45. Iii USAGE OF GREEK WORDS CHANGED

a moral and spiritual sense of that which causes anyone to stumble or fall (Matt. xi. 6); a sense in which the Greeks never used it.¹

But there are other

(2) Changes of usage, made by man.

The Greek language was in use some four centuries before Christ, and had a wonderful literature. But, in the course of time the laws which operate to affect and change the usage of words wrought the same inevitable changes in many Greek words.

For this reason classical Greek usages are no infallible guide to the usage of Biblical Greek.

The vast moral and spiritual nature of the subject-matter of the New Testament necessitated of itself many changes, quite apart from those which were produced by the changes of time.

The Septuagint Version (of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek) marks many of these changes. But within the last few years the evidence from this source of information has been vastly increased by the multitude of papyri which have been discovered, and dug up, in Egypt. These are daily increasing in number, and are being bought up for deposit and study in the principal libraries of Europe. Some students are engaged in their discovery, others in their translation, while others (like ourselves) are at work in applying them to the language of the Greek New Testament. All these are rendering great service to God's Word by making their discoveries public.²

These papyri are in Greek, and belong, for the most part, to the first and second centuries before and after Christ. They are therefore of the utmost importance in enabling us to discover the exact sense and usage of Greek words at that period.

These papyri consist of documents of all kinds; exactly what would be found centuries hence in a house, buried suddenly to day in sand, or put away in tombs. There

¹ The noun is always translated offence in A.V., except Rom. xi. 9, 1 Cor. i. 23, and Rev. ii. 14, where it is "stumbling-block"; Rom. xiv. 13, where it is "occasion to fall." The Verb σκοτία (scandal) is always rendered offend.

² Notably Professor Deissmann, of Heidelberg; Professor Flinders Petrie, of Oxford, and others.

are business-letters, love-letters, contracts, estimates, certificates, agreements, accounts, bills of sale, mortgages, school-exercises, receipts, bribes, charms, litanies, tales, magical literature, pawn tickets, and every sort of literary production.

All these are of inestimable value in enabling us to arrive at a true knowledge of many Greek words of which our translators, and, indeed, the Revisers, did not possess; having merely the help of lexicons, which gave the usage of words only in classical Greek.

It is impossible for us, in a small work like this, to give anything like even a general view of so vast a subject. We can only indicate the existence and nature of such a field of study, and give a few examples by way of illustration of its usefulness in connection with this our third Division, which concerns the changes of usage in Greek words brought about by man, but used by the Holy Spirit.

We must take them at random, and cannot even attempt to observe alphabetical or other order.

The word ζωοποιέω (zōopoicō), was used in classical Greek as meaning to produce live offspring; but the usage became in N. T. Greek to make alive again, either of spiritual or of resurrection life (John v. 21; vi. 63. Rom. iv. 17; viii. 11. 1 Cor. xv. 22, 36, 45. 2 Cor. iii. 6. Gal. iii. 21. 1 Tim. vi. 13. 1 Pet. iii. 18).

πάροικος (paroikos), which meant neighbour, had come to mean sojourner (Acts vii. 6, 29. Eph. ii. 19 (foreigner). 1 Pet. ii. 11 (strangers)).

πράκτως (praktōr), which is literally a doer of anything, came to mean the man who did the most objectionable thing, viz., the tax-collector. But the papyri show us that it came to have a still lower meaning. The tax collector was the one who put them into prison: hence, it came to be used of the jailor! The word occurs twice (Luke xii. 58), and should not be rendered "officer," but jailor.

πήρα (pēra), is rendered "scrip" in the A.V., and "wallet" in the R.V., but commentators are quite undecided as to whether it means a "portmanteau" or a "bread-bag"; though the latter seems superfluous after the word "bread."

The following are the passages:—

Matt. x. 10. "Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out devils: freely ye have received, freely give. Provide neither gold nor silver, nor brass in your purses: nor scrip (R.V. 'wallet') for your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes, nor yet staves."

Mark vi. 8, "And commanded them that they should take nothing for their journey, save a staff only: no scrip (R.V., 'wallet'), no bread, no money in their purse."

Luke ix. 3 (compare x. 4 and xxii. 35, 36), "Take nothing for your journey, neither staves, nor scrip, (R.V., 'wallet'), neither bread, neither money, neither have two coats apiece."

But a special meaning is made known to us by an ancient stone monument. A Greek inscription of the Roman period¹ has been discovered at Kefr-Hauar in Syria, in which a "slave" of the "Syrian goddess" speaks of the begging expeditions he has undertaken for the "Lady." This heathen apostle—who speaks of himself as "sent by the Lady"—tells with triumph how each of his journeys brought in seventy *bags*. Here he uses this word *πήρα*. It means, not *bags* filled with provisions and taken on the journey, but a *beggar's collecting bag*. This is evidently the meaning in the passages cited above: and when we connect it with the context in St. Matthew, we learn the Lord meant that they were not to earn money, and they were also not to beg. The nature of the Lord's commission is at once seen from what is involved in this interpretation of the word *πήρα* (*pera*). In the days of early Christianity the mendicant priest of the ancestral goddess wanders through the Syrian land; from village to village the string of sumpter animals lengthens, bearing his pious booty to the shrine, and the Lady will not be unmindful of her slave. In the same land, and in the same age, was One who had not where to lay His head, and He sent out His apostles with the words:

"Freely ye received, freely give. Get you no gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses: no *wallet* (or *beggar's collecting bag*) for your journey."

¹ Published in the *Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique*, 1897, p. 60, Compare *Die Christliche Welt*, 1903, p. 242, etc.

He who sent them had "all power" to provide for their supply.

πρεσβύτερος (presbuteros), which meant one older in years, is, in the papyri always used of official position, civil as well as religious (just as we use our word "alderman"). This is its usage in the New Testament.

ἀναγινώσκω (anaginōskō), meant to persuade; then, to know well, gather exact knowledge; then, to read. But later usage extended this reading to reading aloud with comments, with a view to persuade. This is its meaning in the New Testament. (See Matt. xxiv. 15. Mark xiii. 14. Luke iv. 16. Col. iv. 16. 1 Thess. v. 27. Rev. i. 3, etc.)

ἀποστοματίζω (apostomatizō), meant to dictate to a pupil what he was to write or recite. But its later usage was to examine by questioning on what had been taught. This is its usage in Luke xi. 53: "They began to urgently press him and question him about many things" [as though he were their pupil]. They were not seeking for information, but for grounds of accusation.

γράφω (graphō), to write, is always used in the papyri of legal, official, and documentary writing. The perfect γέγραπται (gegraptai), it standeth written, always implies an appeal to authoritative, incontestable authority, definite and regulative.

In this we see the position held by Holy Scripture over oral tradition. In this, too, we may see a reference to the certainty and nature of the revelation of the Mystery (or secret) in the γραφῶν προφητικῶν (graphōn prophētikōn), prophetic writings, of Rom. xvi. 26 (compare Eph. ii. 20. iv. 11, and 2 Pet. i. 20, etc.). We may also see in this a reason for Paul's desire to have "the parchments" which he asked Timothy to bring with him (2 Tim. iv. 13): for, Bible truth is based on documentary evidence, and not on oral tradition.

ἀπέχω (apecho), to have from, to receive or be [distant] from. But the papyri show that it was the common form of giving a receipt in full. This is its usage in Matt. vi. 2, 5, 16. Luke vi. 24, and Philem. 15, which shows that when the scribes prayed they did it to be seen of men; men had seen them; they had got their receipt, therefore, in full; and there was nothing more for them to receive: no real answer to their prayers to be expected.

The rendering "reward" (A.V. and R.V.) conveys no sense.

Σεβαίωσις (bebaiōsis), confirmation. In the papyri it is the guarantee of the seller to the buyer as to the validity of the sale (Phil. i. 7. Heb. vi. 16, where it is rendered "confirmation").

τὸ δοκίμιον (to doximion), the trial or trying. In the papyri this is always used as an adjective, meaning genuine, tested, and is found especially on pawn-tickets and marriage-contracts in the sense of certified. This is its usage in the N. T., which had come to denote the result of trial, and had been changed from the act or process of trial. Hence I Pet. i. 7 means "your tried or genuine faith"; and Jas. i. 3, "your tried or tested faith enables you to be patient."

δίκαιος (dikaios), just, or righteous, is used in the papyri of that which comes up to the required standard expected or looked for. It is used of a horse, of cattle, of a cubit; as it is used in the Septuagint (Prov. xi. 1) of "a just weight."

This is its New Testament usage, showing that God's righteousness, when it is bestowed, brings its recipient up to the standard which God Himself requires and looks for. The saved sinner is therefore by it "made meet for the inheritance of the saints in light" (Col. i. 12), and hence can be declared "complete in Christ."

ἰλαστήριον (hilasterion) comes to us through the Septuagint; where, in Exod. xxv. 17 (Heb. 16), "thou shalt make a δελίον (kapporeth), cover, of pure gold." This word kapporeth (cover) is rendered ἰλαστήριον ἐπίθεμα (hilastērion epithema), propitiatory cover, because the cover, on which the blood was sprinkled, was the means of propitiation.

The word in Heb. ix. 5 must retain this usage, and be rendered "the cherubim of glory shadowing the propitiatory [cover]." By the figure, Metonymy, the result (propitiation) is put for the means by which it was obtained (the cover of the ark on which the blood was sprinkled). That was what the cherubim shadowed, not the propitiation itself.

So that the word can be taken in this sense here; as it must be in the other passage where it occurs, Rom. iii. 25: "Whom God hath set forth as His propitiatory gift."

In the papyri and on inscriptions and monuments this word is used in the sense of votive or propitiatory gift.

So here, Christ was God's propitiatory gift, the gift of Divine love. Not man's gift to God; but God's gift to man.

The rendering of hilasterion by "mercy-seat" is quite wrong. The R.V. puts in the margin, "Gr. the propitiatory"; but, not seeing the Figure of Speech, nor knowing of the usage of the word in the papyri, the Revisers did not add the noun, "cover," after the adj. "propitiatory"; and with the A.V. rendered "propitiatory" in Rom. iii. 25 as a noun, "propitiation."

The saints of God in Rome would hardly know the technical "mercy-seat," but they would know the common usage of the word at the time as being a propitiatory gift.

εὐεργέτης (euergelēs), meant a well-doer, but our Lord uses it in Luke xxii. 25 in the particular and almost technical sense which recent discoveries have revealed. The word had been restricted from the extended sense of well-doing to the limited and special sense of a well-doing on behalf of the public, which deserved the public recognition of one as being a BENEFACTOR.

The discoveries of inscriptions and coins, added to the literary evidence already available, establishes this special usage of the word in our Lord's days.

πλῆδος (plēthos), is generally rendered multitude. In the papyri it has a technical usage applying to associates in a community or congregation. This appears to be the usage in Luke i. 10; xix. 37. Acts ii. 6; iv. 32; vi. 2, 5; xv. 12, 30; xix. 9; xxi. 22.

μικρός (mikros), small, little. In the papyri this word is used in the sense of junior in contrast with μέγας (megas), great, which is used as senior. This is clearly the sense in Mark xv. 40; and it is a question whether it is not also in Matt. xi. 11; xviii. 6, 10, 14. Acts viii. 10; xxvi. 22.

κυριακός (kuriakos), the Lord's, is used in the papyri of what is imperial, and especially pertaining to the κύριος (kurios), the Lord, as Ruler.²

¹ In 1 John ii. 2; iv. 10 it is the noun ἰαραίς (hilasmos), propitiation.

² See pamphlet on The Lord's Day, by the same author and publisher, pp. 12-15.

χειρόγραφον (cheirographon), hand-writing. In the papyri this is the technical term for a bond or certificate of debt. Many have been found; some of them are scored through and thus cancelled. This is the sense in Col. ii. 14, where only it is found.

ἄδολος (adolos), occurs only in 1 Pet. ii. 2 and is rendered sincere. In the papyri the usage is in the sense of unadulterated, referring to food.

σφραγίζω (sphragizo), to seal. In the papyri it is used of delivering property into the possession of the receiver. To seal a thing to a person was used of delivering and securing that thing to him, sealing being the last thing done prior to such delivery. Thus we read "Seal the wheat and the barley," i.e., seal [the sacks containing] the wheat and the barley [and deliver them].

This is the usage in Rom. xv. 28. Eph. iv. 30.

χάραγμα (charagma), a mark. In the papyri this word (1) is always used of a mark connected with the emperor; and (2) it always contains his name or effigy, and the year of his reign. (3) It was necessary for buying and selling. (4) It was technically known as charagma.

It is found on all sorts of documents, even on "a bill of sale." In Acts xvii. 29 it is rendered "graven." Elsewhere it is used only of the "mark" of the Beast (Rev. xiii. 16, 17; xiv. 9, 11; xv. 2; xvi. 2; xix. 20; xx. 4). He will be the Overlord in that day!

ἀναπέμψω (anapempō), to send up. This word is used in the papyri of sending up to a superior authority. This is the usage in Luke xxiii. 7, 11, 15, and Acts xxv. 21.

It is also used of sending up with pomp and dignity.

βιάζομαι (biazomai), to use force or press with violence. Commentators tell us that it occurs only twice in the New Testament, and that it must, in the former of the two passages, be taken as a Passive. The former passage is Matt. xi. 12, "the kingdom of heaven suffereth violence." The latter is Luke xvi. 16, "every man presseth into it."

But the meaning of the word, and the interpretation of both passages is settled for us by an inscription found

Here all the Critical Greek Texts prefer this word to the simple -i- (pempō), to send by an escort. See below under Canon VIII., Sect. 1 (Matt. viii. 3 and Luke vii. 1).

Q in a temple near Sunium,¹ built not earlier than the imperial period which commenced in B.C. 24.

It was founded by Xanthus the Lycian as a sanctuary.

In this inscription certain ceremonial purifications are prescribed as a condition of entrance into the temple; and it goes on to say that no one may sacrifice in the temple without permission from its founder. Then the regulation continues:— ἐὰν δὲ τις βιάσῃται

"But if any one forces [his way in]

ἀπρόσδεκτος ἡ ὄστία παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ his offering is not pleasing to the god."

This settles the usage of the word in the two passages:

Matt. xi. 12. "But from the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven forces itself [on the people], and the pushful seize on it."

Luke xvi. 16. "Since that time (John's) the kingdom of God is announced [as good news] and every one forces [his way] into it."

Thus, both passages harmonize; the usage in both is the same; and, both accord with the usage which obtained in the New Testament period.

κατάκριμα (katakrima), is an important word, occurring only three times in the New Testament.

Rom. v. 16, "The judgment was by one offence unto condemnation."

Verse 18, "As by one offence [judgment came] unto all men for condemnation." Rom. viii. 1, "There is therefore now no condemnation to them that are in Christ Jesus."

In deeds of sale found among the papyri this word is found in its legal usage. It is used of a burden on land, such as debts, taxes of all kinds, arrears, and all payments of every kind. All are mentioned, but the effect of the legal document is to declare that the land sold is free from all burdens of every kind. Note the bearing of this in such passages as Rom. viii. 1.

¹ Sunium is a promontory at the S.E. extremity of Attica, Greece, now known as Cape Colonna. It contains to-day the ruins of a temple measuring 14 by 98 feet. Twelve columns are still standing.

iii. CONCURRENT GREEK USAGES IMPORTANT ὑπόστασις (hupostasis), rendered "substance" in Heb. xi. 1, is used in the papyri in the sense of title-deeds. This shows that believing what God has said and promised, is our title-deed for which He has caused us to hope.¹ iv. WHERE DIFFERENT BUT CONCURRENT USAGES OF WORDS SHOULD BE OBSERVED IN THE ENGLISH.

Quite apart from age or clime there are many Greek words which the Holy Spirit Himself uses in different connections, and with varying meanings. These can be easily seen, observed, and classified; and our English renderings can and must be made to conform to them.

Unlike our last division (No. iii. above) this is work for the English reader, who is at no disadvantage with the Greek scholar, provided he uses our Lexicon and Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament.² It is designed for English readers; and, though the Greek words are given, the truth can be gained without looking at them; for they are numbered, and the reference is to the meaning given under that number.

The use of that book will enable the student to find out, at a glance, under the English word, the Greek word which is so translated. The index will tell him whether the word is translated otherwise elsewhere; and, if so, under what renderings he can find them. At this stage he will be able to use more readily the Englishman's Greek Concordance³ and easily make out a list of all the occurrences of the word in question.

It is here that his real study of this branch of our subject will begin. For now he must turn to every passage, and note how the Holy Spirit uses the word; and when he has all the data before him he will soon discover whether the usage is uniform; or whether there is more than one sense in which the word is employed.

This part of the study requires a spiritual understanding (1 John v. 20, 1 Cor. ii. 14), common sense, and strength

¹ Other words will be found in our Figures of Speech (pp. 850-850) and in Diessmann's Bibelstudien (Marburg, 1880) and Neue Bibelstudien (1877). Also in Essays in Biblical Greek, by the late Professor Hatch, of Oxford.

² Published by Longmans & Co., 30, Paternoster Row, Price 15s.

³ Published by Bagster & Co. Price 25s.

Q 2 of mind to follow the leading of God's Word in spite of all that has been imbibed and "received from the fathers by tradition."

When difficulty is experienced in receiving the truth of God, it is because we try at the same time to hold on to tradition, and try to combine the two. But the moment we let tradition go all will become easy. It is not the simple truth that is difficult, but it is the endeavour to hold on to the traditional belief as well as the simple truth. Let one of the two beliefs go, and either will be easy; it is the effort to hold both that creates the real difficulty.

Let us illustrate this by looking at the word

1. "Parousia."—παρουσία (parousia).—This word furnishes us with an excellent and useful example, showing the necessity of discriminating between its different usages.

Many take it as a proper noun, and speak of "The Parousia" as though it always refers to one separate and distinct act, viz., the coming of the Lord as revealed in 1 Thess. iv.

The next stop is that, when they find that this same word is used of the coming of Christ in Matt. xxiv., "immediately after the Tribulation of those days," there is no alternative but to interpret 1 Thess iv. as being after the Tribulation.

Thus, trouble and confusion is created; and the loss of the blessed hope and waiting for God's Son from heaven is shrouded in darkness.

But all is made clear, the moment we discriminate between the various usages of the word parousia. There is no dispute about the meaning of the word. All are agreed that its only meaning is presence; and when translated coming it always denotes the actual presence of the person who thus comes.

From our Greek and English Lexicon and Concordance, page 977, we find that παρουσία (parousia) occurs twenty-four times; and that it is rendered twice presence, and twenty-two times coming.

Our object, now, is to find out how the Holy Spirit uses it; and whether the teaching of some is correct, who