Wine

A symbol of spiritual blessings. See FRUITS OF THE EARTH.

The Egyptian Interpreter, in ch. 198., says, "sharp sour wine denotes bitterness and affliction in pro­portion to the sourness or sharpness of the wine." And again, "If any dream of drinking an unusual unpleasant liquor, it denotes bitterness or affliction in proportion to its unpleasantness."

Wine mixed with bitter ingredients, was usually given to malefactors, when they were going to be put to death. And therefore by a metonymy of the adjunct, the mixed bitter cup,of wine is the symbol of torment or death; as in Psa 75:8, and in Mat 26:39, "Father, let this cup pass from me." And, as the evil which happens to men is the effect of God’s justice and severity, and the good which happens to them, the effect of his bounty and good­ness; therefore, in the Sacred Writings, as the one is represented by a cup of wrath; so is the other under the symbol of a cup of salvation,^f1 and of drinking of the river of pleasures,^f2 at the right hand of God.^f3 And thus in Homer Jupiter is represented as having by him two vessels, distributing to mortals good out of the one, and evil out of the other. The passage is in the last book of the Iliad, and thus translated by Mr. Pope;

Two urns by Jove’s high throne have ever stood,

The source of evil one, and one of good;

From thence the cup of mortal man he fills,

Blessings to these, to those distributes ills;

To most he mingles both. The wretch decreed

To taste the bad unmixed is cursed indeed;

Pursued by wrongs, by meagre famine driven,

He wanders, outcast both of earth and heaven,

The happiest taste not happiness sincere,

But find the cordial draught is dashed with care."

Wine mixed with powerful intoxicating ingredients is the symbol of Divine wrath, as in Psa 75:8; "In the hand of the Lord there is a cup, and the wine is red; it is full of mixture." To drink of this cup, is to become the object of God’s judgments, as in Isa 51:17; Jer 25:15-17; Psa 60:3; Lam 4:21; Rev 14:10.

F1 Psa 116:13.

F2 Psa 36:8.

F3 Psa 16:11.

Wine in Scripture is frequently put for some choice thing. Thus when Jesus wrought his first miracle in Cana of Galilee, in turning the water into wine; as this set forth the glories of his person and righteousness, it might be truly said the gospel then preached, compared to all former revelations, was keeping the best wine to the last; (John 2: 11, 12.) and hence the gospel itself is called wine on the lees well refined. (Isaiah xxv. 6.) But the sweetest commendation of Jesus and his gospel, is that which under the similitude of wine is given by the spouse, (Song i. 2.) where she desires to be kissed with the kisses of Jesus’s mouth, for, said she, thy love is better than wine. And for this self - evident reason. Wine no doubt is a delightful cordial, and properly used will tend, under the devine blessing, to revive a poor sick and sorrowful heart. But never was it known to do what Christ’s love hath done, to raise a sinner dead in trespasses and sins. Oh, precious love of a most precious Saviour! Surely here every one must allow that Jesus’s love is better than wine. Here the largest draughts can never injure as the juice of the grape; but as Jesus gives, so may souls receive the largest portions, not only unhurt, but more blessed. His language is: "Eat, O friends: drink, yea, drink abundantly, O beloved!" (Song v. 1.)

יין , Gen 19:32, οινος, Mat 9:17, a liquor expressed from grapes. The art of refining wine upon the lees was known to the Jews. The particular process, as it is now practised in the island of Cyprus, is described in Mariti’s Travels. The wine is put immediately from the vat into large vases of potters’ ware, pointed at the bottom, till they are nearly full, when they are covered tight and buried. At the end of a year what is designed for sale is drawn into wooden casks. The dregs in the vases are put into wooden casks destined to receive wine, with as much of the liquor as is necessary to prevent them from becoming dry before use. Casks thus prepared are very valuable. When the wine a year old is put in, the dregs rise, and make it appear muddy, but afterward they subside and carry down all the other feculences. The dregs are so much valued that they are not sold with the wine in the vase, unless particularly mentioned.

The “new wine,” or “must,” is mentioned, Isa 49:26; Joe 1:5; Joe 3:18; and Amo 9:13, under the name עסיס . The “mixed wine,” ממסד , Pro 23:30; and in Isa 65:11; rendered “drink- offering,” may mean wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of higher and more powerful ingredients, such as honey, spices, defrutum, or wine inspissated by boiling it down, myrrh, mandragora, and other strong drugs. Thus the drunkard is properly described as one that seeketh “mixed wine,” Pro 23:30, and is mighty to “mingle strong drink,” Isa 5:22; and hence the psalmist took that highly poetical and sublime image of the cup of God’s wrath, called by Isa 51:17, “the cup of trembling,” containing: as St. John expresses it, Rev 14:10, pure wine made yet stronger by a mixture of powerful ingredients: “In the hand of Jehovah is a cup, and the wine is turbid; it is full of a mixed liquor, and he poureth out of it,” or rather, “he poureth it out of one vessel into another,” to mix it perfectly; “verily the dregs thereof,” the thickest sediment of the strong ingredients mingled with it, “all the ungodly of the earth shall wring them out, and drink them.” “Spiced wine,” Son 8:2, was wine rendered more palatable and fragrant with aromatics. This was considered as a great delicacy. Spiced wines were not peculiar to the Jews. Hafiz speaks of wines “richly bitter, richly sweet.”

The Romans lined their vessels, amphorae, with odorous gums, to give the wine a warm bitter flavour: and the orientals now use the admixture of spices to give their wines a favourite relish. The “wine of Helbon,”

Eze 27:18, was an excellent kind of wine, known to the ancients by the name of chalibonium vinum. It was made at Damascus; the Persians had planted vineyards there on purpose, says Posidosius, quoted, by Athenaeus. This author says that the kings of Persia used no other wine.

Hos 14:7, mentions the wine of Lebanon. The wines from the vineyards on that mount are even to this day in repute; but some think that this may mean a sweet-scented wine, or wine flavoured with fragrant gums.

No fewer than thirteen distinct Hebrew and Greek terms are rendered in our common version by the word ’wine.’ Besides the pure juice of the grape, frequent mention is made in Scripture of a kind of boiled wine or syrup, the thickness of which rendered it necessary to mingle water with it previously to drinking (Pro 9:2; Pro 9:5), and also of a mixed wine, made strong and inebriating by the addition of drugs, such as myrrh, mandragora, and opiates (Pro 23:30; Isa 5:22). This custom has prevailed from the earliest ages, and is still extant in the East. We are not, however, to conclude that all mixed wine was pernicious or improper. There were two very opposite purposes sought by the mixture of drinks. While the wicked sought out a drugged mixture, and was ’mighty to mingle strong drink,’ Wisdom, on the contrary, mingled her wine with water or with milk (Pro 9:2; Pro 9:5) merely to dilute it and make it properly drinkable. Of the latter mixture Wisdom invites the people to drink freely, but on the use of the former an emphatic woe is pronounced. In Isa 25:6, mention is made of ’wines on the lees.’ The original signifies ’preserves’ or ’jellies,’ and is supposed to refer to the wine cakes which are esteemed a great delicacy in the East.

The vine being natural to the soil of Canaan and its vicinity, wine was much used as a beverage, especially at festivals, Gen 1:7 5:6 Da 5:1-4 Joh 2:3 . As one of the staple products of the Holy Land, it was employed for drink-offerings in the temple service, Exo 20:26 Num 15:4-10 ; it was included among the "first-fruits," Deu 18:4, and was used in the celebration of the Passover, and subsequently of the Lord’s supper, Mat 26:27-29 . Together with corn and oil it denoted all temporal supplies, Psa 4:7 Hos 2:8 Joe 2:19 .\par The word "wine" in our Bible is the translation of as many as ten different Hebrew words and two Greek words, most of which occur in but a few instances. The two most frequently used, Yayin and its Greek equivalent Oinos, are general terms for all sorts of wine, Neh 5:18 . Without minute details on this subject, we may observe that "wine" in Scripture denotes,\par 1. The pure juice of the grape, fermented, and therefore more or less intoxicating, but free from drugs of any kind, and not strengthened by distilled liquors.\par 2. Must, the fresh juice of the grape, unfermented or in process of fermentation. For this the Hebrew employs the word tirosh, English version, new wine. Wine, as a product of agriculture, is commonly mentioned by this name along with corn and oil, Gen 40:11 Exo 22:29 Deu 32:14 Luk 5:37-38 \par 3. Honey of wine, made by boiling down must to one-fourth of its bulk. This commonly goes, in the Old Testament, by the name debhash, honey; and only the context can enable us to determine whether honey of grapes or of bees is to be understood, Num 18:12 Pro 9:2,5 \par 4. Spiced wine, made stronger and more inviting to the taste by the admixture of spices and other drugs, Son 8:2 5. Strong drink, Hebrew shechar. This word sometimes denotes pure strong wine, as Num 28:7 ; or drugged wine, as Isa 5:22 ; but more commonly wine made from dates, honey, etc., and generally made more inebriating by being mingled with drugs.\par See also, in connection with this article, FLAGON, MYRRH, and VINEGAR.\par The "wine of Helbon" was made in the vicinity of Damascus, and sent from that city to Tyre, Eze 27:19 . It resembled the "wine of Lebanon," famous for its excellence and fragrance, Hos 14:7 . See HELBON.\par Great efforts have been made to distinguish the harmless from the intoxicating wines of Scripture, and to show that inspiration has in all cases approved the former alone, and condemned the latter, directly or indirectly. It is not necessary, however, to do this in order to demonstrate that so far as the use of wine leads to inebriation it is pointedly condemned by the word of God. Son and shame are connected with the first mention of wine in the Bible, and with many subsequent cases, Gen 9:20 19:31-36 1Sa 25:36-37 2Sa 13:28 1Ki 20:12-21 Gen 1:10-11 Dan 5:23 Jer 17:2 . It is characterized as a deceitful mocker, Pro 21:1 ; as fruitful in miseries, Pro 23:29-35 ; in woes, Isa 5:22 ; in errors, Isa 28:1-7 ; and in impious folly, Isa 5:11,12 56:12 Ho 4 11.\par The use of it is in some cases expressly forbidden, Lev 10:9 Num 6:3 ; and in other cases is alluded to as characteristic of the wicked, Joe 3:3 1Sa 6:6 . Numerous cautions to beware of it are given, 1Sa 1:14 Pro 23:31 31:4-5 1Ti 3:3 ; and to tempt other to use it is in one passage made the occasion of a bitter curse, Hab 2:15 . On the other hand, whatever approval was given in Palestine to the moderate use of wine, can hardly apply to a country where wine is an imported or manufactured article, often containing not a drop of the juice of the grape; or if genuine and not compounded with drugs, still enforced with distilled spirits. The whole state of the case, moreover, is greatly modified by the discovery of the process of distilling alcohol, and by the prevalence of appalling evils now inseparable from the general use of any intoxicating drinks. Daniel and the Rechabites saw good reason for total abstinence from wine, Jer 35:14 Dan 1:8 ; and the sentiment of Paul, on a mater involving the same principles, is divinely commended to universal adoption, 1Ch 14:21 1Co 8:13 .\par For "wine-press," see PRESS, and VINE.\par

Wine. The manufacture of wine is carried back in the Bible to the age of Noah, Gen 9:20-21, to whom the discovery of the process is apparently, though not explicitly, attributed. The natural history and culture of the vine are described under a separate heading. See Vine. The only other plant whose fruit is noticed as having been converted into wine was the pomegranate. Son 8:2.

In Palestine, the vintage takes place in September, and is celebrated with great rejoicing. The ripe fruit was gathered in baskets, Jer 6:9, as represented in Egyptian paintings, and was carried to the wine-press. It was then placed in the upper one of the two vats or receptacles of which the winepress was formed, and was subjected to the process of "treading," which has prevailed in all ages in Oriental and south European countries. Neh 13:15; Job 24:11; Isa 18:10; Jer 25:30; Jer 48:33; Amo 9:13; Rev 19:15.

A certain amount of juice exuded from the ripe fruit from its own pressure before treading commenced. This appears to have been kept separate from the rest of the juice, and to have formed the "sweet wine" noticed in Act 2:13. [See below.] The "treading" was effected by one or more men, according to the size of the vat. They encouraged one another by shouts. Isa 16:9-10; Jer 25:30; Jer 248:33.

Their legs and garments were dyed red with the juice. Gen 40:11; Isa 63:2-3. The expressed juice escaped by an aperture into the lower vat, or was at once collected in vessels. A hand-press was occasionally used in Egypt, but we have no notice of such an instrument in the Bible.

As to the subsequent treatment of the wine, we have but little information. Sometimes it was preserved in its unfermented state and drunk as must, but more generally, it was bottled off after fermentation and if it were designed to be kept for some time, a certain amount of lees was added to give it body. Isa 25:6 The wine consequently required to be "refined" or strained previous to being brought to table. Isa 25:6.

To wine, is attributed the "darkly-flashing eye," Gen 40:12, Authorized Version, "red," the unbridled tongue, Pro 20:1; Isa 28:7, the excitement of the spirit, Pro 31:6; Isa 5:11; Zec 9:15; Zec 10:7, the enchained affections of its votaries, Hos 4:11, the perverted judgment, Pro 31:5; Isa 28:7, the indecent exposure, Hab 2:15-16, and the sickness resulting from the heat (chemah, Authorized Version, "bottles") of wine. Hos 7:5.

The allusions to the effects of new wine, tirosh, are confined to a single passage, but this a most decisive one, namely, Hos 4:11. "Whoredom and wine (yayin) and new wine (tirosh) take away the heart," where tirosh appears as the climax of engrossing influences, in immediate connection with yayin.

It has been disputed whether the Hebrew wine was fermented; but the impression produced on the mind by a general review of the above notices is that the Hebrew words indicating wine refer to fermented, intoxicating wine. The notices of fermentation are not very decisive.

A certain amount of fermentation is implied in the distension of the leather bottles when new wine was placed in them, and which was liable to burst old bottles. It is very likely that new wine was preserved in the state of must by placing it in jars or bottles and then burying it in the earth.

The mingling that we read of, in conjunction with wine, may have been designed either to increase or to diminish the strength of the wine, according as spices or water formed the ingredient that was added. The notices chiefly favor the former view; for mingled liquor was prepared for high festivals, Pro 9:2; Pro 9:5, and occasions of excess. Pro 23:30; Isa 5:22.

At the same time, strength was not the sole object sought; the wine "mingled with myrrh," given to Jesus, was designed to deaden pain, Mar 15:23, and the spiced pomegranate wine prepared by the bride, Son 8:2, may well have been of a mild character.

In the New Testament, the character of the "sweet wine," noticed in Act 2:13, calls for some little remark. It could not be new wine, in the proper sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight months must have elapsed between the vintage and the Feast of Pentecost. The explanations of the ancient lexicographers rather lead us to infer that its luscious qualities were due, not to its being recently made, but to its being produced from the very purest juice of the grape.

There can be little doubt that the wines of Palestine varied in quality, and were named after the localities in which they were made. The only wines of which we have special notice, belonged to Syria, these were the wine of Helbon Eze 27:18, and the wine of Lebanon, famed for its aroma. Hos 14:7.

With regard to the uses of wine in private life, there is little to remark. It was produced on occasions of ordinary hospitality, Gen 14:18, and at festivals, such as marriages. Joh 2:3.

Under the Mosaic law, wine formed the usual drink offering that accompanied the daily sacrifice, Exo 29:40, the presentation of the first-fruits, Lev 23:13, and other offerings. Num 15:5.

Tithe was to be paid of wine, as of other products. The priest was also to receive first-fruits of wine, as of other articles. Deu 18:4. Compare Exo 22:29. The use of wine at the Paschal Feast was not enjoined by the law, but had become an established custom, at all events in the post-Babylonian period. The wine was mixed with warm water on these occasions.

Hence, in the early Christian Church, it was usual to mix the sacramental wine with water. (The simple wines of antiquity were incomparably less deadly than the stupefying and ardent beverages of our western nations. The wines of antiquity were more like sirups; many of them were not intoxicant; many more intoxicant in a small degree; and all of them, as a rule, taken only when largely diluted with water. They contained, even undiluted, but 4 or 5 percent of alcohol. -- Cannon Farrar).

Tirosh is the most general term for "vintage fruit," put in connection with "corn and oil," necessaries (dagan, yitshar, rather more generally the produce of the field and the orchard) and ordinary articles of diet in Palestine. It occurs 38 times, namely, six times by itself, eleven times with dagan, twice with yitshar, nineteen times with both dagan and yitshar. Besides, it is seven times with "firstfruits," ten times with "tithes" or "offerings" of fruits and grain; very rarely with terms expressing the process of preparing fruits or vegetable produce. Yayin is the proper term for "wine." In Mic 6:15, "thou shalt tread ... sweet wine (tirowsh, vintage fruit), but shalt not drink wine," the vintage fruit, that which is trodden, is distinguished from the manufactured "wine" which it yields.

Tirowh is never combined with shemen "oil"; nor yitshar, "orchard produce," with "wine" the manufactured article. In Deu 11:14, "gather in thy grain, wine" (tirosh), it is described as a solid thing, eaten in Deu 12:7; compare 2Ch 31:5-6. In Isa 65:8 "the tirowsh (vintage) is found in the cluster"; Isa 62:8-9, "the stranger shall not drink thy tirowsh, but they that have gathered it ... and brought it together (verbs hardly applicable to a liquid) shall drink it." Pro 3:10, "presses ... burst out with tirowsh"; and Joe 2:24, "fats shall overflow with tirowsh (vintage fruit) and yitshar."

Deu 14:22-26, "tithe of tirowsh," not merely of wine but of the vintage fruit. Scripture denounces the abuse of yayin, "wine." Hos 4:11, "whoredom, wine, and tirowsh take away the heart": the tirowsh is denounced not as evil in itself, but as associated with whoredom to which wine and grape cakes were stimulants; compare Hos 3:1, "love pressed cakes of dried grapes" (not "flagons of wine"): Eze 16:49. Yayin, from a root "boil up," is the extract from the grape, whether simple grape juice unfermented, or intoxicating wine; related to the Greek oinos, Latin vinum. Vinum, vitis, are thought related to Sanskrit we, "weave," viere. Chamar is the Chaldee equivalent to Hebrew yayin, the generic term for grape liquor.

It literally, means "to foam" (Deu 32:14, "the blood of the grape, even wine," not "pure"): Ezr 6:9; Ezr 7:22; Dan 5:1; Isa 27:2. ’asis, from a root to "tread," the grape juice newly expressed (Son 8:2); "sweet wine" (Isa 49:26; Amo 9:13); "new wine" (Joe 1:5; Joe 3:18). Mesek; Psa 75:8, translated"the wine is fermenting (’foaming with wine,’ Hengstenberg), it is full of mixture," i.e. spiced wine, the more intoxicating, expressing the stupefying effect of God’s judgments (Pro 9:2; Pro 23:30). Mezeg (Son 8:2), "spiced ... mixed wine," not as KJV "liquor"; compare Rev 14:10.

Shekar (sikera in Luk 1:15), "strong wine," "strong drink," (Num 28:7; Psa 69:12 drinkers of shekar,") including palm wine, pomegranate wine, apple wine, honey wine; our "sugar" may be a cognate word to shekar, syrup. Sobe’, related to Latin sapa, "must boiled down" (Lees), rather from a root "soak" or "drink to excess." Isa 1:22, "thy sobe’ is circumcised with water," i.e. diluted (implying that strength rather than sweetness characterized sobe’); the prophet glances at their tendency to rely on the outward circumcision without the inward spirit, the true wine of the ordinance. The Latin sapa answers rather to Hebrew debash, Arabic dabs, grape juice boiled down to the consistency of honey (Gen 43:11; Eze 27:17).

Nah 1:10, Hebrew "soaked" or "drunken as with their own wine." Hos 4:13, chomets, "vinegar" or sour wine, such as the posca which the Roman soldiers drank, and such as was offered to Jesus on the cross (Psa 69:22). Instead of "flagons," ’ashishah ought to be translated "grape cakes" (2Sa 6:19; Hos 3:1, etc.). In Hos 4:18 "their drink is sour," i.e. they are utterly degenerate (Isa 1:22); else, they are as licentious as drunkards who smell sour with wine. But Maurer,"(no sooner) is their drinking over (than) they commit whoredoms." The effects of yayin, "red eyes" (Gen 49:12); producing "mockers" of God and man (Pro 20:1); causing error of judgment out of the way (Isa 28:7); but a restorative cordial where stimulants are needed (Pro 31:6).

Jdg 9:13, "wine ... cheereth God and man"; the vine represents here the nobler families who promote the nation’s prosperity in a way pleasing to God and man (Psa 103:15). God is well pleased with the sacrificial oblations of wine (Lev 15:5; Lev 15:7; Lev 15:10) offered in faith. Externally applied to wounds (Luk 10:34). 1Ti 5:23, "use a little wine for thy stomach’s sake." Bringing woe to followers of strong drink, which inflames them from early to late day (Isa 5:12; Act 2:15; 1Th 5:7). Noisy shouting (Zec 9:15; Zec 10:7), rejoicing, taking away the understanding (Hos 4:11). Causing indecent exposure of the person, as Noah (Gen 9:22; Hab 2:15-16). Therefore "woe unto him that giveth his neighbour drink, that puttest thy bottle to him."

Producing sickness (Hos 7:5), "princes made him sick with bottles (else owing to the heat) of wine." Scripture condemns the abuse, not the use, of wine. In condemnatory passages no hint is given of there being an unfermented wine to which the condemnation does not apply. The bursting of the leather bottles (Mat 9:17) implies fermentation of the wine; so also Job 32:19. The wine was drawn off probably before fermentation was complete. In Pro 23:31 "when it giveth its eye (i.e. sparkle, Hebrew) in the cup," the reference is to the gas bubble in fermentation. The "sweet wine" (Act 2:13; Act 2:15) was evidently intoxicating; not "new wine," for eight months had elapsed since the previous vintage; its sweet quality was due to its being made of the purest grape juice. In Gen 40:11 the pressing of the grape juice into Pharaoh’s cup is no proof that fermented wine was unknown then in Egypt; nay, the monuments represent the fermenting process in the earliest times.

Plutarch’s statement (Isid. 6) only means that before Psammeticus the priests restricted themselves to the quantity of wine prescribed by their sacerdotal office (Diod. i. 70). Jonadab’s prohibition of wine to the Rechabites was in order to keep them as nomads from a settled life such as vine cultivation needed (Jeremiah 35). The wine at the drink offering of the daily sacrifice (Exo 29:40), the firstfruits (Lev 23:13), and other offerings (Num 15:5), implies that its use is lawful. The prohibition of wine to officiating priests (Lev 10:9) was to guard against such excess as probably caused Nadab to offer the strange fire (Eze 44:21). The Nazarites’ Vow against wine was voluntary (Num 6:3); it justifies voluntary total abstinence, but does not enjoin it. Wine was used at the Passover. The third cup was called because of the grace "the cup of blessing" (1Co 10:16), "the fruit of the vine" (Mat 26:29).

Moderation in wine is made a requisite in candidates for the ministry (1Ti 3:3; 1Ti 3:8; Tit 2:3). The vintage was in September and was celebrated with great joy (Isa 16:9-10; Jer 48:33). The ripe fruit was gathered in baskets, and was carried to the winepress, consisting of an upper (Hebrew gath, Greek leenos) and lower vat (yekeb, Greek hupolenion); the juice flowed from the fruit placed in the upper to the lower. The two vats were usually hewn in the solid rock, the upper broad and shallow, the lower smaller and deeper. The first drops ("the tear," dema, margin Exo 22:29) were consecrated as firstfruits to Jehovah. Wine long settled formed lees at the bottom, which needed straining (Isa 25:6). The wine of Helbon near Damascus was especially prized (Eze 27:18), and that of Lebanon for its bouquet (Num 14:7).

Jesus’ miracle (John 2) justifies the use; still love justifies abstinence for the sake of taking away any stumbling-block from a brother; Rom 14:21, "it is good neither to drink wine ... whereby thy brother stumbleth." W. Hepworth Dixon (Palestine Exploration Quarterly Statement, May 1878, p. 67) shows that Kefr Kana, not; Kana el Jelil, answers to the Cana of Galilee (so called to distinguish it from the better known Cana of Judaea, John 2), the scene of our Lord’s first miracle at the marriage. It is five miles from Nazareth in a N.E. direction, on the main road to Tiberias. Khirbet Kana (Cana) is not on the road from Nazareth to Capernaum; one coming up from Capernaum to Nazareth and Cana as in the Gospel could not have come near Khirbet Kana, which is on the road from Sepphoris to Ptolemais (Acre), not on the road from Sepphoris to Tiberius. (See CANA.)

Jesus came up from Capernaum and the lake district to Cana (Joh 2:2; Joh 2:12), then went "down" to Capernaum (so Joh 3:46; Joh 3:49). Cana evidently stood near the ledge of the hill country over the lake. Moreover at Kefr Kana there are remains of old edifices, but at Khirbet Kana nothing older than later Saracenic times. "Wild grapes" (Isa 5:2, beuwshim, from baash "to putrefy") express offensive putrefaction answering to the Jews’ corruption; so Jerome. Not, as Rosenmuller; the aconite or nightshade, or as Hasselquist, "the wolf grape."

Wine. Gen 9:20-21. In the Bible, wine is spoken of as a blessing to a country. Gen 27:28; Gen 27:37; Deu 7:13; Deu 33:28; Hos 2:8; Hos 2:22. Our Saviour turned water into wine at a marriage feast, and directed it to be used in celebrating the Lord’s supper. Joh 2:7-10; Mat 26:27-29. The Bible represents wine as having intoxicating qualities, and it has many warnings in regard to its use. Noah was made drunk by it, and so was Lot. Gen 9:26; Gen 19:32-35. The ruler of the wedding feast where Jesus turned water into wine alluded to the intoxicating nature of wine. Joh 2:10. Drunkenness is condemned as a sin. 1Co 5:11; 1Co 6:10. The common wine required to be "refined" or strained previous to being brought to the table. Isa 25:6. Wine was also made from pomegranate as well as grape. Son 8:2. In Palestine the vintage comes in September, and is celebrated with great rejoicings. The ripe fruit is gathered in baskets, Jer 6:9, and carried to the wine-press. It is then placed in the upper one or the two vats or receptacles of the wine-press and is subjected to "treading," which has prevailed in all ages in oriental and south-European countries. Neh 13:15; Job 24:11; Isa 16:10; Jer 25:30; Jer 48:33; Amo 9:13; Bey. 19:15. A certain amount of juice exuded from the ripe fruit from its own pressure before the treading commenced. This appears to have been kept separate from the rest of the juice, and to have formed the "new" or "sweet wine" noticed in Act 2:13. The "treading" was by men. They encouraged one another by shouts. Isa 16:9-10; Jer 25:30; Jer 48:33. Their legs and garments were dyed red with the juice. Gen 49:11; Isa 63:2-3. The juice ran by an aperture into the lower vat, or was at once collected in vessels. Wine is said to produce different effects: as the "darkly flashing" or "red eye," Gen 49:12, a mocker, Pro 20:1, the unbridled tongue, Isa 28:7, the excitement of the spirit, Pro 31:6; Isa 5:11; Zec 9:15; Zec 10:7, the enchained affections of its votaries, Hos 4:11, the perverted judgment, Pro 31:6; tea. 23:7, the indecent exposure, Hab 2:15-16, and the sickness resulting from the heat (chemâh, A. V., "bottles") of wine. Hos 7:5. The allusions to the effects of tîrôsh are confined to a single passage, but this a most decisive one, viz., Hos 4:11, "Whoredom and wine (yayin) and new wine (tîrôsh) takeaway the heart," where tîrôsh appears as the climax of engrossing influences, in immediate connection with yayin. It has been disputed whether the Hebrew wine was fermented; but the impression produced by a general review of the above notices is that the Hebrew words indicating wine refer to fermented, intoxicating wine. Mingled liquor was prepared for high festivals, Pro 9:2; Pro 9:5, and occasions of excess. Pro 23:30; Isa 5:22. The wine "mingled with myrrh," given to Jesus, was designed to deaden pain, Mar 15:23, and the spiced pomegranate wine prepared by the bride, Son 8:2, may well have been of a mild character. In the New Testament the "new" or "sweet wine," noticed in Act 2:13, could not be new wine in the proper sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight months must have elapsed between the vintage and the feast of Pentecost. It had also the power to make persons drunk, at least in public estimation. The only wines of which we have special notice belonged to Syria; these were the wine of Helbon, Eze 27:18, and the wine of Lebanon, famed for its aroma. Hos 14:7. Wine was produced on occasions of ordinary hospitality, Gen 14:18, and at festivals, such as marriages. Joh 2:3. Under the Mosaic law wine formed the usual drink offering that accompanied the daily sacrifice, Exo 29:40, the presentation of the first-fruits, Lev 23:13, and other offerings. Num 15:5. Tithe was to be paid of wine, as of other products. The priest was also to receive first-fruits of wine, as of other articles. Deu 18:4; comp. Exo 22:29. The use of wine at the paschal feast was not enjoined by the law, but became an established custom, in the post-Babylonian period. Some Biblical scholars hold that the Bible mentions two kinds of wine, one unfermented and one fermented and intoxicating.

There are several Hebrew words translated wine, and though various expressions are attached to it as ’sweet,’ ’new,’ ’strong,’ ’good,’ ’mixed,’ ’spiced,’ ’on the lees,’ all are wine ; and the wine was intoxicating, as seen already in the days of Noah. Gen 9:21. Intemperance is the abuse of it, and against such abuse there are abundant protests and warnings in the scripture. Wine is mentioned with corn and oil, among the good gifts wherewith God would bless His earthly people. Deu 7:13; Psa 104:15. It was daily offered in the temple as a drink offering. Num 28:7.

Wine was created by the Lord in His first recorded miracle. Joh 2:3-10. He was blasphemously spoken of as a wine-bibber; and He said at the last Passover, "I will drink no more of the fruit of the vine, until that day that I drink it new in the kingdom of God." Mar 14:25. He also instituted the Lord’s Supper with the cup of wine. Paul recommended Timothy to take a little wine for his frequent sickness; and a bishop must not be given to much wine. There is therefore adequate evidence that wine is regarded as a beneficent gift of God, of which man may make a moderate use. If, however, a man has no power over his appetite, doubtless he had better abstain from wine altogether. Drunkards shall not inherit the kingdom of God. 1Co 6:10.

WINE (οἶνος; once, Act 2:13, γλεῦκος).—The climate and soil of Palestine are excellently adapted to the production of grapes, and from very early times wine has been a common beverage in the country. In the OT it is praised as a source of good cheer to the heavy of heart, as a stimulant for the faint, and as a token of a full, happy, and prosperous life (Pro 31:6, Psa 104:15). The dangers of excessive indulgence are indeed clearly indicated. The priest while on duty, and the Nazirite during the currency of his vow, might not touch it (Lev 10:9, Num 6:3). The sin of drunkenness is presented in revolting colours (Pro 23:29 ff., Isa 28:7 f). The Rechabite abstinence from wine, however, arose probably from the nomadic view of the vine as the symbol of the settled life, not from any objection to the use of wine in itself (W. R. Smith, Prophets, 84, 389). In the Gospels wine appears with bread as representing ordinary fare (Luk 7:33); it is drunk on festive occasions (Joh 2:3), and at religious feasts (Mat 26:29 etc.). Mingled with oil, it is applied to wounds as a healing agent (Luk 10:34); mingled with myrrh, it is used as a narcotic (Mar 15:23).

The ancient methods of wine-making persist to the present day. Commonly the grapes are placed in a large shallow trough, cut in the surface of the rock. The juice is there trodden out, and conducted by a channel to a deeper trough at a lower level. The time of the vintage and wine-treading is one of great joyfulness among the people, their labours being enlivened by the singing of songs, and rhythmic clapping of the hands. Fermentation sets in quickly. The first, or what the Jews called the ‘tumultuous’ stage, might be passed in four days, during which the wine remained in the trough, or vat, if possible. It was then put into earthenware jars which had been lined with pitch, or, if it were to be sent to a distance, into ‘bottles,’ where the process was completed. In about three months the wine was fit for use.

Where the soil was deep, a press was ‘digged’ in the earth (Mat 21:33 etc.). This, built round with masonry, and carefully cemented, received the juice expressed in a wooden structure set on the surface.

The ‘bottles’ are partially tanned goat-skins. The apertures where legs and tail have been severed are sewn up, leaving only that at the neck, which is firmly tied when the skin is filled. The wine in the first stage of fermentation, if tied in the skins, would, by reason of the gas generated, burst them. When the ‘tumultuous stage is passed, the new ‘bottle’ yields sufficiently to permit completion of the process. ‘Bottles’ once stretched in this way had no further powers of distention, and if used again for the same purpose would, of course, burst (Mat 9:17 etc.).

Different qualities of wine were distinguished (Joh 2:10), probably indicated, as they are still, by the localities where they are produced. The ‘new wine’ of Act 2:13 (lit. ‘sweet wine’) was probably ‘the wine made from the drip of the grapes before the clusters are trodden in the wine-press—stronger than the thin sour wines used as daily beverages’ (Lindsay, Acts, in loc). The modern ‘sweet wine’ is made from the white or green grapes, the juice being slightly boiled.

There is nothing known in the East of anything called ‘wine’ which is unfermented. Pharaoh’s butler pressed grapes into his master’s cup (Gen 40:11). ‘In a text found at Edfu, it is said that grapes squeezed into water formed a refreshing beverage which was drunk by the king’ (Driver, Genesis, in loc.). This possibly corresponds to the Spanish drink made by squeezing grapes not quite ripe into water. But it is never called ‘wine.’ The γλεῦκος of Act 2:13 was certainly fermented. Apart from the fact that the vintage was eight months passed, which put the keeping of unfermented grape juice, out of the question, it was alleged as the cause of drunkenness by those who must have known its character. The wine used by the Jews in Palestine—people most conservative in their religious customs—at the Passover, is of the ordinary kind. And there is no trace of any tradition among them of a change having been introduced. Their attitude towards the drinker of unfermented grape jnice may be gathered from the saying in Pirke Aboth (iv. 28), ‘He who learns from the young, to what is he like? to one that eats unripe grapes, and drinks wine from his vat.’

While in the NT wine is plainly regarded as good, and its medicinal value is recognized (1Ti 5:23), there is no blindness to the danger attached to its abuse (see, e.g., Eph 5:18, 1Ti 3:8, Tit 2:3). The question of total abstinence, like that of slavery, had not yet been raised. No argument for total abstinence can be built on the significance of terms used for ‘wine’ in Scripture. But ‘the Apostle Paul has stated the case for total abstinence in Romans 14 in a way that does not need the treacherous aid of doubtful exegesis for its support’ (DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] , s.v. ‘Food’). See, further, Hastings DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] ii. 31 ff.; Mackie, Bible Manners and Customs, 43 ff.; Benzinger, Heb. Arch. (Index); Fowler, The Wine of the Bible.

W. Ewing.

By: Emil G. Hirsch, Judah David Eisenstein, Executive Committee of the Editorial Board.

—Biblical Data:

The juice of the grape is the subject of special praise in the Scriptures. The "vine tree" is distinguished from the other trees in the forest (Ezek. xv. 2). The fig-tree is next in rank to the vine (Deut. viii. 8), though as food the fig is of greater importance (comp. Num. xx. 5) than the "wine which cheereth God and man" (Judges ix. 13; comp. Ps. civ. 15; Eccl. x. 19). Wine is a good stimulant for "such as be faint in the wilderness" (II Sam. xvi. 2), and for "those that be of heavy hearts" (Prov. xxxi. 6).

The goodness of wine is reflected in the figure in which Israel is likened to a vine brought from Egypt and planted in the Holy Land, where it took deep root, spread out, and prospered (Ps. lxxx. 9-11). The blessed wife is like "a fruitful vine by the sides of thy house" (Ps. cxxviii. 3). When peace reigns every man rests "under his vine and under his fig-tree" (I Kings v. 5 [A. V. iv. 25]). An abundance of wine indicates prosperity. Jacob blessed Judah that "he washed his garments in wine and his clothes in the blood of grapes" (Gen. xlix. 11).

Bread as an indispensable food and wine as a luxury represent two extremes; they were used as signs of welcome and good-will to Abraham (Gen. xiv. 18). A libation of wine was part of the ceremonial sacrifices, varying in quantity from one-half to one-fourth of a hin measure (Num. xxviii. 14).

Wine-drinking was generally accompanied by singing (Isa. xxiv. 9). A regular wine-room ("bet ha-yayin") was used (Cant. ii. 4), and wine-cellars ("oẓerot yayin"; I Chron. xxvii. 27) are mentioned. The wine was bottled in vessels termed "nebel" and "nod" (I Sam. i. 24, xvi. 20), made in various shapes from the skins of goats and sheep, and was sold in bath measures. The wine was drunk from a "mizraḳ," or "gabia’" (bowl; Jer. xxxv. 5), or a "kos" (cup). The wine-press was called "gat" and "purah"; while the "yeḳeb" was probably the vat into which the wine flowed from the press. The "vine of Sodom" (Deut. xxxii. 32), which probably grew by the Dead Sea, was the poorest kind. The "vine of the fields" (II Kings iv. 39) was a wild, uncultivated sort, and the "soreḳ" (Isa. v. 2) was the choicest vine, producing dark-colored grapes; in Arabic it is called "suriḳ."

There were different kinds of wine. "Yayin" was the ordinary matured, fermented wine, "tirosh" was a new wine, and "shekar" was an old, powerful wine ("strong drink"). The red wine was the better and stronger (Ps. lxxv. 9 [A. V. 8]; Prov. xxiii. 31). Perhaps the wine of Helbon (Ezek. xxvii. 18) and the wine of Lebanon (Hos. xiv. 7) were white wines. The vines of Hebron were noted for their large clustersof grapes (Num. xiii. 23). Samaria was the center of vineyards (Jer. xxxi. 5; Micah i. 6), and the Ephraimites were heavy wine-drinkers (Isa. xxviii. 1). There were also "yayin ha-reḳaḥ" (spiced wine; Cant. viii. 2), "ashishah" (hardened sirup of grapes), "shemarim (wine-dregs), and "ḥomeẓ yayin" (vinegar). Some wines were mixed with poisonous substances ("yayin tar’elah"; Ps. lx. 5; comp. lxxv.9, "mesek" [mixture]). The "wine of the condemned" ("yen ’anushim") is wine paid as a forfeit (Amos ii. 8), and "wine of violence" (Prov. iv. 17) is wine obtained by illegal means.

—In Rabbinical Literature:

Wine is called "yayin" because it brings lamentation and wailing ("yelalah" and "wai") into the world, and "tirosh" because one that drinks it habitually is certain to become poor (). R. Kahana said the latter term is written sometimes , and sometimes ; that means, if drunk in moderation it gives leadership ( = "head"); if drunk in excess it leads to poverty (Yoma 76b). "Tirosh" includes all kinds of sweet juices and must, and does not include fermented wine (Tosef., Ned. iv. 3). "Yayin" is to be distinguished from "shekar"; the former is diluted with water ("mazug"); the latter is undiluted ("yayin ḥai"; Num. R. x. 8; comp. Sifre, Num. 23). In Talmudic usage "shekar" means "mead," or "beer," and according to R. Papa, it denotes drinking to satiety and intoxication (Suk. 49b).

In metaphorical usage, wine represents the essence of goodness. The Torah, Jerusalem, Israel, the Messiah, the righteous—all are compared to wine. The wicked are likened unto vinegar, and the good man who turns to wickedness is compared to sour wine. Eleazar b. Simeon was called "Vinegar, the son of Wine" (B. M. 83b). The wine which is kept for the righteous in the world to come has been preserved in the grape ever since the six days of creation (Ber. 34b).

Presses and Receptacles.

The process of making wine began with gathering the grapes into a vat ("gat"). There were vats hewn out of stone, cemented or potter-made vats, and wooden vats ("Ab. Zarah v. 11). Next to the vat was a cistern ("bor"), into which the juice ran through a connecting trough or pipe ("ẓinnor"). Two vats were sometimes connected with one cistern (B. Ḳ. ii. 2). The building containing or adjoining the wine-presses was called "bet ha-gat" (Tosef., Ter. iii. 7). The newly pressed wine was strained through a filter, sometimes in the shape of a funnel ("meshammeret"; Yer. Ter. viii. 3), or through a linen cloth ("sudar"), in order to remove husks, stalks, etc. A wooden roller or beam, fixed into a socket in the wall, was lowered to press the grapes down into the vat (Shab. i. 9; Ṭoh. x. 8).

The cistern was emptied by a ladle or dipper called the "maḥaẓ" (Ṭoh. x. 7), the wine being transferred to large receptacles known variously as "kad," "ḳanḳan," "garab," "danna," and "ḥabit." Two styles of ḥabit, the Lydian and the Bethlehemite (Niddah vi. 6), were used, the former being a smaller barrel or cask. All these receptacles were rounded earthen vessels, tightly sealed with pitch. The foster-mother of Abaye is authority for the statement that a six-measure cask properly sealed is worth more than an eight-measure cask that is not sealed (B. ḳ. 12a). New wine stood for at least forty days before it was admissible as a drink-offering (’Eduy. vi. 1; B. B. 97a). When the wine had sufficiently settled it was drawn off into bottles known as "lagin" or "leginah" and "ẓarẓur," the latter being a stone vessel with a rim and strainer, a kind of cooler (Sanh. 106a); an earthen pitcher, "ḥaẓab," was also used (Men. viii. 7). The drinking-vessel was the Biblical "kos." The wine was kept in cellars, and from them was removed to storerooms called "hefteḳ," or "apoṭiḳ" (ἀποθήκη), a pantry or shelves in the wineshop. Bottles of wine from this pantry were exposed for sale in baskets in front of the counter (’Ab. Zarah ii. 7, 39b).

Varieties.

The quality of a wine was known by its color and by the locality from which it came, red wine being better than white wine. Ḳeruḥim (probably the Coreæ of Josephus) in Palestine produced the best wine (Men. viii. 6), after which came the red wine of Phrygia (Perugita; Shab. 147b), the light-red wine of Sharon (Shab. 77a), and "yayin Kushi" (Ethiopian wine; B. B. 97b). There were special mixtures of wine. Among these were: (1) "alunṭit," made of old wine, with a mixture of very clear water and balsam; used especially after bathing (Tosef., Dem. i. 24; ’Ab. Zarah 30a); (2) "ḳafrisin" (caper-wine, or, according to Rashi, Cyprus wine), an ingredient of the sacred incense (Ker. 6a); (3) "yen ẓimmuḳin" (raisin-wine); (4) "inomilin" (οἰνόμελι), wine mixed with honey and pepper (Shab. xx. 2; ’Ab. Zarah l.c.); (5) "ilyoston" (*ήλιόστεον), a sweet wine ("vinum dulce") from grapes dried in the sun for three days, and then gathered and trodden in the midday heat (Men. viii. 6; B. B. 97b); (6) "me’ushshan," from the juice of smoked or fumigated sweet grapes (Men. l.c.); not fit for libation; (7) "enogeron" (οινόγαρον), a sauce of oil and garum to which wine was added; (8) "apiḳṭewizin" (ἀποκοτταβίζειν), a wine emetic, taken before a meal (Shab. 12a); (9) "ḳundiṭon" ("conditum"), a spiced wine (’Ab. Zarah ii. 3); (10) "pesintiṭon" ("absinthiatum"), a bitter wine (Yer. ’Ab. Zarah ii. 3); (11) "yen tappuḥim," made from apples; cider; (12) "yen temarim," date-wine. Wine made from grapes grown on isolated vines ("roglit") is distinguished from that made of the grapes of a vine suspended from branches or trained over an espalier ("dalit"); the latter was unfit for libation (Men. 86b).

During the time of fermentation the wine that was affected with sourness was called "yayin ḳoses" (Yer. Pe’ah ii., end), and when matured sour it was "ḥomeẓ" (vinegar). Good vinegar was made by putting barley in the wine. In former times Judean wine never became sour unless barley was put in it; but after the destruction of the Temple that characteristic passed to the Edomite (Roman) wine. Certain vinegar was called the "Edomite vinegar" (Pes. 42b).

Fresh wine before fermenting was called "yayin mi-gat" (wine of the vat; Sanh. 70a). The ordinary wine was of the current vintage. The vintage of the previous year was called "yayin yashan" (old wine). The third year’s vintage was "yayin meyushshan" (very old wine). Ordinary, fermented wine, accordingto Raba, must be strong enough to take one-third water, otherwise it is not to be regarded as wine (Shab. 77a). R. Joseph, who was blind, could tell by taste whether a wine was up to the standard of Raba (’Er. 54a).

Medicinal Value.

Wine taken in moderation was considered a healthful stimulant, possessing many curative elements. The Jewish sages were wont to say, "Wine is the greatest of all medicines; where wine is lacking, there drugs are necessary" (B. B. 58b). R. Huna said, "Wine helps to open the heart to reasoning" (B. B. 12b). R. Papa thought that when one could substitute beer for wine, it should be done for the sake of economy. But his view is opposed on the ground that the preservation of one’s health is paramount to considerations of economy (Shab. 140b). Three things, wine, white bread, and fat meat, reduce the feces, lend erectness to one’s bearing, and strengthen the sight. Very old wine benefits the whole body (Pes. 42b). Ordinary wine is harmful to the intestines, but old wine is beneficial (Ber. 51a). Rabbi was cured of a severe disorder of the bowels by drinking apple-wine seventy years old, a Gentile having stored away 300 casks of it (’Ab. Zarah 40b). "The good things of Egypt" (Gen. xlv. 23) which Joseph sent to his father are supposed by R. Eleazar to have included "old wine," which satisfies the elderly person (Meg. 16b). At the great banquet given by King Ahasuerus the wine put before each guest was from the province whence he came and of the vintage of the year of his birth (Meg. 12a). Until the age of forty liberal eating is beneficial; but after forty it is better to drink more and eat less (Shab. 152a). R. Papa said wine is more nourishing when taken in large mouthfuls. Raba advised students who were provided with little wine to take it in liberal drafts (Suk. 49b) in order to secure the greatest possible benefit from it. Wine gives an appetite, cheers the body, and satisfies the stomach (Ber. 35b). After bleeding, according to Rab, a substantial meal of meat is necessary; according to Samuel, wine should be taken freely, in order that the red of the wine may replace the red of the blood that has been lost (Shab. 129a).

Wine-Bibbing.

The benefit derived from wine depends upon its being drunk in moderation, as overindulgence is injurious. Abba Saul, who was a grave-digger, made careful observations upon bones, and found that the bones of those who had drunk natural (unmixed) wine were "scorched"; of those who had used mixed wine were dry and transparent; of those who had taken wine in moderation were "oiled," that is, they had retained the marrow (Niddah 24b). Some of the rabbis were light drinkers. R. Joseph and Mar ’Uḳba, after bathing, were given cups of inomilin wine (see above). R. Joseph felt it going through his body from the top of his head to his toes, and feared another cup would endanger his life; yet Mar ’Uḳba drank it every day and was not unpleasantly affected by it, having taken it habitually (Shab. 140a). R. Judah did not take wine, except at religious ceremonies, such as "Ḳiddush," "Habdalah," and the Seder of Passover (four cups). The Seder wine affected him so seriously that he was compelled to keep his head swathed till the following feast-day—Pentecost (Ned. 49b).

The best remedy for drunkenness is sleep. "Wine is strong, but sleep breaks its force" (B. B. 10a). Walking throws off the fumes of wine, the necessary amount of exercise being in the proportion of about three miles to a quarter-measure of Italian wine (’Er. 64b). Rubbing the palms and knees with oil and salt was a measure favored by some scholars who had indulged overmuch (Shab. 66b).

For religious ceremonies wine is preferable to other beverages. Wine "cheereth God" (Judges ix. 13); hence no religious ceremony should be performed with other beverages than wine (Ber. 35a). Over all fruit the benediction used is that for "the fruits of the tree," but over wine a special benediction for "the fruits of the vine" is pronounced (Ber. vi. 1). This latter benediction is, according to R. Eliezer, pronounced only when the wine has been properly mixed with water. Over natural wine the benediction is the same as that used for the "fruits of the tree" (Ber. 50b). The drinking of natural wine on the night of Passover is not "in the manner of free men" (Pes. 108b). "Ḳiddush" and "Habdalah" should be recited over a cup of wine. Beer may be used in countries where that is the national beverage (Pes. 106a, 107a). According to Raba, one may squeeze the juice of a bunch of grapes into a cup and say the "Ḳiddush" (B. B. 97b). The cup is filled with natural wine during grace, in memory of the Holy Land, where the best wine is produced; but after grace the wine is mixed.

The words introducing the grace, "Let us praise Him whose food we have eaten, and by whose goodness we live," are said over a cup of wine, part of which is passed to the hostess (Ber. 50a). Ulla, when the guest of R. Naḥman, was invited to pronounce the grace over wine, and the latter suggested the propriety of sending part of the wine to his guest’s wife, Yalta; but Ulla demurred, declaring that the host is the principal channel of blessing, and passed it to R. Naḥman. When Yalta heard this she was enraged, and expressed her indignation by going to the wine-room ("be ḥamra") and breaking up 400 casks of wine (Ber. 51b). R. Akiba, when he made a feast in honor of his son, proposed, "Wine and long life to the Rabbis and their disciples!" (Shab. 67b).

In Mourning.

Following the Scriptural precept, "Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, and wine unto those that be of heavy hearts" (Prov. xxxi. 6), the Rabbis ordered ten cups of wine to be served with the "meal of consolation" at the mourner’s house: three cups before the meal, "to open the bowels," three cups between courses, to help digestion, and four cups after the grace. Later four cups were added in honor of the ḥazzanim, the parnasim, the Temple, and the nasi Gamaliel. So many cups producing drunkenness, the last four were afterward discontinued (Ket. 8b). Apparently this custom was in force when the Temple was in existence, and persisted in Talmudic times; it disappeared in the geonic period. R. Ḥanan declared that wine was created for the sole purpose of consoling the bereaved and rewarding the wicked forwhatever good they may do in this world, in order that they may have no claim upon the world to come (Sanh. 70a). After the destruction of the Temple many Pharisees, as a sign of mourning, vowed to abstain from eating meat and drinking wine, but were dissuaded from issuing a decree which the public could not observe (B. B. 60b). R. Judah b. Bathyra said, "Meat was the principal accompaniment of joy in the time of the Temple, wine in post-exilic times" (Pes. 109a).

Rab said that for three days after purchase the seller is responsible if the wine turns sour; but after that his responsibility ceases. R. Samuel declared that responsibility falls upon the purchaser immediately upon the delivery of the wine, the rule being "Wine rests on the owner’s shoulders." R. Ḥiyya b. Joseph said, "Wine must share the owner’s luck" (B. B. 96a, b, 98a). If one sells a cellarful of wine, the purchaser must accept ten casks of sour wine in every hundred (Tosef., B. B. vi. 6). Whoever sells spiced wine is responsible for sourness until the following Pentecost (i.e., until the hot weather sets in). If he sells "old wine," it must be of the second year’s vintage; if "very old wine" ("meyushshan"), it must be of the third year’s vintage (B. B. vi. 2).

The question of responsibility on the part of carriers of wine ("sheḳulai") is discussed. When Rabbah bar Ḥana’s hired carriers broke a cask he seized their overgarments; thereupon the carriers appealed to Rab, who ordered Rabbah to return their garments. "Is this the law?" asked Rabbah in astonishment. "It is the moral law," answered Rab, citing, "That thou mayest walk in the way of good men" (Prov. ii. 20). When the garments had been returned the carriers appealed again: "We are poor men; we have worked all day; and now we are hungry, and have nothing." Rab then ordered Rabbah to pay them their wages. "Is this the law?" inquired Rabbah. "It is the higher law," replied Rab, completing the verse previously cited—"and keep the paths of the righteous" (B. M. 83a).

As a commodity, wine has an important place in the business world. A large proportion of the trade in wine for the Feast of Passover is controlled by Jews. The agricultural activity of Palestine is directed mainly to viticulture. The Rothschild cellars at Rishon le-Ẓiyyon receive almost the entire produce of the Jewish colonists, which, through the Carmel Wine Company, is distributed throughout Russia, Austria, Holland, Switzerland, France, England, and the United States. The vintage of 1904 in the Rothschild cellars exceeded 7,000,000 bottles, of which 200,000 were sold in Warsaw. See Agricultural Colonies in Palestine.

Regarding the interdiction of wine prepared or handled by Gentiles see Nesek.

Bibliography:

C. H. Fowler, The Wine of the Bible, New York, 1878;

W. Ebstein, Die Medizin im Neuen Testament und im Talmud, i. 36, 167; ii. 250, Stuttgart, 1903.

See Abstinence, Drunkenness, Eucharist, Temperance.

Gen 49:11 (b) Jacob used this figure to describe the wonderful wealth that would accrue to Judah. It is similar to the statement by Job when he said "I washed my steps in butter." It is a description of great wealth, comfort and blessing.

Pro 9:2 (b) Probably this is typical of the sweet experiences of those who feel their own weakness, and then partake of the truths of GOD, as revealed in His precious Word.

Isa 55:1 (b) This symbol represents the joy of the Christian life which GOD gives to those who trust JESUS CHRIST, and honor the Holy Spirit.

Mat 9:17 (b) This may be taken as a type of the new life which GOD does not put into the old nature. The Lord does not try to fix up "the old man." Instead He gives a new birth so that the new-born soul, with a new life and a new nature may enjoy Heaven’s blessings.

Joh 2:3 (c) We may take this wine to represent that peculiar joy and peace which only CHRIST can give to human hearts. The wedding is the sweetest of all human experiences, but even that could not be completely satisfactory unless CHRIST JESUS came to bring the peculiar blessing of Heaven, which only He can give.

Rev 16:19 (a) This wine represents the wrath of GOD which emanates from His own righteous heart, and is given to His enemies to drink. It is the product of the holy anger of the righteous Judge.

Rev 17:2 (a) The wine in this case represents the evil practices of the apostate church. The teachings and the practices of this wicked group offers to the rulers of earth and to the great men of the lands pleasures and comforts in their lives of sin and wickedness. The nations receive the false teachings of this evil church which makes it easy to live in every kind of sinfulness, and yet be comforted by the assurance that the church can forgive, and has the power to send the soul to Heaven.

See GRAPES.