Grief

(represented by numerous Heb. words, Gr. λύπη). The Oriental exhibits affliction over public or private misfortune, especially the death of a beloved relative or friend, by much more demonstrative signs than the European, although the degree of connection between the deceased and the mourner, and the greater or more moderate vehemence of character of the bereaved individual, naturally cause a certain modification of his grief, which is too apt to be lost sight of by archaeologists. The customs of the ancient Hebrews were in this respect little different from those of modern Orientals, and therefore derive ready elucidation from the accounts of modern travellers. In the most violent outburst of sorrow, in the instantaneous overflow of lamentation, they wrung their hands above the head (2Sa 13:19), or beat the breast with them (Nah 2:8; Luk 18:13; comp. Joseph. Ant. 16:7, 5: סָפד, κόπτεσθαι ; see Homer, Il. ii, 700: Herodotus, it, 85; Lucian, Luct. 12; Appian, Pun. 43; Virgil, AEn. 4:673; 12:871; Martial, ii, 11, 5; Petron. 111), or smote them upon the thigh (Jer 31:19; comp. Polyb. 15:27, 11; Hom. Odys. ’ 13:198; Plant. Trucul. ii, 7, 42; see Dougtaei Analect, i, 274) or on the head (Josephus, Ant. 16:10, 7), tore the beard and hair (Ezr 9:3; Job i, 20; comp. Joseph. Ant. 15:3, 9; 16:7, 5; Barhebr. Chronicles p. 256; Virgil, AEn. 12:870; Ovid, Met. 11:746; Apul. Met. 9:p. 212, Bip.; Curtius, iii, 11, 25; Petron. 111,113; Martial, ii, 11, 5), strewed ashes (see Carpzov, De cinerum op. Hebr, usu. maroris atque luctus τεκμηρίῳ, Rost. 1739) on the head (1Sa 4:12; 2Sa 1:2; 2Sa 13:19; 2Sa 15:32; Neh 9:1; Eze 27:30; Lam 2:10; Job 2:11; 1Ma 3:47; 1Ma 4:39; 1Ma 11:71; 2Ma 10:26; 2Ma 14:15; Jdt 9:1; 3Ma 4:6; Rev 18:19; Josephus, War, ii, 12, 5; 15, 4; Ant. 20:6,1; comp. Homer, Il. 18:23 sq.; 24:164; Eurip. Suppl. 827; Hecub. 496; Diod. Sic. i, 72, 917 Lucian, Luct. 127 Apulej. Metam. 9:p. 212, Bip.; see Burckhardt, Nubia, p. 475; Irwin, Trav. p. 303, 307; Kirchmann, Defuner. Rom. ii, 12; Mishna, Taanith, ii, 1), or rolled themselves in dust and ashes (Eze 27:30; comp. Homer, Il. 22:414; 24:640; Lucian, Luct. 12), tore the garments (see Hede-nus. De scissione vest. Ebraeis ac gentibus usitata, Jen. 1663; also in Ugolini Thes. xxix; Wichmannshausen, De laceratione vestium ap. Hebr. Viteb. 1716; also in Ugolino, xxxiii: this rending; however, had certain restrictions, Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 360; see also Ugolino, De sacerdotio, ch. vi. in his Thesaur. xiii) from their breast (Gen 37:29; Gen 44:13; Jdg 11:36; 1Sa 4:12; 2Sa 1:2; 2Sa 1:11; 2Sa 3:31; 1Ki 21:27; 2Ki 4:8; 2Ki 6:30; 2Ki 11:14; 2Ki 19:17; 2Ki 22:11; Ezr 9:3; Est 4:1; 1Ma 2:14-17; 1Ma 3:47; 1Ma 4:39; 1Ma 5:14; 1Ma 11:71; 1Ma 13:45; Jdt 14:13; Jdt 14:15; Jer 41:5; Ep. Jeremiah 30; Joseph. War, ii, 15, 2 and 4; Act 14:14; Mishna, Moed Katon, iii, 7; Shab. 13:3; comp. Barhebr. Chronicles p. 256; Herod. iii, 66; 8:99; Lucian, Luct. 12; Achil. Tat. 4:6; Curtius, iii, 11, 25; 4:107 23; v, 12,13, 31; 10:5, 17; Sueton. Caes. 33; Nero, 42; Dougtaei Analect. i, 118; Arvieux, iii, 282), lacerated even their face and body (Jer 16:6; Jer 41:5; Jer 47:5; Eze 24:17; comp. Appian, Pun. 46; Virgil, AEn. 4:673; 12:871; Cicero, Leg. ii, 23, 59; Petron. 16:111: Ruppell, Abyss. ii, 57), though this last (see Wich- mannshausen, De corpore scissuris figurisque non crue-tando, Viteb.; Michaelis, De incisura propter mortuos, in his Observ. sacr. Arnhem. 1752, p. 131 sq.) was forbidden by the Mosaic law (Lev 19:28; Deu 14:1 sq.), as it was in the twelve Roman tables (Cic. Leg. ii, 23 sq.).

These marks of deep grief were usually combined together. At protracted and regularly appointed seasons of mourning (for the deceased), persons were accustomed to fast (q.v.), put on mourning-weeds, SEE SACKCLOTH, cover up the lower part of the countenance (Eze 24:17; Eze 24:22; Mic 3:7; comp. Est 7:8) or the entire head (2Sa 15:30; 2Sa 19:4; Jer 14:3-4; Homer, Od. 4:154; 8:92), neglect to wash and anoint themselves (comp. Diod. Sic. i, 72 and 91), or cleanse their clothes (2Sa 14:2; 2Sa 19:24; comp. 2Sa 12:20; Dan 10:3; Jdt 10:2 sq.), and abstain from all ornament (Eze 26:16 [compare 24:17]; Jonah iii, 6; Jdt 10:3; comp. Homer, Il. 22:468 ;-Lycophron, Cassand. 862; Livy, 9:7; 34:7; Sueton. Octav. 100), even laying aside their shoes (2Sa 15:30; Eze 24:17; Eze 24:23), and, as a special token of humiliation, shearing off the beard and hair, the pride of an Oriental (Isa 15:2; Jer 7:29; Jer 16:6; Jer 41:5; Jer 48:37; Ep. Jeremiah 12; Amo 8:10; Mic 1:16; Eze 7:18; Eze 27:31; comp. Homer, Il. 23:46 sq.; Od. 4:197; 24:45 sq.; Euripid. Orest. 458; Alcest. 427; Diod. Sic. i, 84; AElian, V. H. 7:8; Herod. 4:71; 9:24; Curtius, 10:5,17; Sueton. Calig. 5; Ovid, Ars. Am. iii, 38). In deep grief they also seated or lay themselves on the ground (2Sa 12:16; 2Sa 13:31; Isa 3:20; Isa 47:1 [Eze 8:14]; Jon 3:6; Neh 1:4; Job 2:8; Job 16:15; Mat 11:21, etc.; comp. Josephus, Ant. 19:8, 2; Philo, Opp. ii, 519; Homer, Il. 18:26; see Kype, Observ. i, 261). Mourning usually lasted seven days (1Sa 31:13; 1Ch 10:12; Judith 16:29; Sir 22:12; Joseph. Ant. 17:8, 4; comp. Heriod. 7:11; Lucian, Dea Syr. 52 sq.; see Movers, Phonic. p. 200); in extraordinary cases, longer (Num 20:29; Deu 21:18; Joseph. War, iii, 9, 5). Wealthy persons were accustomed to hire professional mourning women מְקוֹנְנוֹת, proficae, Jer 9:16), who uttered loud wailing cries in the house and at the grave during the days of mourning (2Ch 35:25), often in responsive chants (Moed Katon, iii, 8), and with instrumental accompaniment (Chel. 16:7). The same custom is well known to have prevailed among the Greeks (see Potter, Antiq. ii, 407 sq.) and Romans. On the usages of the modern East, see Mayr, Schicksale, ii, 87. Public mourning was instituted upon general calamities; the Jews were also obliged to take part in lamentation for the death of (heathen) rulers (Philo, Opp. ii, 525; comp. Livy, 9:7). It was a peculiarity of Persian usage that no mourner could enter the royal palace (Est 4:2), such probably being regarded as uncleanly by the Zend religion (Creuzer, Symbol. i, 712). See generally Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu luqentiumque ritibus (Lips. 1656; ed. by Kall, Hafn. 1745; also in Ugolini Thesaur. xxxiii); Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 390; on the Grecian usages, Nicolai, De luctu Graecorum (Marb. 1698), and Lange, Observatt. sacr. p. 346 sq.; on modern Persian. Chardin, Voyage, 6:485 sq. SEE MOURNING; SEE FUNERAL,

GRIEF.—See Sorrow.

(ðüíïò, ὀäýíç, ëýðç, ðÝíèïò and cognate forms)

In addition to the common vexations of life (Act_4:2; cf. Act_16:18) and the griefs arising from misfortune (2Co_12:7) and human mutability (deaths and partings, Act_20:38), there are certain cases of mental distress recognized in the NT, which are significant of the life and thought of the early Church.

(1) To the sorrows of transgression the Church is naturally sensitive. Sin reaps grief among its sad harvest. Esau’s carelessness is followed by unavailing tears (Heb_12:17). Those lustful after riches pierce themselves with many sorrows (1Ti_6:10). Proud Babylon despises God; a day of sorrow and mourning is at hand for her (Revelation 18). The widespread pain caused by transgression is illustrated by the case of the incestuous member of the Corinthian Church (2Co_2:1-7). First, St. Paul, as a spiritual father of the Church, has been compelled to write with tears, in deep suffering and depression of spirits (2Co_2:4; èëῖøéò êáὶ óõíï÷ὴ êáñäßáò, to admonish the careless Church which has allowed the outrage to pass unrebuked (1Co_5:2); then the Church itself, realizing its shame, is plunged into sorrow (2Co_2:5; cf. 2Co_7:8; cf. 2Co_7:11); and the actual offender is in danger of being driven to despair by his excess of grief (2Co_7:7). Such distress has, however, a redeeming feature, inasmuch as it leads to repentance (2Co_7:8 f.). There is a worldly sorrow (ôïῦ êüóìïõ ëýðç) which, embittering and hardening instead of chastening (Heb_12:5-11, 2Co_7:8), worketh death (2Co_7:10).

(2) But the Christian life has its own set of mental distresses. The anguish of persecution at the hands of the world (Rom_8:35; cf. 1Pe_2:19) is but one of the sorrows of the Christian’s Via Dolorosa; his increasing moral sensitiveness enlarges the possibility of mental pain. The spiritual life is one of travail (Rom_8:22-26, 2Co_5:2; 2Co_5:4; see article Groaning). The richer soul also bears the cross of a wide human sympathy (2Co_11:29, Php_2:25-28); and a conscientious ministry is one of suffering, anxiety, and tears (Act_20:19; Act_20:31, 2Co_2:1-4, Rom_9:2; cf. Heb_13:17).

(3) For the Christian conquest over grief see article Comfort.

(4) The grief of God over human perversity is recognized in Heb_3:10; Heb_3:17 (ðñïóï÷èßæù), and in Eph_4:30 the Christian is warned against grieving the Holy Spirit.

(5) The grief of Jesus is cited in Heb_5:7-10 as an indication that, so far from taking the priesthood to Himself, He shrank from the sacrificial function and ‘accepted it only in filial submission to the will of God,’ or ‘that the offering of prayers and supplications with strong crying and tears corresponded to the high priest’s offering for himself on the Day of Atonement (Hofmann, Gess).… An interesting parallel (also noted by Davidson) is Hosea’s reference to Jacob’s wrestling (12:4), in which he speaks of him as weeping and making supplication to the angel, of which we read nothing in Genesis’ (A. S. Peake, Hebrews [Century Bible, 1902], p. 134).

Literature.-A. Maclaren, Expositions: ‘2 Cor. ch. vii. to end,’ 1909, p. 8; J, Martineau, Endeavours after the Christian Life, 1876, p. 44: ‘Sorrow no Sin’; A. W. Momerie, The Origin of Evil, 1885, p. 12ff.: ‘The Mystery of Suffering’; H. Bushnell, Moral Uses of Dark Things, 1877; B. H. Streeter, ‘The Suffering of God,’ in HJ [Note: J Hibbert Journal.] xii. [April, 1914]; D. W. Simon, The Redemption of Man, 1889, ch. vii.

H. Bulcock.