Oil

See Fruits Of The Earth.

It is very generally understood by oil what is meant in the common use of it in life; but the holy oil for the sanctuary is of a very different nature, and merits particular attention. When we consider that the whole office of the Holy Ghost in that feature of his sovereign character, namely, the unction of the Spirit, is described by anointing, and this not only of the persons of the members of Christ’s mystical body, but Christ, the glorious Head himself; when we consider Christ, really and truly so called, and literally becoming Christ, from this anointing of God the Holy Ghost, the subject of the holy oil, as typical of these blessed things, riseth in importance to our view, and demands the closest attention of every truly awakened heart. If the reader desires Scriptural information on this interesting subject, he should diligently read the Lord’s directions concerning the holy oil, Exod xxx. 22, to the end.

Concerning the office of God the Holy Ghost in his anointing character, as set forth by the holy oil of the temple, it would far exceed the limits of a work of this kind to go through the whole of the blessed Spirit’s agency, in the description of it, under the various manifestations. It will be sufficient to say in general, that to this one glorious office of the Holy Ghost all the anointings we read of in the Old Testament, and the uses to which the the holy oil was appropriated, evidently pointed. It is God the Holy Ghost who is uniformly represented, in his divine influences and gifts, by the figure and emblem of the holy oil and the ointment; for as oil hath numberless operations to soften, to take off rust, to counteract poison, to give cheerfulness to the countenance, and to facilitate actions in the limbs when benumbed and grown hard; so the blessed influences of the Holy Ghost, by his divine anointings, soften our hearts, take off the rust of ignorance in our minds, expel the poison of sin and corruption, and not only raiseth up the drooping spirits, by administering to our hearts the oil of joy and gladness, but causeth us "to run the way of God’s commandments when the Lord hath set our heart at liberty."

And what a blessed thought it is, that as the holy oil was poured on the head of Aaron, the great high priest of the Jewish dispensation, which ran down to the skirts of his clothing, so God the Holy Ghost anointed Jesus, our great and almighty High Priest, to whom Aaron was but the shadow, with "the oil of joy and gladness above and for his fellows; yea, the Spirit was not given "by measure unto him, for in him all fulness dwelleth? And Christ and his church being one and the same, he the glorious Head, and they hismembers, of "his fulness do we all receive, and grace or grace." (See Anointing. See Holy Ghost. See these Scriptures, Ps. xlv. 7; c33; John i. 16; ; 3: 34.)

שמן . The invention and use of oil is of the highest antiquity. It is said that Jacob poured oil upon the pillar which he erected at Bethel, Gen 28:18. The earliest kind was that which is extracted from olives. Before the invention of mills, this was obtained by pounding them in a mortar, Exo 27:20; and sometimes by treading them with the feet in the same manner as were grapes, Deu 33:24; Mic 6:15. The Hebrews used common oil with their food, in their meat- offerings, for burning in their lamps, &c. As vast quantities of oil were made by the ancient Jews, it became an article of exportation. The great demand for it in Egypt led the Jews to send it thither. The Prophet Hosea thus upbraids his degenerate nation with the servility and folly, of their conduct: “Ephraim feedeth on wind, and followeth after the east wind; he daily increaseth falsehood and vanity; and a league is made with Assyria, and oil carried into Egypt,” Hos 12:1. The Israelites, in the decline of their national glory, carried the produce of their olive plantations into Egypt as a tribute to their ancient oppressors, or as a present to conciliate their favour, and obtain their assistance in the sanguinary wars which they were often compelled to wage with the neighbouring states. There was an unguent, very precious and sacred, used in anointing the priests, the tabernacle, and furniture. This was compounded of spicy drugs, namely, myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, and cassia, mixed with oil olive.

Oil was far more extensively used among the ancient Hebrews than in our northern climate. The use of oil is equally general throughout Western Asia at the present time, as it was in primitive ages. Oil was much used instead of butter and animal fat, at meals and in various preparations of food (see Food, and comp. Eze 16:13). In such uses oil, when fresh and sweet, is more agreeable than animal fat. The Orientals think so; and Europeans soon acquire the same preference. Oil was also in many cases taken as a meat-offering; and it was then mixed with the meal of oblation [OFFERING]. The rite of sprinkling with oil, as a libation, does not occur in the law, but seems to be alluded to in Mic 6:7.

The application of oil to the person has been described in the article Anointing. Whether for luxury or ceremony, the head and beard were the parts usually anointed, and this use of oil became at length proverbially common among the Israelites (Pro 21:17).

The employment of oil for burning has been illustrated in the article Lamps. It is only necessary to add, that for this, and indeed for most other purposes, olive-oil was considered the best, and was therefore used in the lamps of the tabernacle.

Was employed from the earliest periods in the east, not only for the purpose of consecration, but to anoint the head, the beard, and the whole person in daily life, Gen 28:18 . See ANOINTING. It was also universally used for food, Eze 16:13 . Fresh and sweet olive oil was greatly preferred to butter and animal fat as a seasoning for food, and to this day in Syria almost every kind of food is cooked with oil. It had a place also among the meat-offerings in the temple, being usually mixed with the meal of the oblation, Lev 5:11 6:21. For lamps, also, pure olive oil was regarded as the best, and was used in illuminating the tabernacle. These many uses for oil made the culture of the olive-tree an extensive and lucrative business, 1Ch 27:28 Eze 27:17 Hos 12:1 . Oil was as much an article of storage and of traffic as corn and wine, 2Ch 32:28 Ezr 3:7 .\par The best oil was obtained from the fruit while yet green by a slight beating or pressing, Exo 27:20 29:40. The ripe fruit is now, and has been from ancient times, crushed by passing stone rollers over it. The crushed mass is then subjected to pressure in the oil-mill, Hebrew, gath-shemen. The olive-berries are not now trodden with the feet. This, however seems to have been practiced among the Hebrews, at least to some extent when the berries had become soft by keeping, Mic 6:15 . Gethsemane, that is, oil-press, probably took its name originally from some oil-press in its vicinity. See OLIVE.\par

Oil. Of the numerous substances, animal and vegetable, which were known to the ancients as yielding oil, the olive berry is the one of which most frequent mention is made in the Scriptures.

Gathering. -- The olive berry was either gathered by hand, or shaken off carefully with a light reed or stick.

Pressing. -- In order to make oil, the fruit, was either bruised in a mortar, crushed in a press loaded with wood or stones, ground in a mill, or trodden with the feet. The "beaten" oil of, Exo 27:20; Exo 29:40; Lev 24:2; Num 28:6, was probably made by bruising in a mortar. It was used --

(1) As food. Dried wheat, boiled with either butter or oil, but generally the former, is a common dish for all classes in Syria. Exo 29:2.

(2) Cosmetic. Oil was used by the Jews for anointing the body, for example, after the bath, and giving to the skin and hair a smooth and comely appearance, for example, before an entertainment.

(3) Funereal. The bodies of the dead were anointed with oil. 2Sa 14:2.

(4) Medicinal. Isaiah alludes to the use of oil in medical treatment. Isa 1:6. See also Mar 6:13; Jas 6:14.

(5) For light. The oil for "the light" was expressly ordered to be olive oil, beaten. Mat 25:3.

(6) Ritual. Oil was poured on, or mixed with, the flour or meal used in offerings. Lev 8:12. Kings, priests and prophets were anointed with oil or ointment.

(7) In offerings. As so important a necessary of life, the Jew was required to include oil among his firstfruit offerings. Exo 22:29; Exo 23:16; Num 18:12. Tithes of oil were also required. Deu 12:17. See Olive.

Its three principal uses among the Hebrew were:

(1) To anoint the body so as to mollify the skin, heal injuries, and strengthen muscles (Psa 104:15; Psa 109:18; Psa 141:5; Isa 1:6; Luk 10:34; 2Ch 28:15; Mar 6:13; Jas 5:14) (See ANOINT.)

(2) As we use butter, as food (Num 11:8; 1Ki 17:12; 1Ch 12:40; Eze 16:13; Eze 16:19; Hos 2:5).

(3) To burn in lamps (Exo 25:6; Mat 25:3).

Type of the Holy Spirit’s unction (2Co 1:21; 1Jn 2:20; 1Jn 2:27) and illumination (Zec 4:11-12). The supply of grace comes not from a dead reservoir of oil, but through living "olive trees." Ordinances and ministers are channels, not the grace itself; Zec 4:14, "anointed ones," Hebrew sons of oil; Isa 5:1, "very fruitful hill," Hebrew "horn of the son of oil." The Lord Jesus has the fullness of grace from the double olive tree of the Holy Spirit, so as to be at once our priest and king; He is the tree, ministers the branches, "emptying the golden oil out of themselves" for the supply of the church and to the glory of the Author of grace. In the sanctuary oil served the three purposes:

(1) anointing the priests and holy things,

(2) as food in the bloodless offerings (minchah),

(3) it kept alive the lights in "the pure candlestick," "the lamp of God" (1Sa 3:3) in the holy place.

Messiah is the Antitype "anointed with the oil of gladness above His fellows" (Heb 1:9; Psa 45:7); not only above us, the adopted members of God’s family, but above the angels, partakers with Him, though infinitely His inferiors, in the holiness and joys of heaven. His anointing with "the oil of exulting joy" took place not at His baptism when He began His ministry for us, but at His triumphant completion of His work, at His ascension (Eph 4:8; Psa 68:18), when He obtained the Holy Spirit without measure (Joh 3:34), to impart to us in measure. The oil of gladness shall be in the fullest sense His "in the day of His espousals, in the day of the gladness of His heart" (Son 3:11; Rev 19:7). Guests were anointed with oil at feasts; so He anoints us, Psa 23:5.

The offering of oil on the altar was the offerer’s acknowledgment that all his spiritual gifts were from Jehovah. The "beaten oil" for the sanctuary light was made from olives bruised in a mortar. So Messiah’s bruising preceded His pouring out the Spirit on us (Exo 25:6; Exo 27:20). The olives were sometimes "trodden" (Mic 6:15), or "pressed" in a "press," making the fats overflow (Joe 2:24; Joe 3:13; Hag 2:16). The oil was stored in cellars, in cruses (1Ki 17:14). Solomon supplied Hiram with "20,000 baths of oil" (2Ch 2:10), "20 measures of pure oil" (1Ki 5:11). Oil was exported to Egypt as the special produce of Palestine (Hos 12:1). Meat offerings were mingled or anointed with oil (Lev 7:10; Lev 7:12); but the sin offering and the offering of jealousy were without oil (Lev 5:11; Num 5:15). The oil indicated" gladness"; its absence sorrow and humiliation (Isa 61:3; Joe 2:19; Psa 45:7).

elaion (G1637) Oil

myron (G3464) Ointment

chrio (G5548) (Anoint)

adeipho [G218])

By arguing on the insufficient grounds that the Septuagint sometimes translates Å¡emen (G8081) by myron but far more frequently by elaion, some scholars have denied that the Old Testament makes any distinction between oil and ointment. Often, however, a single word in one language contains two of another, especially when (as in the case of Greek compared with Hebrew) the other abounds in finer distinctions and in more subtle meanings. To convey this duplicity of meaning is the responsibility of a well-skilled translator. Myron naturally grew out of elaion because it had oil for its base, with only the addition of spice, scent, or other aromatic ingredients. Clement of Alexandria called elaion "adulterated oil." Because of this close relationship between elaion and myron, it was a long time before the need for different names for these terms arose in other languages. In Greek, myron first appears in the writings of Archilochus. Although there were ointments in Homer's time, he used "sweet-smelling oil" and "roseate oil" instead.

Later a clear distinction was drawn between elaion and myron. In fact, a passage in Xenophon depends entirely on the suitability of elaion for men and of myron for women: women prefer men to smell of manly "oil," rather than of effeminate "ointment." According to Xenophon: "The odor of oil [elaiou] in gymnasiums when present is more pleasant to women than that of ointment [myron] and is more longed for when absent." And this distinction underlies Christ's rebuke to the discourteous Pharisee: "You did not anoint My head with oil [elaio], but this woman has anointed My feet with fragrant oil [myro]"(Luk_7:46). Thus in effect Christ said: "You withheld from me cheap and ordinary courtesies, while she bestowed upon me costly and rare homages." Grotius well remarked:

There is continuous contrast. That woman employed tears for washing Christ's feet; Simon did not even furnish water. She constantly kissed the feet of Jesus; Simon received Christ without even one kiss. She poured precious ointment [ungentum = myron) on both His head and His feet; he gave not even mere oil [merum = elaion], which was the custom of perfunctory friendship.

Because some scholars have distinguished the verbs aleiphein and chriein on the basis of the difference between myron and elaion, we need to deal with this topic here. These scholars claim that aleiphein commonly refers to a luxurious or superfluous anointing with ointment and that chriein refers to a sanitary anointing with oil. Thus Casaubon stated: "To be anointed with ointment [aleiphesthai] is characteristic of those devoted to pleasure and a delicate life; to be anointed with oil [chriesthai] is suitable occasionally to temperate people and to those who live virtuously." Valcknaer stated: "People surrendered to pleasures, who anointed their head and hands with precious ointment, were particularly said to be aleiphesthai;chriesthaiwas applied to those smearing their bodies with oil for the sake of health. " No traces of this distinction appear in the New Testament (cf. Mar_6:13; Jam_5:14 with Mar_16:1; Joh_11:2), however, nor are there traces of the distinction of Salmasius: "They smear [chriousi] more solid substances; they pour [aleiphousi] liquids."

The New Testament does distinguish the two verbs aleiphein and chriein, but not as they were distinguished above. In the New Testament, aleiphein is used as the mundane and profane term, and chriein is used as the sacred and religious term. Aleiphein is used indiscriminately of all actual anointings, whether with oil or with ointment, and chriein is absolutely restricted to the Father's anointing of the Son with the Holy Spirit for the accomplishment of the Son's great office. In the New Testament, chriein is completely separated from all profane and common uses. The same holds true in the Septuagint, where chrisis, chrisma (G5545) and chriein are frequently used to refer to all religious and symbolic anointings. Aleiphein occurs only twice in this sense (Exo_40:13; Num_3:3).

Oil. The Hebrews used olive oil as butter and as animal fat is used with us, Deu 32:13; Job 24:11; Eze 16:13. In some of the Hebrew thank-offerings oil was taken with the meat-offering. Lev 5:11; Lev 7:12; Num 5:15; Num 6:15; Exo 29:40. Oil was used for anointing the head and the body; and in the preparation of ointments. Exo 30:24; 2Sa 14:2; Psa 23:5; Psa 92:10; Psa 104:15; Pro 21:17; Luk 7:46. The application of oil for medicinal purposes prevailed in the earliest periods. Isa 1:6; Hos 12:1; Mar 6:13; Jas 5:14-15. Olive oil was extensively used for the lamps in the tabernacle. Exo 27:20. The use of oil is significant of gladness, Psa 141:5; Isa 61:3, and the omission of it betokened sorrow. 2Sa 14:2; Mat 6:17. Oil was also the symbol of abundance and festivity. Deu 28:40; Eze 27:17. The anointing with oil was symbolical of the unction of the Holy Spirit. Psa 45:7; Zec 4:14; Isa 61:1; 1Jn 2:20.

In the description of the goodness of the land of promise one of the advantages mentioned is ’a land of oil olive’; and among the blessings enumerated with which God would endow His obedient people is that their oil should be multiplied. Deu 7:13; Deu 8:8. It was an article of value, and the people had their olive yards as well as their vineyards. Oil was employed for various purposes. It was used as food, 2Ch 2:10; 2Ch 2:15; 2Ch 11:11; Psa 55:21; for anointing the kings, etc., 1Sa 10:1; 1Sa 16:1; 1Sa 16:13; in the sacrifices of the meat offering, Lev 2:1-16; as an ingredient in the holy ointment, Exo 30:24-25, see OINTMENT; as a cosmetic, Psa 23:5; Psa 92:10; Luk 7:46; to give light in the lamps, Exo 35:8; Exo 35:14; as an emollient, Luk 10:34. Oil is a type of the Holy Spirit. Mat 25:3-10; Heb 1:9.

OIL (שָׁמֶן, ἔλαιον), by which we are to understand olive oil, was from the very earliest times one of the main products of Palestine, for already in days prior to the Hebrew settlement, Canaan was ‘a land of oil olives’ (Deu 8:8). The importance of this valuable commodity cannot easily be overestimated. It afforded light (Mat 25:3) and nourishment (1Ki 17:12) to the household; it was valued for its healing and medicinal virtues (Is 1:6 Revised Version NT 1881, OT 1885 , Luk 10:34); it had its place in the Hebrew ritual (Exo 29:40, Lev 2:1); and it was an important article of commerce (2Ki 4:7, Luk 16:6).

The oil was obtained by subjecting the berries of the olive-tree to pressure. The earliest method of expression seems to have been that of treading the olives with the feet, to which allusion is made in Mic 6:15, and perhaps also in Deu 33:24 This process is unknown in modern times (Thomson, LB [Note: The Land and the Book.] pp. 207, 339). Van-Lennep, however, states that the pulp from the olive-press is still ‘trodden with the bare feet of women and girls’ (Bible Lands, p. 130). At what period this primitive method was abandoned, and made way for more thorough processes, we do not know. The OT has no references that are clear enough to guide us: those that occur (e.g. Job 24:11; Job 29:6) are vague and general, and in none of them is the oil-press specifically mentioned. But from the Mishna (Menâhôth viii. 14) we learn that the processes commonly employed were bruising in a mortar, find crushing in the oil-press and the oil-mill, these processes being consecutive, not alternative.

The quality of the oil depended partly on the time at which the olives were gathered, and partly on the mode of crushing. The best quality was that yielded by berries gathered before they became black (as they do when fully ripe), and pounded in a mortar. Of this kind was ‘beaten oil’ (Exo 27:20; Exo 29:40, Lev 24:2, Num 28:5). This first quality of oil was got by putting the pulp from the mortar into wicker baskets, through which the strained liquid ran into receptacles placed beneath. A second and a third quality were obtained by further crushing of the pulp in the oil-press, and then in the oil-mill.

In the NT allusions to oil are not very frequent; those occurring in the Gospels have reference to its use:—(1) As an illuminant (Mat 25:3-4; Mat 25:8). The lamps in common use were of earthenware, and small in size (see Lamp). When they had to be kept burning for any considerable period, it was necessary to replenish them with oil from time to time. (2) Medicinally (Luk 10:34, Mar 6:13, cf. Jas 5:14). The healing virtues of oil were highly esteemed by the Jews, and it was much employed by them and by other ancient nations. It was applied, e.g., to wounds (Isa 1:6 Revised Version NT 1881, OT 1885 ) to soothe their pain and to hasten the process of healing. A similar usage is found in the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luk 10:34). In this instance, wine as well as oil was employed, the added wine imparting to the mixture an antiseptic quality (cf, Pliny, HN xxxi. 47; Talm. [Note: Talmud.] Shabbâth xiv. 4). Oil-baths were sometimes used, as in the case of Herod the Great (Josephus Ant. xvii. vi. 5). The anointing of the sick with oil (Mar 6:13, Jas 5:14) was doubtless based on the current belief in its remedial powers, but may also have been a symbolic act, as was the anointing of lepers (Lev 14:15 ff.). Plumptre suggests that ‘it served as a help to the faith of the person healed; perhaps also, in the case of the Apostles, to that of the healer’ (‘St. James’ in Camb. Bible for Schools, p. 103). (3) For anointing (Mat 6:17, Luk 7:46). The custom of anointing the head or the body with oil was a very common one in ancient times, and was practised by the Egyptians (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyp. [Note: Egyptian.] ii. 213), the Greeks (Homer, Il. x. 577), and others (Pliny, HN xiii. 1 ff.). Among the Jews the anointing of the head with oil seems to have accompanied the daily ablutions (Mat 6:17, cf. Rth 3:3, 2Sa 12:20), except in time of mourning (2Sa 14:2, Dan 10:3). It was also a mark of honour paid to guests by their host (Luk 7:46, cf. Psa 23:5). Anointing the feet (Luk 7:38; Luk 7:46, Joh 11:2) was very unusual. The dead were anointed as a tribute of respect (Mar 16:1, Luk 23:56; Luk 24:1, cf. Joh 12:3; Joh 12:7), aromatic spices being added. (4) As an article of merchandise (Mat 25:9, Luk 16:6). In common and daily use, and to the Eastern one of the necessaries of life, oil played a large part in the home trade of Palestine (2Ki 4:7), and was, further, a most valuable export. We find special mention made of trading in oil with the Tyrians (Eze 27:17), who probably re-exported it, and with Egypt (Hos 12:1). It formed an important part of the supplies sent by Solomon to Hiram in return for the timber and other materials furnished for the building of the Temple (1Ki 5:11).

Hugh Duncan.

By: Emil G. Hirsch, Immanuel Löw

In the Bible olive-oil alone is mentioned, although it may be inferred from the expression "shemen zayit" that other oils were known. Oliveoil, like grain and wine, was one of the chief products of Palestine; and at an early period it was exported to Egypt and Phenicia, figuring also in the payments of tribute. It formed, moreover, a substitute for animal fats and butter, and was used not only for cosmetics, massage, and medicine, but also for the purposes of cooking and illumination. In early timesoil was kept in horns ("ḳeren"), but later in flasks and jars. It became an object of luxury, and typified wealth and fertility, while its smoothness metaphorically denoted flattery.

In the mishnaic period there were many varieties of oil (Tan., Beha'aloteka, ed. Buber, beginning), from sesame, radishes, nuts, colocynths, and the castor-oil plant (Shab. ii. 1-2; ib. Gemara 26a; Yer. Shab. 4d; Tosef., Shab. ii. 3-4). The best olive-oil came from Tekoa (probably the Galilean city), Giscala in Galilee, and Regeb in Perḳa. Oil was adulterated with the juice of the horn-poppy (Glaucium corniculatum Curt.); and special caution was necessary in buying it from the women of upper Galilee, although it might be purchased from children and slaves if they did not bring it secrétly. The best season for its sale was summer, although it was to be had at all times. The merchant was required to wash his measures once a week in order to maintain their accuracy.

Oil can not be used alone for food, but it is an invaluable adjunct in cooking, and is indispensable in the case of the Passover lamb. All manner of foods and drinks are prepared with its aid, and according to a haggadah (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." i. 444), the manna tasted like oil to the children of Israel (comp. Num. xviii. 8) and like food of meal, oil, and honey to the sick.

While the various sorts of oil enumerated above were used for illuminating purposes, R. Ṭarfon permitted only olive-oil for the festal lights on the Sabbath. Not only was oil employed for massage, in which respect its use was regarded as a pleasure forbidden during seasons of fasting and mourning, but it was also highly valued as a hygienic agency, especially in the case of wounds and eruptions, and as a gargle (Yoma viii. 1; ib. Gemara 76b). In ceremonial usage it found its most important application in Anointing, whence the Messiah received his title. Perfumed oil was also well known. The best was that which was mixed with balsam, while other varieties were of sesame-oil with various perfumes, including that of the rose. The holy oil of anointing, which could not be used for any profane purpose, was made by Moses in the desert, and was kept in the Holy of Holies, serving miraculously for the anointing of the Tabernacle and of all high priests and kings. Its place was taken in the Second Temple by perfumed oil (Ker. 5b; Tosef., Yoma, iii. 7).

The Halakah frequently mentions oil, which was forbidden to all non-Jews from the time of Daniel until the prohibition was officially abrogated by the patriarch Judah II., since the increased production and the mixed population of Galilee rendered this law a dead letter. Special regulations were connected with the blessing on taking oil, and on the oil of the heave-offering for the priest, the oil of the year of jubilee and of the various tithes, and the oil of sacrifice.

In the Haggadah the power and the use of oil are illustrated in many ways, of which the following examples may be quoted: "Ye shall take olive-oil to light the Temple as an atonement for your souls, which are like to lamps; not for my sake" (Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. 466). "The yoke of Sennacherib broke because of the oil which Hezekiah had lighted in the schools" (ib. p. 263). "As perfumed oil yields all manner of fragrance, so the Scriptures yield all manner of interpretations" (Cant. R. iv. 10). Korah regarded himself as a "son of oil" (), and as such destined to attain to the highest rank ("Ag. Pal. Amor." p. 370). The "sons of oil" are generally the scholars of Palestine (ib. p. 223). The oil (A. V. "ointment") of Cant. i. 3 is the light of redemption; and the verse "let thy head lack no ointment" (Eccl. ix. 8) refers to the honor conferred by the study of the Law (Bacher, "Ag. Tan." ii. 516); a single sin outweighs many of the most varied deeds of righteousness as a dead fly defiles fragrant ointment (ib. i. 413).

OIL.—With one exception (Est 2:12 ‘oil of myrrh’) all the Scripture references to oil are to ‘olive oil,’ as it is expressly termed in Exo 27:20, Lev 24:2 etc., according to the more correct rendering of RV [Note: Revised Version.] . Considering how very numerous these references are—some two hundred in all—it is surprising that there should be so few that throw light on the methods adopted in the preparation of this indispensable product of the olive tree.

1. Preparation of oil.—By combining these meagre references with the fuller data of the Mishna, as illustrated by the actual remains of oil-presses, either still above ground or recently recovered from the soil of Palestine, it is possible to follow with some minuteness the principal methods adopted. The olives were either shaken from the tree or beaten down by striking the branches with a light pole, as illustrated on Greek vases (illust. in Vigouroux, Dict. de la Bible, art. ‘Huile’). The latter method supplies Isaiah with a pathetic figure of Israel (Isa 17:6 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ).

The finest quality of oil was got by selecting the best berries before they were fully ripe. These were pounded in a mortar, after which the pulp was poured into a basket of rushes or wickerwork. From this, as a strainer, the liquid was allowed to run off into a receiving vessel. After the oil had floated and been purified, it formed ‘beaten oil,’ such as had to be provided for the lighting of the Tabernacle (Exo 27:20, Lev 24:2; cf. 1Ki 5:11 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ).

In the preparation of the oil required for ordinary domestic use, however, the methods adopted closely resembled those for the making of wine. Indeed, it is evident that the same apparatus served for the making both of wine and of oil (see Wine for the names of the parts, and note the phrase, Joe 2:24, ‘the fats [vats] shall overflow with wine and oil’). From evidence, literary and archæological, it is clear that there were various kinds of oil-presses in use in different periods. A very common, if not quite the simplest, type consisted of a shallow trough hewn in the native rock, from which, as in the similar, if not identical, wine-press, a conducting channel carried the expressed liquid to a slightly lower trough or oil-vat. In early times it appears as if a preliminary pressing was made with the feet alone (Mic 6:15).

In the absence of a suitable rock-surface, as would naturally be the case within a city of any antiquity, a solid block of limestone—circular, four-sided, and eight-sided (Megiddo) are the shapes recovered by recent explorers—was hollowed to the depth of a few inches, a rim being left all round save at one corner. Such presses were found at Taanach (illust. Sellin, Tell Ta‘annek, 61, reproduced in Benzinger’s Heb. Arch.² [1907] 144), and elsewhere. In these the olives were crushed by means of a large round stone. The liquid was either allowed to collect in a large cup-hollow in the surface of the trough, from which it was baled out by hand (PEFSt [Note: Quarterly Statement of the same.] , 1903, p. 112), or it was run off into a vessel placed at the corner above mentioned (see Sellin’s illust., and op. cit. 60 f., 93). At a later period, as we learn from the Mishna, a stone in the shape of the modern millstone was used. Through the centre a pole was inserted, by which it was made to revolve on its narrow side round the circular trough—a method still in use in Syria.

From the oil-mill, as this apparatus may be termed, the product of which naturally, after purification, produced the finer sort of oil, the pulp was transferred to the oil-press properly so called. Here it was placed in baskets piled one above the other. Pressure was then applied for the extraction of a second quality of oil, by means of a heavy wooden beam worked as a lever by ropes and heavy weights, or by a windlass. Details of the fittings of these ‘press-houses,’ as they are named in the Mishna, and of another type of press formed of two upright monoliths with a third laid across, the whole resembling the Gr. letter II, have been collected by the present writer in the art. ‘Oil’ in EBi [Note: Encyclopædia Biblica.] iii. 3467, and may now be controlled by the account of the elaborate underground ‘press-house’ described and illustrated by Bliss and Macalister in Excavations in Palestine, p. 208 f. and plate 92 (cf. ib. 196 f. and Index).

The expressed liquid, both from the oil-mill and from the oil-press, was collected either in a rock-cut vat or in separate jars. In these it was allowed to settle, when the oil rose to the top, leaving a bitter, watery liquid, the amurca of the Romans, and other refuse behind. Oil in this fresh state is distinguished in OT from the refined and purified product; the former is yitshâr, so frequently named along with ‘new wine’ or must (tîrôsh, see Wine, § 1) and corn as one of the chief products of Canaan; the latter is always shemen, but the distinction is not observed in our versions. The fresh oil or yitshâr was refined in the same manner as wine, by being poured from vessel to vessel, and was afterwards stored in jars and in skins. A smaller quantity for immediate use was kept in a small earthenware pot—the vial of 1Sa 10:1 and of 2Ki 9:1 RV [Note: Revised Version.] (AV [Note: Authorized Version.] ‘box’)—or in a horn (1Sa 16:1; 1Sa 16:13, 1Ki 1:39).

2. Uses of oil.—Foremost among what may be called the secular uses of oil may be placed its daily employment as a cosmetic, already dealt with under Anointing (see also Ointment). This was the oil that made the face to shine (Psa 104:15). As in all Eastern lands, oil was largely used in the preparation of food; familiarity with this use of it is presupposed in the comparison of the taste of the strange manna to that of the familiar ‘cakes baked with oil’ (Num 11:8 RVm [Note: Revised Version margin.] ; see, further, Meals, § 1. end). Oil was also indispensable for the lighting of the house after nightfall. In addition to the universal olive oil, the Mishna (Shabbath, ii. I f.) names a variety of other oils then in use, among them oil of sesame, fish oil, castor oil, and naphtha. That used in the Temple (1Ch 9:29) was no doubt of the finest quality, like the ‘beaten oil’ for the Tabernacle above described. The medicinal properties of oil were early recognized (Isa 1:5 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ); the Good Samaritan mixed his with wine (Luk 10:34), producing an antiseptic mentioned also in post-Biblical Jewish writings.

Oil has a prominent place in the ritual of the Priests’ Code, particularly in the preparation of the ‘meal-offering’ (Lev 2:1; Lev 2:4 etc.). It also appears in connexion with the leprosy-offering (Lev 14:10 ff.) and in other connexions, but is absent from the sin-offering (Lev 5:1 ff.) and the jealousy-offering (Num 5:11 ff.). For the special case of the ‘holy anointing oil’ (Exo 30:23-25), see Ointment.

As might have been expected from the extensive cultivation of the olive by the Hebrews, oil not only formed an important article of inland commerce, but was exported in large quantities both to the West, by way of Tyre (Eze 27:17), and to Egypt (Hos 12:1).

This abundance of oil furnished the Hebrew poets with a figure for material prosperity in general, as in Deu 33:24 ‘He shall dip his foot in oil.’ From its being in daily use to anoint the heads of one’s guests at a festive meal (Psa 23:5 etc.), oil became by association a symbol of joy and gladness (Psa 45:7 = Heb 1:9, Isa 61:3).

A. R. S. Kennedy.

oil (שמן, shemen; ἔλαιον, élaion):

1.    Terms

2.    Production and Storage

3.    Uses

(1)    As a Commodity of Exchange

(2)    As a Cosmetic

(3)    As a Medicine

(4)    As a Food

(5)    As an Illuminant

(6)    In Religious Rites

(a)    Consecration

(b)    Offerings

(c)    Burials

4.    Figurative Uses

Shemen, literally, “fat,” corresponds to the common Arabic senin of similar meaning, although now applied to boiled butter fat.

1. Terms:

Another Hebrew word, zayith (zēth), “olive,” occurs with shemen in several passages (Exo 27:20; Exo 30:24; Lev 24:2). The corresponding Arabic zeit, a contraction of zeitun, which is the name for the olive tree as well as the fruit, is now applied to oils in general, to distinguish them from solid fats. Zeit usually means olive oil, unless some qualifying name indicates another oil. A corresponding use was made of shemen, and the oil referred to so many times in the Bible was olive oil (except Est 2:12). Compare this with the Greek ἔλαιον, élaion, “oil,” a neuter noun from ἐλαία, elaı́a, “olive,” the origin of the English word “oil.” יצהר, yichār, literally, “glistening,” which occurs less frequently, is used possibly because of the light-giving quality of olive oil, or it may have been used to indicate fresh oil, as the clean, newly pressed oil is bright. משׁח, m^eshaḥ, a Chaldaic word, occurs twice: Ezr 6:9; Ezr 7:22. ἔλαιον, élaion, is the New Testament term.

2. Production and Storage:

Olive oil has been obtained, from the earliest times, by pressing the fruit in such a way as to filter out the oil and other liquids from the residue. The Scriptural references correspond so nearly to the methods practiced in Syria up to the present time, and the presses uncovered by excavators at such sites as Gezer substantiate so well the similarity of these methods, that a description of the oil presses and modes of expression still being employed in Syria will be equally true of those in use in early Israelite times.

The olives to yield the greatest amount of oil are allowed to ripen, although some oil is expressed from the green fruit. As the olive ripens it turns black. The fruit begins to fall from the trees in September, but the main crop is gathered after the first rains in November. The olives which have not fallen naturally or have not been blown off by the storms are beaten from the trees with long poles (compare Deu 24:20). The fruit is gathered from the ground into baskets and carried on the heads of the women, or on donkeys to the houses or oil presses. Those carried to the houses are preserved for eating. Those carried to the presses are piled in heaps until fermentation begins. This breaks down the oil cells and causes a more abundant flow of oil. The fruit thus softened may be trod out with the feet (Mic 6:15) - which is now seldom practiced - or crushed in a handmill. Such a mill was uncovered at Gezer beside an oil press. Stone mortars with wooden pestles are also used. Any of these methods crushes the fruit, leaving only the stone unbroken, and yields a purer oil (Exo 27:20). The method now generally practiced of crushing the fruit and kernels with an edgerunner mill probably dates from Roman times. These mills are of crude construction. The stones are cut from native limestone and are turned by horses or mules. Remains of huge stones of this type are found near the old Roman presses in Mt. Lebanon and other districts.

The second step in the preparation of the oil is the expression. In districts where the olives are plentiful and there is no commercial demand for the oil, the householders crush the fruit in a mortar, mix the crushed mass with water, and after the solid portions have had time to settle, the pure sweet oil is skimmed from the surface of the water. This method gives a delicious oil, but is wasteful. This is no doubt the beaten oil referred to in connection with religious ceremonials (Exo 27:20). Usually the crushed fruit is spread in portions on mats of reeds or goats’ hair, the corners of which are folded over the mass, and the packets thus formed are piled one upon another between upright supports. These supports were formerly two stone columns or the two sections of a split stone cylinder hollowed out within to receive the mats. Large hollow tree trunks are still similarly used in Syria. A flat stone is next placed on top, and then a heavy log is placed on the pile in such a manner that one end can be fitted into a socket made in a wall or rock in close proximity to the pile. This socket becomes the fulcrum of a large lever of the second class. The lever is worked in the same manner as that used in the wine presses (see WINE PRESS). These presses are now being almost wholly superseded by hydraulic presses. The juice which runs from the press, consisting of oil, extractive matter and water, is conducted to vats or run into jars and allowed to stand until the oil separates. The oil is then drawn off from the surface, or the watery fluid and sediment is drawn away through a hole near the bottom of the jar, leaving the oil in the container. (For the construction of the ancient oil presses, see The Excavations of Gezer, by Macalister.) The oil, after standing for some time to allow further sediment to settle, is stored either in huge earthenware jars holding 100 to 200 gallons, or in underground cisterns (compare 1Ch 27:28) holding a much larger quantity. Some of these cisterns in Beirut hold several tons of oil each (2Ch 11:11; 2Ch 32:28; Neh 13:5, Neh 13:12; Pro 21:20). In the homes the oil is kept in small earthen jars of various shapes, usually having spouts by which the oil can be easily poured (1Ki 17:12; 2Ki 4:2). In 1Sa 16:13; 1Ki 1:39, horns of oil are mentioned.

3. Uses:

(1) As a Commodity of Exchange.

Olive oil when properly made and stored will keep sweet for years, hence, was a good form of merchandise to hold. Oil is still sometimes given in payment (1Ki 5:11; Eze 27:17; Hos 12:1; Luk 16:6; Rev 18:13).

(2) As a Cosmetic.

From earliest times oil was used as a cosmetic, especially for oiling the limbs and head. Oil used in this way was usually scented (see OINTMENT). Oil is still used in this manner by the Arabs, principally to keep the skin and scalp soft when traveling in dry desert regions where there is no opportunity to bathe. Sesame oil has replaced olive oil to some extent for this purpose. Homer, Pliny and other early writers mention its use for external application. Pliny claimed it was used to protect the body against the cold. Many Biblical references indicate the use of oil as a cosmetic (Exo 25:6; Deu 28:40; Rth 3:3; 2Sa 12:20; 2Sa 14:2; Est 2:12; Psa 23:5; Psa 92:10; Psa 104:15; Psa 141:5; Eze 16:9; Mic 6:15; Luk 7:46).

(3) As a Medicine.

From early Egyptian literature down to late Arabic medical works, oil is mentioned as a valuable remedy. Many queer prescriptions contain olive oil as one of their ingredients. The good Samaritan used oil mingled with wine to dress the wounds of the man who fell among robbers (Mar 6:13; Luk 10:34.)

(4) As a Food.

Olive oil replaces butter to a large extent in the diet of the people of the Mediterranean countries. In Bible lands food is fried in it, it is added to stews, and is poured over boiled vegetables, such as beans, peas and lentils, and over salads, sour milk, cheese and other foods as a dressing. A cake is prepared from ordinary bread dough which is smeared with oil and sprinkled with herbs before baking (Lev 2:4). At times of fasting oriental Christians use only vegetable oils, usually olive oil, for cooking. For Biblical references to the use of oil as food see Num 11:8; Deu 7:13; Deu 14:23; Deu 32:13; 1Ki 17:12, 1Ki 17:14, 1Ki 17:16; 2Ki 4:2, 2Ki 4:6, 2Ki 4:7; 1Ch 12:40; 2Ch 2:10, 2Ch 2:15; Ezr 3:7; Pro 21:17; Eze 16:13, Eze 16:18; Hos 2:5, Hos 2:8, Hos 2:22; Hag 2:12; Rev 6:6.

(5) As an Illuminant.

Olive oil until recent years was universally used for lighting purposes (see LAMP). In Palestine are many homes where a most primitive form of lamp similar to those employed by the Israelites is still in use. The prejudice in favor of the exclusive use of olive oil for lighting holy places is disappearing. Formerly any other illuminant was forbidden (compare Exo 25:6; Exo 27:20; Exo 35:8, Exo 35:14, Exo 35:28; Exo 39:37; Mat 25:3, Mat 25:4, Mat 25:8).

(6) In Religious Rites.

(A) Consecration:

Consecration of officials or sacred things (Gen 28:18; Gen 35:14; Exo 29:7, Exo 29:21 ff; Lev 2:1 ff; Num 4:9 ff; 1Sa 10:1; 1Sa 16:1, 1Sa 16:13; 2Sa 1:21; 1Ki 1:39; 2Ki 9:1, 2Ki 9:3, 2Ki 9:1; Psa 89:20): This was adopted by the early Christians in their ceremonies (Jas 5:14), and is still used in the consecration of crowned rulers and church dignitaries.

(B) Offerings:

Offerings, votive and otherwise: The custom of making offerings of oil to holy places still survives in oriental religions. One may see burning before the shrines along a Syrian roadside or in the churches, small lamps whose supply of oil is kept renewed by pious adherents. In Israelite times oil was used in the meal offering, in the consecration offerings, offerings of purification from leprosy, etc. (Exo 29:2; Exo 40:9 ff; Lev 2:2 ff; Num 4:9 ff; Deu 18:4; 1Ch 9:29; 2Ch 31:5; Neh 10:37, Neh 10:39; Neh 13:5, Neh 13:12; Eze 16:18, Eze 16:19; 45; 46; Mic 6:7).

(C) Burials:

In connection with the burial of the dead: Egyptian papyri mention this use. In the Old Testament no direct mention is made of the custom. Jesus referred to it in connection with His own burial (Mat 26:12; Mar 14:3-8; Luk 23:56; Joh 12:3-8; Joh 19:40).

4. Figurative Uses:

Abundant oil was a figure of general prosperity (Deu 32:13; Deu 33:24; 2Ki 18:32; Job 29:6; Joe 2:19, Joe 2:24). Languishing of the oil indicated general famine (Joe 1:10; Hag 1:11). Joy is described as the oil of joy (Isa 61:3), or the oil of gladness (Psa 45:7; Heb 1:9). Ezekiel prophesies that the rivers shall run like oil, i.e. become viscous (Eze 32:14). Words of deceit are softer than oil (Psa 55:21; Pro 5:3). Cursing becomes a habit with the wicked as readily as oil soaks into bones (Psa 109:18). Excessive use of oil indicates wastefulness (Pro 21:17), while the saving of it is a characteristic of the wise (Pro 21:20). Oil was carried into Egypt, i.e. a treaty was made with that country (Hos 12:1).

Lev 14:16 (c) This is no doubt a type of the Holy Spirit Himself.

- it was to be applied to the ear so that the hearing would be entirely Godward, and for the Word of GOD.

- it was applied to the thumb for the work of the priest was to be for GOD in the power of the Spirit.

- it was to be applied to the toe, for his walk was to be with GOD, and before GOD, walking in the Spirit. (See Lev 14:28).

Num 6:15 (c) In this passage the oil again seems to represent the Holy Spirit actuating the life, filling the soul, and especially the coming of the Spirit upon the Lord JESUS CHRIST.

Deu 32:13 (b) It is quite evident in this passage that the oil again represents the Holy Spirit given from and by the Lord JESUS CHRIST, who is the eternal Rock of ages.

Deu 33:24 (b) This probably represents a smooth, fragrant and delightful walk in the Spirit of GOD by this great man of GOD. An impression would be left behind at each step. So the Spirit-filled man leaves behind him fragrant impressions of his walk with the Lord in the Spirit.

2Ki 4:2 (c) Probably this represents the blessings of GOD which He pours out upon the man or the woman of faith in order that the needs of the life may be met.

Job 29:6 (b) This is an indication of the great wealth and opportunity enjoyed by Job when he lived in prosperity and peace.

Psa 23:5 (b) This is emblematic of the blessed experience of the believer in which the Spirit of GOD anoints him for effective service, as a king and as a priest.

Psa 141:5 (a) By this type we understand the sweet, refreshing effect of the kindly counsel of a godly friend.

Isa 61:3 (b) The joy of heart, the freedom of soul, and the radiance of spirit are compared to oil because of its sweetness, smoothness and value.

Mat 25:4 (b) This probably indicates the presence and power of the Holy Spirit in the believer’s life.

Luk 10:34 (c) It may be that the oil represents the kind, sweet comforting words that were spoken, and the wine represents the courage and the new hope brought to the heart of this wounded man. It may be that both of these refer to the healing power and the strengthening power of the Holy Spirit, and (or) the Word of GOD.

Heb 1:9 (b) This describes the blessed anointing of CHRIST to be both Lord and Saviour, High Priest and King. The King and the Priest were both inducted into office by this anointing from GOD.

In most cases the oil that the Bible mentions is olive oil. Olive trees were grown extensively in Palestine, and Israel exported oil to other countries (1Ki 5:11; Eze 27:17; Hos 12:1). Other fruits and plants were also a source of oil. Workers obtained the oil by crushing the fruit, flowers or leaves. This was sometimes done through grinding the substance, using either a thick stick in a bowl or a stone roller in a hollowed out rock. Sometimes the oil was trodden out in a press, other times squeezed out from a sack by twisting it with sticks (Exo 27:20; Deu 33:24; Mic 6:15).

People used oils in the preparation of food (Exo 29:2; Lev 2:4; 1Ki 17:12-14), as fuels for lamps (Exo 27:20; Zec 4:2-3; Zec 4:12; Mat 25:3-4), as medicines and ointments (Isa 1:6; Luk 10:34), as cosmetics (2Sa 14:2; Est 2:12; Psa 104:15; Song of Son 1:12; Son 5:5) and for rubbing on the body to bring soothing and refreshment (Rth 3:3; 2Sa 12:20; Amo 6:6; Luk 7:37-38; Joh 12:3). The use of oil in anointing the sick may have had some medicinal purpose, but its chief significance may have been symbolic, demonstrating faith (Mar 6:13; Jas 5:14).

The custom of anointing a person’s head with oil was an ancient way of showing the person honour (Mar 14:3). This was particularly so when a host welcomed a special guest (Psa 23:5). On festive occasions anointing contributed to the joy and merriment of the occasion. As a result oil, like wine, became a symbol of rejoicing (Psa 45:7; Psa 104:15; Isa 61:3; Joe 1:10).

Besides being widely used in Israel’s everyday life, oil was frequently used in its religious rituals. It was part of some sacrifices (Exo 29:2; Exo 29:40; Lev 8:26; Num 6:15; Num 7:19), was offered as both firstfruits and tithes (Exo 22:29; Deu 12:17), was used as fuel for the tabernacle lamp (Exo 27:20) and was put on people in certain ceremonies (Lev 14:10-18).

Oil was used to anoint priests, kings and at times prophets, to symbolize their setting apart for God’s service and their appointment to office (Exo 28:41; 1Sa 10:1; Psa 89:20-21; 1Ki 1:39; 1Ki 19:16; Zec 4:11-14). It was used also to anoint things that were set apart for sacred use, such as the tabernacle and its equipment (Exo 40:9-11). The oil used to anoint the priests and the tabernacle was prepared according to a special formula, which was not to be used for any other purpose (Exo 30:23-33; cf. Psa 133:2). (See also ANOINTING; SPICES.)