, encompasses all times of Christianity, because Christ, whose body this is, preached for that time in the flesh.” — Bede, Commentary on Revelation. Note: Bede interprets the 1260 days of the woman in the wilderness as encompassing all the times of Christianity, matching the length of Christ's own preaching. [Revelation 12:6]

4.31. Bede: The 'thousand years' as the remainder of the sixth day

“And he bound him for a thousand years. That is, restraining and curbing his power from seducing those who were to be freed. If he were allowed to exercise his full power with force or deceit, he would deceive many of the weak in such a long time. He said a thousand years, meaning a part, that is, the remainder of the thousand years of the sixth day in which the Lord was born and suffered.” — Bede, Commentary on Revelation. Note: Bede takes the binding of the devil as a curb on his power to seduce those to be freed, lasting the remainder of the sixth millennium in which Christ was born and suffered. [Revelation 20:1-3]

4.32. Solomon of Basra: Last emperor yields crown at Golgotha

“As soon as the son of perdition is revealed, the king of the Greeks will go up and stand upon Golgotha, where our Lord was crucified; and he will set the royal crown upon the top of the holy Cross, upon which our Lord was crucified; and he will stretch out his two hands to heaven, and will deliver over the kingdom to God the Father.” — Solomon of Basra, The Book of the Bee (Budge translation); scanned text. Note: The last Greek (Roman) king surrenders his crown and kingdom to God on Golgotha as Antichrist is revealed. [Psalm 68:31; 2 Thessalonians 2:7]

4.33. Solomon of Basra: Rule ends, providence withdrawn

“straightway shall every head and every ruler and all powers be brought to nought, and God will withdraw His providential care from the earth. The heavens will be prevented from letting fall rain, and the earth from producing germs and plants” — Solomon of Basra, The Book of the Bee (Budge translation); scanned text. Note: When the Cross is raised, all rule ends and God withdraws providence, with drought upon earth, preparing Antichrist's rise. [2 Thessalonians 2:7]

4.34. Kebra Nagast: Roman king perverts faith

“This faith which we have ordered and laid down shall a king transgress who shall come in Rômê, and there shall be associated with him a certain archbishop, and they shall change and pervert the word of the Twelve Apostles” — Kebra Nagast, The Queen of Sheba and her only son Menyelek: the Kebra Nagast (Budge translation); scanned text. Note: A future Roman king and archbishop will pervert the apostolic faith, and the 'vanquisher of the enemy' (the Cross-nail bridle) will be removed. [2 Thessalonians 2:7; Matthew 7:15]