19. Literature

Literature

1. Without inquiring into the origin of the Hebrew language, we may observe that it was spoken both in Mesopotamia and Canaan in the time of Abraham; for that patriarch, who came from beyond the Euphrates, conversed freely with the inhabitants of Canaan; and when Jacob, who had been brought up in the land of Canaan, went into Mesopotamia, his speech was readily understood (Gen 23:3, etc.; Gen 29:4-8). A more certain evidence of this is found in the fact, that the names of places and persons existing in Palestine when Abraham migrated to that country, have all a meaning in the language which Abraham spoke. That language is entirely unlike those of Europe, but it has a strong resemblance to the other original languages of Asia west of the Tigris—the Arabic, the Syriac, and the Chaldean. As it is now known, the Hebrew language is very simple and significant, but it wants flexibility and copiousness. It should be observed, however, that only a part of the ancient language is known to us—that which is contained in the Bible: and no one book, however large or various, can ever exemplify all the forms, or embrace the whole vocabulary, of any language.

2. Like all the languages of western Asia, Hebrew is read from right to left. The character in which it is written is the Chaldean, which the Jews adopted during the Captivity; and which, although not altogether different from that which they previously employed, is more neat and elegant. The older character is now known as the Samaritan. because it was retained by the Samaritans after it had been abandoned by the Jews. The Hebrew alphabet consists of twenty-one, or, as some count them, twenty-two consonants—

‏א—a; ‏ב‎—b; ‏ג‎—g; ‏ד‎—d; ‏ה‎—h; ‏ו‎—v; ‏ז‎—z; ‏ח‎—ch; ‏ט‎—t; ‏י‎—j; ‏כ‎—k; ‏ל‎—l; ‏מ‎—m; ‏נ‎—n; ‏ס‎—s; ‏ע‎—gh; ‏פ‎—p/ph; ‏צ‎—tz; ‏ק‎—q/k; ‏ר‎—r; ‏שׂ‎—s; ‏שׁ‎—sh; ‏ת‎—t/th.

There are thirteen vowel sounds, which are now usually expressed by points set above or below the respective consonants with which they are joined. The antiquity of these points is a matter which has been much controverted.

Arabian Writing Case

3. The older alphabet of the Hebrews, and their mode of writing, were, like their language, the same as those of the Canaanites and Phoenicians. Their early knowledge of alphabetic writing is implied in the fact, that there were public genealogists (Deu 17:18-19; Deu 24:1-3); and is evinced by the writings of Moses, by the stone tables of the law, and by the frequent references which Moses makes to books and writings as to things well known (Exo 17:14; Exo 24:7; Exo 28:9-11; Exo 32:32; Exo 34:27-28; Num 28:2; Deu 27:8). In the course of time, many of the Israelites were able to read and write; but the great mass of the people were content with oral instruction in the law of God, which was the only kind of learning in general deemed necessary. When occasion required, those who could, wrote for those who could not write; and persons in the habit of thus acting as scribes, who were usually Levites, always went with inkhorns in their girdles, as is still done by the learned in the East. This implement was then, as now, provided not only with a receptacle for ink, but with a case for reed pens and a pen-knife (Jer 36:23; Eze 9:2-3; Eze 9:11). The materials for writing were very various at different times of the long period over which the Hebrew history extends. New inventions were introduced, and the purpose of the writing often dictated the character of the material. The most ancient which we know to have been actually used, were the stone tables on which the Decalogue was engraved, and the great stones which were set up on Mount Ebal (Deu 27:1-3). From the latter instance, it would seem that the engraved letters were sometimes filled up with plaster. In the book of Job, which is supposed to be of still earlier date, the practice of writing on rocks and tablets of lead, as well as in books, is mentioned (Job 19:23-24).

Ancient Writing Materials

It is presumed that laws, treaties, and the history of great public events, were carved on the rocks and stones as well as on lead, for which brass, as being more durable, was afterwards substituted (1Ma 8:22; 1Ma 14:20-27). It is more difficult to determine the early material of books among the Hebrews. As we do not read of books being in use among them till they were in Egypt, it is probable that they would use the materials employed in that country. Now it is known that leather was among the materials on which the Egyptians wrote; and a few leathern rolls of the most remote antiquity have been found. As, therefore, the Hebrews, when they first had books, were a pastoral people, and had the art of preparing the skins of animals, it seems likely that their first books, or rolls, were of this material. Linen, also, was so prepared as to bear writing, and may have been employed to some extent by the Israelites. The invention of paper made from the papyrus reed (Cyperus papyrus) was of very ancient date; and hence it also may have been in use among the Jews. But as it was much dearer than leather, it may be assumed that the latter was the material chiefly used. Josephus affirms, that the copies of the sacred books were written on skins (Antiq. xii. 2); and that Jeremiah’s roll of prophecy consisted of skin seems to be indicated by the fact that the king cut it with a knife before throwing it into the fire (Jer 36:23). Parchment was not invented until 250 b.c., and it soon came into general use among the Israelites, for their sacred writings. For common uses, tablets of wood were employed: these were not in the East, as among the Romans, covered with wax, but with a glazed composition capable of receiving ink. Such tablets were used by the Egyptians long after they had papyri, and are still used in the common schools of Egypt (Isa 8:1; Eze 37:16; Luk 1:63).

Ancient Roll

4. Books of skin and parchment, and even of papyrus, were in the form of rolls, written in small columns, the beginning being at the open end. They were sometimes, but very rarely, written on both sides (Eze 2:9-10; Zec 5:1). They were rolled round a stick or roller, like a map; or, if long, round two rollers, one at each end. The reader unrolled the book as he perused it, and rolled it up again when he had done; and hence a book was called a “volume,” or a thing rolled up (2Ki 19:14; Ezr 6:2; Isa 34:4). Books which were thus rolled up, and tied round with a string, could be easily sealed (Isa 29:11; Dan 12:4; Rev 5:1; Rev 5:5; Rev 5:7).

5. No mention of letters or epistles occurs earlier than the time of David (2Sa 11:14, etc.); but they are frequently spoken of afterwards. In the East, letters are usually sent unsealed; but when addressed to persons of consequence, they are enclosed in a valuable purse or bag, which is tied, sealed, and stamped with a signet. This seems also to have been the practice of the Jews (Neh 6:5; Isa 29:11). It has already been observed, that, the common use of the signet in the East is not to seal letters, but to stamp with in the came engraved thereon, instead of a manual signature.

Persian Writing Case

6. In writing on hard materials, such as tables of stone or metal, use was made of a stylus or bodkin, made of iron, and sometimes tipped with diamond (Jer 17:1). But the ordinary pen for writing with ink was a reed, cut and split much like our pen, but with a more blunt point. The ink used by the Orientals is most intensely black, and much less fluid than ours, more resembling printers’ ink (Num 5:23; Jer 36:18). The ink-horn, in which it is carried, consists of a small brass vessel at the end of a hollow shaft, which as already mentioned, also contains the reeds and a knife for sharpening them (Jer 36:23; Eze 9:2-3; Eze 9:11).