Isaiah 32:19 — Word Study
WLCוּבָרַ֖ד בְּרֶ֣דֶת הַיָּ֑עַר וּבַשִּׁפְלָ֖ה תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל הָעִֽיר׃
BSABut hailbârad△ [coming down, a storm] will levelyârad [flatten, utterly lay low] the forestyaʻar [a copse of bushes, a wooded area] and the cityʻîyr [a place with a wall, a settlement] will sinkshâphêl▸ [be brought low, humbled] to the depthsshiphlâh△ [a state of humiliation, a low place]
| Greek | English | Parsing |
|---|---|---|
| וּבָרַ֖ד | and it will hail | Verb, Qal, sequential perfect third person masculine singular |
| בְּרֶ֣דֶת | when comes down | Preposition, verb qal infinitive construct common |
| הַיָּ֑עַר | the forest | Particle, noun common masculine singular absolute |
| וּבַשִּׁפְלָ֖ה | and with lowness | Conjunction, preposition, noun common feminine singular absolute |
| תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל | it will become low | Verb, Qal, imperfect third person feminine singular |
| הָעִֽיר׃ | the city | Particle, noun common feminine singular absolute |
Every word in the verse. Click a row to open it in the panel on the left.
| BSB | But hail will level the forest, and the city will sink to the depths. |
| KJV | When it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place. |
| ASV | But it shall hail in the downfall of the forest; and the city shall be utterly laid low. |
| YLT | And it hath hailed in the going down of the forest, And in the valley is the city low. |
| WEB | though hail flattens the forest, and the city is leveled completely. |
| BBE | But the tall trees will come down with a great fall, and the town will be low in a low place. |
Where they part company is in the rendering of תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל — see How Translations Differ.
The sentence contains two main clauses connected by 'and', with additional phrases providing context and detail about the actions taking place.







8 commentators on this verse
Gill, Jamieson, Poole, Trapp & more — read them ›
clause
verbבָּרַד
The sentence as the grammar sees it Open the tree ›
2 of 6 occur nowhere else in the Old Testament — words chosen on purpose.
Bars are logarithmic — אֵת, the commonest word in the Hebrew Bible, stands about 11,000 times, so a linear scale would leave everything else invisible. Click a row to open that word.
Deep Study — Isaiah 32:19
Sections marked generated are written from the data on this page rather than by a named author. Everything else — the lexicon entries, the cross references, the manuscript readings, the counts — is quoted from its source unchanged.
Context — The Judgment of Godgenerated
Isaiah 32:19 depicts a powerful storm bringing hail that flattens the forest and causes the city to sink into a state of humiliation. This imagery is part of a larger passage that contrasts the peace and security for the righteous with the destruction awaiting the wicked. The surrounding verses emphasize the blessings for those who live righteously and the dire consequences for those who do not.
Cross References
| Reference | Text (BSB) | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Isaiah 25:4 | For You have been a refuge for the poor, a stronghold for the needy in distress, a refuge from the storm, a shade from the heat. For the breath of the ruthless is like rain against a wall, |
| 2 | Isaiah 28:2–17 | Behold, the Lord has one who is strong and mighty. Like a hailstorm or destructive tempest, like a driving rain or flooding downpour, he will smash that crown to the ground. |
| 3 | Isaiah 30:30 | And the LORD will cause His majestic voice to be heard and His mighty arm to be revealed, striking in angry wrath with a flame of consuming fire, and with cloudburst, storm, and hailstones. |
| 4 | Isaiah 37:24 | Through your servants you have taunted the Lord, and you have said: “With my many chariots I have ascended to the heights of the mountains, to the remote peaks of Lebanon. I have cut down its tallest cedars, the finest of its cypresses. I have reached its farthest heights, the densest of its forests. |
| 5 | Exodus 9:18–26 | Behold, at this time tomorrow I will rain down the worst hail that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded until now. |
The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge — 14 references, hung on the phrase they belong to
The Key Word — בָּרַד, u.va.Radgenerated
The verb בָּרַד (barad) means 'to hail' and is a primitive root used in the Qal form. It conveys the action of sending hail, often associated with divine judgment. In this verse, it describes the natural phenomenon of hail falling as a form of God's power.
The use of this word in Exodus 9:18-26 shows its connection to God's judgment upon Egypt. The imagery of hail emphasizes the severity of the storm and its destructive capabilities.
How Translations Differ — measured against the Berean Standard Biblegenerated
This study reads the verse in the Berean Standard Bible, so the BSB is the wording every comparison below is made against.
Sentence Structuregenerated
The finite verbs in this verse are בָּרַד (will hail) and תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל (will become low), which govern the actions described. The structure emphasizes the consequences of the hailstorm and the resulting humiliation of the city.
The main clause is followed by two phrases: a prepositional phrase describing the forest and a noun phrase indicating the city. This arrangement highlights the dramatic effects of the hailstorm on both the natural and urban environments.
Septuagint Backgroundgenerated
The Septuagint translates בָּרַד as ξάλαζα (chion), which also means hail. This choice maintains the focus on the destructive nature of the storm.
The translation of תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל as καταβῇ (to go down) emphasizes the action of sinking or being brought low, aligning with the themes of judgment present in both the Hebrew and Greek texts.
In plain words — the whole versegenerated
Isaiah 32:19 states that hail will come down and flatten the forest, while the city will sink into a state of humiliation. This verse illustrates the power of God's judgment and the consequences of sin, contrasting the peace promised to the righteous.
Frequently Asked Questionsgenerated
The hail represents God's judgment, coming down as a storm to level the forest and bring the city low.
The sinking of the city symbolizes humiliation and the consequences of sin, contrasting with the peace that the righteous will experience.
This verse is part of a section that contrasts the outcomes of righteousness and judgment, emphasizing the peace for the righteous and the destruction for the wicked.
The imagery of the storm serves as a reminder of God's power and the seriousness of His judgment against sin.
Reflection Questionsgenerated
- How can I recognize the consequences of my actions in my life as reflected in this verse?
- In what ways can I seek to live righteously to experience the peace mentioned in the surrounding verses?
- What does it mean to be humbled, and how can I apply that understanding in my daily life?
- How does understanding God's judgment influence my perspective on justice and righteousness?
Commentators on this verse — 8 expositors, verse by verse
Each of these wrote on Isaiah 32:19 itself, not merely on the chapter around it.
John Gill1697–1771Gill's Exposition of the Entire BibleWhen it shall hail, coming down on the forest,.... The people of God will be peaceable and quiet, safe and secure, when the judgments of God, signified by a "hail" storm, shall come upon antichrist,
Read John Gill on Isaiah 32 →
Robert Jamieson1802–1880Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown's CommentaryWhen it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place. When it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place.
Read Robert Jamieson on Isaiah 32 →
Matthew Poole1624–1679Matthew Poole's Commentary on the Holy BibleWhen it shall hail, coming down on the forest, Heb. And it shall hail, &c. As my blessings shall be poured down upon my people, who from a wilderness are turned into a fruitful field, as it is said, ; so my wrath and judgments (which are signified by hail, ,17, and elsewhere) shall fall upon them, who were a fruitful field, but are turned into a forest, as was said, , i.e. upon the unbelieving and rebellious Jews, who seem there to be designed under that notion. The city; either, 1. Babylon, the great enemy and oppressor of God’ s people. Or, 2. Jerusalem, which, though now it was the seat of God’ s worship and people, yet he foresaw by the Spirit of prophecy that it would be the great…
Read Matthew Poole on Isaiah 32 →
John Trapp1601–1669Trapp's Complete Commentary on the Old and New TestamentsIsaiah 32:19 When it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place.Ver. 19. When it shall hail, coming down on the forest.] When reprobates - here compared to a forest or tall wood - shall be hail beaten, that is, grievously plagued, as those Egyptians once were, it shall be hale, or well, with the elect. The Church, as a city that standeth in a low bottom, is secure and safe, her afflictions also working together for her good. In humbling her, God remembereth her, for his mercy endureth for ever.
Read John Trapp on Isaiah 32 →
Charles John Ellicott1819–1905Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers(19) When it shall hail, coming down on the forest.—Better, But it shall hail. A time of sharp judgment, “hailstones and coals of fire,” is to precede that of blessedness and peace. Of such a judgment “hail” was the natural symbol. (Comp. Isaiah 30:30; Ezekiel 13:13.) The “forest” stands in the symbolism of prophecy for the rulers and princes of any kingdom, as in Isaiah 10:34 for those of Assyria, and here probably of Judah. Not a few commentators refer the words here also to Assyria, but the city that follows is clearly Jerusalem, and the interpretation given above harmonises accordingly better with the context. Of that city Isaiah says that it shall be “brought down to a low estate,” its…
Read Charles John Ellicott on Isaiah 32 →
AdamClarkeAdam Clarke's Commentary on the BibleVerse 19. The city shall be low in a low place. - "The city shall be laid level with the plain."] For ובשפלה ubashephelah, the Syriac reads וכשפלה ukeshephelah. The city - probably Nineveh or Babylon: but this verse is very obscure. Saltus; Assyriorum regnum: civitas; magnifica Assyriorum castra. Ephrem Syr. in loc. For וברד ubarad, a MS. has וירד vaiyered; and so conjectured Abp. Secker, referring to Zechariah 11:2.
Read AdamClarke on Isaiah 32 →
CambridgeThe Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges19. The verse reads: And it shall hail at the falling of the forest, and in lowliness shall the city be laid low. According to most commentators the “forest” is a symbol for Assyria, as in ch. Isaiah 10:18 f., 33 f. But this is suggested by nothing in the context, and the “city” in the next line cannot be Nineveh, which is never referred to by Isaiah, and is far from his thoughts here. The verse as a whole must (if genuine) be taken as an announcement of judgment on Jerusalem; but it comes in so awkwardly between Isaiah 32:18; Isaiah 32:20, that it may not unreasonably be regarded as an interpolation. On the “hail” as a synonym for Divine judgment see ch. Isaiah 28:2; Isaiah 28:17, Isaiah…
Read Cambridge on Isaiah 32 →
Albert Barnes1798–1870Barnes' Notes on the BibleWhen it shall hail - Hebrew, ברדת ברד bârad beredeth - ‘And it shall hail in coming down.
Read Albert Barnes on Isaiah 32 →The verse in English, compared — 17 translations, and where they part company
Every translation on this page is a decision someone had to make and commit to. Read down a column and you see one translator's judgement; read across a row and you see the range the Greek actually allows. The BSB is the wording the rest of this page is measured against, so it is listed first.
Modern formal
But hail will level the forest, and the city will sink to the depths.
though hail flattens the forest, and the city is leveled completely.
But hail will level the forest, and the city will sink to the depths.
Even if the forest is destroyed and the city is annihilated,
Tyndale line
When it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place.
But it shall hail in the downfall of the forest; and the city shall be utterly laid low.
But it shall hail, in the downfall of the forest; and the city shall be utterly laid low.
When it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place.
When it haileth, it shall fall on the forest, and the citie shall be set in the lowe place.
Strictly literal
And it shall hail, coming down on the forest; and the city shall be low in a low place.
And it hath hailed in the going down of the forest, And in the valley is the city low.
And it has hailed in the going down of the forest, || And the city is low in the valley.
And it shall spread itself out in the declivity of the forest; and far down in the lowlands shall the city descend.
But even if it hails and the forest is destroyed, and the city is completely annihilated,
From the Latin
But hail shall be in the descent of the forest, and the city shall be made very low.
Simplified
Even though hail can destroy a forest, and a town can be demolished,
But the tall trees will come down with a great fall, and the town will be low in a low place.
Counted from the translations carried on this site, not from a survey of every English Bible. A rendering shared by many versions is usually inherited rather than independently arrived at — the Tyndale line in particular runs through most of them.
The sentence as the grammar sees it — from the MACULA Hebrew treebank
This is not our own analysis: it is the scholarly syntax tree for the verse, showing how the clause actually holds together.
Boxes are the grammarian's groupings — clause, noun phrase, prepositional phrase.
The four witnesses to this verse — Masoretic, Septuagint, Samaritan, Qumran
The Masoretic Text reads: וּבָרַ֖ד בְּרֶ֣דֶת הַיָּ֑עַר וּבַשִּׁפְלָ֖ה תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל הָעִֽיר׃. The Dead Sea Scrolls — 1Qisaa agrees with the Masoretic Text, while 1Q8 has all words supplied by an editor, indicating some textual variation.
וּבָרַ֖ד בְּרֶ֣דֶת הַיָּ֑עַר וּבַשִּׁפְלָ֖ה תִּשְׁפַּ֥ל הָעִֽיר׃
4 of the 6 words are matched. This is the word-by-word correspondence, not the Septuagint's own sentence — its word order and its articles are its own.
וברד ברדת היער ובשפלה תשפל היער
6 words on the leather.
[וברד] [ברדת] [היער] [ובשפלה] [תשפל] [העיר]
nothing on the leather here — 6 supplied entire by an editor.
Four traditions, not one. “On the leather” means the letters physically survive on the scroll, as against letters an editor has supplied to fill a hole in it — a restoration is a scholar’s reading, not a reading of the manuscript. Words in [square brackets] are supplied; the notes count them apart from what survives.
The map of this verse — what each word keeps company with
This is a map of two things, both counted rather than judged. Company kept: which words stand within three words of each of these, anywhere in the Hebrew Bible — the thicker the line, the more often the pair meet compared with chance. Built from: the words a word is made out of, taken from its own Strong’s entry. It is not a map of meaning: nothing here claims two words mean the same thing. Click any circle to see the numbers behind it.
Lexicons — every word in Isaiah 32:19
One dossier per word, with every reference work grouped by kind — Hebrew lexicons, morphology, Bible dictionaries, topical chains and the English of the translators themselves. The verse sits at the head of each block with the word under study lit, so you never lose your place. The panel above gives the short answer; this is the long one, and it is the part of the page worth indexing.
Every entry below is the lexicographer's own text. On the Hebrew: Brown-Driver-Briggs entire and its gloss set, Strong's Hebrew Dictionary, and Tyndale House's Translators Brief lexicon. Where a cell says a work has no entry, that work genuinely has none for this word.
בָּרַד (barad) is a verb meaning 'to hail.' It is a primitive root and is used in the Qal form. The only specific reference noted is Isaiah 32:19, where it describes the act of hailing.
בָּרַד vb. denom. hail, Is 32:19
ref
H1258 בָּרַד vb. denom. hail
1258 barad baw-rad'
a primitive root, to hail:--hail.
בָּרַד (ba.rad) — to hail.
(Qal) to hail
Conj | V-Qal-3ms — Verb · Qal · sequential perfect third person masculine singularHc/Vqq3ms
Hail!
A salutation expressive of a wish for the welfare of the person addressed; the translation of the Greek Chaire, “Rejoice” (Luke 1:8). Used in mockery in Matt. 27:29.
A salutation, importing a wish for the welfare of the person addressed. It is now seldom used among us; but was customary among our Saxon ancestors, and imported "joy to you," or "health to you," including in the term health all kind of prosperity.
The Hebrew word יָרַד (yarad) means to come or go down, covering various contexts such as descending from mountains, going to battle, or sinking in water. It can also refer to divine manifestations descending or being prostrated. The word has different forms including Qal, Hiphil, and Hophal, which indicate various nuances of bringing down or being brought down.
יָרַד 380 vb. come or go down, descend
Qal 306
come or go down
go down (usu. from mountain or hill-country into plain), to battle
go down to (acc.) threshing-floor
go down (abs.) from Palestine to Egypt
from Jerusalem
from altar
go down
= sink, in water
go down to She’ôl
fig. going down (dissolving) in tears
= be prostrated
of divine manifestations: descend
of inanimate things
Hiph.
cause to come or go down
bring down
send down rain = cause to flow down
= lay prostrate to (acc.) threshing-floor
bring down to She’ôl
take down (from cart)
let down
Hoph.
be brought down
be taken down
base
H3381 יָרַד come or go down, descend .. . come or go down
. go down (usu. from mountain or hill-country into plain), to battle
. go down to (acc.) threshing-floor
. go down (abs.) from Palestine to Egypt
. from Jerusalem
. from altar
. go down
. = sink, in water
. go down to She’ôl
. fig. going down (dissolving) in tears
. = be prostrated
. of divine manifestations: descend
. of inanimate things
. . cause to come or go down . bring down
. send down rain = cause to flow down
. = lay prostrate to (acc.) threshing-floor
. bring down to She’ôl
. take down (from cart)
. let down
. . be brought down
. be taken down
3381 yarad yaw-rad'
a primitive root; to descend (literally, to go downwards; or
conventionally to a lower region, as the shore, a boundary,
the enemy, etc.; or figuratively, to fall); causatively, to
bring down (in all the above applications); -X abundantly,
bring down, carry down, cast down, (cause to) come(-ing) down,
fall (down), get down, go(-ing) down(-ward), hang down, X
indeed, let down, light (down), put down (off), (cause to,
let) run down, sink, subdue, take down.
יָרַד (ya.rad) — to go down.
1) to go down, descend, decline, march down, sink down
1a) (Qal)
1a1) to go or come down
1a2) to sink
1a3) to be prostrated
1a4) to come down (of revelation)
1b) (Hiphil)
1b1) to bring down
1b2) to send down
1b3) to take down
1b4) to lay prostrate
1b5) to let down
1c) (Hophal)
1c1) to be brought down
1c2) to be taken down
Prep | V-Qal-Inf-a — Preposition · verb qal infinitive construct commonHR/Vqcc
יַ֫עַר (ya'ar) refers to both a wood or forest and a honeycomb. The word is derived from a root suggesting thick vegetation. It encompasses meanings related to wooded areas and also has a specific reference to honeycomb, possibly due to its association with trees. Some entries connect it to specific locations or phrases in the Old Testament.
יַ֫עַר n.m. wood, forest, thicket
base
יַ֫עַר n.[m.] honeycomb
base
H3293a יַ֫עַר wood, forest, thicket H3293b יַ֫עַר honeycomb
3293 ya`ar yah'-ar
from an unused root probably meaning to thicken with verdure;
a copse of bushes; hence, a forest; hence, honey in the comb
(as hived in trees):--(honey-)comb, forest, wood.
יַ֫עַר (ya.ar) — wood.
forest, wood, thicket, wooded height
Also means: ya.or (יָעוֹר "wood" H3264)
יַ֫עַר (ya.ar) — honeycomb.
honeycomb
יַ֫עַר (ya.ar) — Jaar.
honeycomb
Another name of qir.yat ye.a.rim (קִרְיַת יְעָרִים "Kiriath-jearim" H7157)
יַ֫עַר (ya.ar) — (Ephraim) Forest.
Combined with eph.ra.yim (אֶפְרַ֫יִם " of Ephraim" H0669K)
§ honeycomb
יַ֫עַר (ya.ar) — (House of) the Forest.
Combined with ba.yit (בַּ֫יִת "House" H1004J)
§ honeycomb
Art | N-ms — Particle · noun common masculine singular absoluteHTd/Ncmsa
for'-est:
(1) choresh (compare proper name Harosheth), 2Ch 27:4. In 1Sa 23:15 ff translated "wood"; in Isa 17:9, "wood"; in Eze 31:3, "forest-like shade." Applied to any thick growth of vegetation but not necessarily so extensive as (3).
(2) pardec: Ne 2:8, margin "park"; Ec 2:5, the King James Version "orchards," the Revised Version (British and American) "parks"; So 4:13, English Versions of the Bible "orchard," the Revised Version, margin "paradise." A word of Persian origin signifying probably an enclosure.
Forest
Heb. ya’ar, meaning a dense wood, from its luxuriance. Thus all the great primeval forests of Syria (Eccl. 2:6; Isa. 44:14; Jer. 5:6; Micah 5:8). The most extensive was the trans-Jordanic forest of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18:6, 8; Josh. 17:15, 18), which is probably the same as the wood of Ephratah (Ps. 132:6), some part of the great forest of Gilead. It was in this forest that Absalom was slain by Joab. David withdrew to the forest of Hareth in the mountains of Judah to avoid the fury of Saul (
Although Palestine has never been in historical times a woodland country, yet there can be no doubt that there was much more wood formerly than there is a t present, and that the destruction of the forests was one of the chief causes of the present desolation.
שִׁפְלָה (shiphlah) refers to humiliation or a low place, indicating a sense of lowliness or depression. It is noted in Isaiah 32:19, where it describes a city. The word is feminine and is derived from a related term.
שִׁפְלָה n.f. humiliation;—Is 32:19 (of city).
done
H8218 שִׁפְלָה humiliation
8218 shiphlah shif-law'
feminine of 8216; depression:--low place.
see HEBREW for 08216
שִׁפְלָה (shiph.lah) — humiliation.
lowliness, humiliation, a low place
Conj | Prep | N-fs — Conjunction · preposition · noun common feminine singular absoluteHC/Rd/Ncfsa
שָׁפֵל (shaphel) is a Hebrew verb meaning to be or become low or abased. It can refer to both a physical lowering and a figurative humbling, with usages in different forms indicating actions like laying low or humbling oneself. The entries emphasize its application in contexts of humiliation and lowering one's status.
שָׁפֵל vb. be or become low, be abased
Qal
all Is: become (be brought, laid) low
to be lowly of spirit
of sound
Hiph.
usu. fig., lay low
hum. subj. set one in a lower place
as helping vb.: make low, sit down = take low seat
base
H8213 שָׁפֵל be or become low, be abased
8213 shaphel shaw-fale'
a primitive root; to depress or sink (expec. figuratively, to
humiliate, intransitive or transitive):--abase, bring (cast,
put) down, debase, humble (self), be (bring, lay, make, put)
low(-er).
שָׁפֵל (sha.phel) — to abase.
1) to be or become low, sink, be humbled, be abased
1a) (Qal) to be or become low
1b) (Hiphil)
1b1) to lay or bring low, humiliate
1b2) to set in a lower place, show abasement
1b3) to make low, sit down
V-Qal-Imperf-3fs — Verb · Qal · imperfect third person feminine singularHVqi3fs
The Hebrew word עִיר (*'iyr*) has meanings related to both excitement and city. It can denote excitement, particularly of terror or rage, as well as refer to a city or town, indicating a place that is guarded or inhabited. The entries suggest a broad application, from fortified cities to simple encampments. There is a specific mention of a man named Ir in 1 Chronicles 4:12.
עִיר n.[m.] excitement;—of terror; of rage
base
עִיר 1092 n.f. city, town
city, town, abode of men
of fortress in a city
appar. fortified place, of any size
base
H5892a עִיר excitement;—of terror; of rage H5892b עִיר city, town . city, town, abode of men
. of fortress in a city
. appar. fortified place, of any size
5892 `iyr eer
or (in the plural) par {awr}; or ayar (Judges 10:4)
{aw-yar'}; from 5782 a city (a place guarded by waking or a
watch) in the widest sense (even of a mere encampment or
post):--Ai (from margin), city, court (from margin), town.
see HEBREW for 05782
עִיר (ir) — excitement.
1) excitement, anguish
1a) of terror
עִיר (ir) — city.
1) city, town (a place of waking, guarded)
1a) city, town (a place of waking, guarded)
1a) city, town
עִיר (ir) — City (of On).
Combined with on (אֹן "On" H0204)
This name means city, town
Another name of on (אֹן "On" H0204)
עִיר (ir) — Ir-.
#A man of the tribe of Judah living at the time of Divided Monarchy, only mentioned at 1Ch.4.12;
son of: Tehinnah (H8468)
Art | N-fs — Particle · noun common feminine singular absoluteHTd/Ncfsa
sit'-i (`ir, qiryah; polis):
I. THE CANAANITE CITY
1. Origin
2. Extent
3. Villages
4. Sites
5. External Appearance
6. General
II. THE CITY OF THE JEWISH OCCUPATION
1. Tower or Stronghold
2. High Place
3. Broad Place
4. Streets
5. General Characteristics
III. STORE CITIES
IV. LEVITICAL CITIES
LITERATURE
I. The Canaanite City.
1. Origin:
The development of the Canaanite city has been traced by Macalister in his report on the excavation at Gezer (Palestine Exploration Fund Statement, 1904, 108 ff). It originated on the slopes of a bare rocky spur, in which the Neolithic Troglodytes quarried their habitations out of the solid rock, the stones therefrom being used to form a casing to the earthen ramparts, with which the site was afterwards surrounded and which served as a protection against the intrusion of enemies. Later Semitic intruders occupied the site, stone houses were built, and high stone defense…
City
The earliest mention of city-building is that of Enoch, which was built by Cain (Gen. 4:17). After the confusion of tongues, the descendants of Nimrod founded several cities (10:10-12). Next, we have a record of the cities of the Canaanites, Sidon, Gaza, Sodom, etc. (10:12, 19; 11:3, 9; 36:31-39). The earliest description of a city is that of Sodom (19:1-22). Damascus is said to be the oldest existing city in the world. Before the time of Abraham there were cities in Egypt (Num. 13:22). The Israelites in Egypt were employed in building the “treasure cities” of Pithom and Raamses (Ex. 1:11); but it does not seem that they had any cities of their own in Goshen (Gen.…
The towns and cities of Palestine were commonly built on heights, for better security against robbers or invaders. These heights, surrounded by walls, sometimes formed the entire city. In other cases, the citadel alone crowned the hill, around and at the base of which the town was built; and in time of danger the surrounding population all took refuge in the fortified place. Larger towns and cities were often not only defended by strong outer walls, with towers and gates, but by a citadel or castle within these limits-a last resort when the rest of the city was taken, Jud 9:46,51. The "fenced cities" of the Jews, De 3:5, were of various sizes and degrees of strength; some being surrounded by high and thick stone walls, and others by feebler ramparts, often of clay or sun-dried…
