Flax

פשתה , Exo 9:31; Lev 13:47-48; Lev 13:52; Lev 13:59; Deu 22:11; Jos 2:6; Jdg 15:14; Pro 31:13; Isa 19:9; Isa 42:3; Isa 43:17; Jer 13:1; Eze 40:3; Eze 44:17-18; Hos 2:5; Hos 2:9; λινον, Mat 12:20; Rev 15:6; a plant very common, and too well known to need a description. It is a vegetable upon which the industry of mankind has been exercised with the greatest success and utility. On passing a field of it, one is struck with astonishment when he considers that this apparently insignificant plant may, by the labour and ingenuity of man, be made to assume an entirely new form and appearance, and to contribute to pleasure and health, by furnishing us with agreeable and ornamental apparel. This word Mr. Parkhurst thinks is derived from the verb פשט , to strip, because the substance which we term flax is properly the bark or fibrous part of the vegetable, pilled or stripped off the stalks. From time immemorial Egypt was celebrated for the production or manufacture of flax. Wrought into garments, it constituted the principal dress of the inhabitants, and the priests never put on any other kind of clothing. The fine linen of Egypt is celebrated in all ancient authors, and its superior excellence mentioned in the sacred Scriptures. The manufacture of flax is still carried on in that country, and many writers take notice of it. Rabbi Benjamin Tudela mentions the manufactory at Damiata; and Egmont and Heyman describe the article as being of a beautiful colour, and so finely spun that the threads are hardly discernible.

From the numerous references to flax and linen, there is no doubt that the plant was extensively cultivated, not only in Egypt, but also in Palestine. As to Egypt we have proof in the mummy cloth being made of linen, and also in the representations of the flax cultivation in the paintings of the Grotto of el Kab, which represent the whole process with the utmost clearness; and numerous testimonies might be adduced from ancient authors, of the esteem in which the linen of Egypt was held. Flax continues to be extensively cultivated in the present day. That it was also much cultivated in Palestine, and well known to the Hebrews, we have proofs in the number of times it is mentioned; as in Jos 2:6, where Rahab is described as concealing the two Hebrew spies with the stalks of flax which she had laid in order upon the roof. In several passages, as Lev 13:47-48; Lev 13:52; Lev 13:59; Deu 22:11; Jer 13:1; Eze 40:3; Eze 44:17-18, we find it mentioned as forming different articles of clothing, as girdles, cords, and bands. In Pro 31:13, the careful housewife ’seeketh wool and flax, and worketh it willingly with her hands.’

A well-known plant, upon which the industry of mankind has been exercised with the greatest success and utility, Jos 2:6 Pro 1:13 .\par Moses speaks of the flax in Egypt, Exo 9:31, which country has been celebrated, from time immemorial, for its production and manufacture. The "fine linen of Egypt," which was manufactured from this article, is spoken of for its superior excellence, in Scripture, Pro 7:16 Eze 27:7 . It is however, probable that fine cotton is sometimes to be understood when the Byssus is spoken of. Most of the linen found wrapped around Egyptian mummies will hardly compare with our common sheetings. But some specimens are found of most remarkable fineness; one containing 152 threads in the warp, and 71 in the woof, to each square inch; and another, 270 double threads in the warp, and 110 in the woof, per inch. See COTTON and LINEN.\par The prophet Isaiah, in speaking of the gentleness of the Messiah, makes use of a proverbial expression, which is also quoted by Matthew and applied to Jesus: "The bruised reed he shall not break, and the smoking flax he shall not quench," Isa 42:3 Mat 12:20 . Here "flax" is used for the wick of a lamp or taper, which was usually made of flax. He will not break a reed already bruised and ready to be broken, nor extinguish a flickering, dying lamp, just ready to expire; that is, he will not oppress his humble and penitent followers, but cherish the feeblest beginnings of true grace.\par

Flax. A well-known plant with yellowish stem and bright-blue flowers. Its fibres are employed in the manufacture of linen. The root contains an oil, and after the oil is expressed is used as a food for cattle. Egypt was celebrated for the culture of flax and the manufacture of linen.

The spinning was anciently done by women of noble birth. It seems probable that the cultivation of flax for the purpose of the manufacture of linen was by no means confined to Egypt, but that, originating in India, it spread over Asia at a very early period of antiquity.

That it was grown in Palestine even before the conquest of that country by the Israelites appears from Joshua. Jos 2:6. The various processes employed in preparing the flax for manufacture into cloth are indicated:

1. The drying process.

2. The peeling of the stalks and separation of the fibres.

3. The hackling. Isa 19:9.

That flax was one of the most important crops in Palestine appears from Hos 2:5; Hos 2:9.

Exo 9:31, "the flax was bolled," i.e. "in blossom"; the boll, related to bowl and ball, being the pod. Marking the time, the end of February or beginning of March. Linen was exclusively used by the priests. Pliny, 19:1, notes four kinds in Egypt, and 24 mentions Tanis (Zoan) as famous for flax. In evenness of threads without knot or break Egyptian linen exceeded modern manufacture. (Wilkinson on Herod., 2:37, p. 54.) Solomon imported it from Egypt (1Ki 10:28; Pro 7:16; Eze 27:7). The processes of manufacture are represented on Egyptian tombs as at Benihassan. The microscope shows the doth on the mummies to be linen. It was grown in Canaan before Joshua’s (Jos 2:6) conquest; the stalks were dried on the flat roofs by exposure to the sun’s heat; later the drying was done in ovens.

The combing is noticed in Isa 19:9, "they that work in combed (so seriguot means) flax." The rich alone wore fine linen (Luk 16:19). Wilkinson mentions Egyptian linen with 540 (or 270 double) threads in one inch in the warp; most modern cambric has but 160 (Barnes). The corslet of Amasis king of Egypt was of linen threads, each having 360 strands or filaments (Herodotus). Its cultivation in northern Israel is alluded to, Hos 2:5; Hos 2:9. "Fine linen, clean and white," is the emblem of "the righteousness (distributively) of saints," the bride’s attire for" the marriage of the Lamb," Rev 19:7-8 (each saint having for himself Christ’s righteousness imputed for justification, and imparted by the Spirit for sanctification).

The tearing up of the flax from its native soil, its exposure to the scorching sun, its being torn by the comb’s long teeth, and sunk in the water with stones attached, so as ultimately to be transfigured into raiment white as snow, illustrate how the Christian is prepared for grace and glory through long and varied afflictions now. In Isa 42:3, "the smoking flax He shall not quench," i.e. the flax wick of the lamp. The believer is the lamp (Greek, Mat 5:15; Joh 5:35), his conscience enlightened by the Holy Spirit is the wick; "smoking "means dimly burning, smoldering, the flame not extinct; "bruised" in himself, but having some spark lighted from above, Christ will supply such a one with grace as with oil, and will not stifle the little flame. So the faint light of nature in the Gentiles, smoldering amidst the smoke of error, He not only does not quench, but clears away its mists, and superadds the light of revelation.

פִּשְׁתָּה, pishtah’ (Exo 9:31; Isa 42:3; "tow," Isa 43:17); and פִּשְּׁתֶּה, pishteh’ (rendered "flax" or "linen"); Greek λίνον. As regards the latter of these two Heb. terms, there is probably only one passage where it stands for the plant in its undressed state (Joshua ii, 6). Eliminating all the places where the words are used for the article manufactured in ’the thread, the piece, or the made-up garment (q.v. severally), we reduce them to two: Exo 9:31, certain, and Joshua ii, 6, disputed. In the former the flax of the Egyptians is recorded to have been damaged by the plague of hail. The word גִּבְעֹל, there rendered "boll," is retained by Onkejos; but is rendered in the Sept. σπερματίζον, and in the Vulg. folliculos germinabat. Rosenmuller renders it "the globule or knob of ripening flax" (Schol. ad loc.). Gesenius makes it the calix or corolla; refers to the Mishna, where it is used for the calix of the hyssop, and describes this explanation as one of long-’steding among the ,more learned Rabbins (Thes. p. 261). SEE BOLLED.

As the departure of the Israelites took place in the spring, this passage has reference no doubt to the practice adopted in Egypt, as well as in India, of sowing grain partly inl the months of September and October, and partly in spring, so that the wheat might easily be in blade at the same time that the barley and flax were more advanced. From the numerous references to flax and linen, there is no doubt that the plant was extensively cultivated, not only in Egypt; but also in Palestine. Ritter (Erd/cunde, ii, 916; compare his Vorhalle, etc., p. 45-48) renders it probable that the cultivation of flax for the purpose of the manufacture of linen was by no means confined to these countries, but that, originating in India, it spread over the whole continent of Asia at a very early period of antiquity. For the culture of flax, low alluvial lands which have received deposits left by the overflowing of rivers are deemed the most favorable situations. To this circumstance Egypt must have been indebted for the superiority of her flax, so famous in the ancient world, and which gave to her more elaborate manufactures the subtlety of the most exquisite muslin, well meriting the epithet "woven air." Herodotus mintions (iii,47) as laid up in a temple at Lindus, in Rhodes, a linen corset which had belonged to Amasis, king of Egypt, each thread of which was composed of 360 strands or filaments. In length and in fineness of fibre no country could compete with ’the flax: which produced the "fine linen of Egypt," and which made the Delta "the great linen market of the ancient world" (Ksalisch). By annihilating this crop, the seventh plague inflicted a terrible calamity. It destroyed what, next to corn, formed the staple. of the country, and would only find its modern parallel in the visitation which should cut off a cotton harvest in America. That it was grown in Palestine even before the conquest of that country by the Israelites appears from Jos 2:6, the second of the two passages mentioned above. There is, however, some difference of words פִּשְׁתֵּי הָעֵוֹ (Sept. λινοκαλὰμη, Vulg. stipuloe lini, and so A. V. "stalks of flax"); Josephus speaks of λίνου ἀγκαλίδες, armfuls or bundles of flax.; but Arab. Vers. "stalks of cotton." Gesenius, however, and Rosenmuller are in favor of the rendering "’stalks of flax." If this be correct, the place involves an allusion to the customs of drying the flax-stalks by exposing them to the heat of the sun upon the flat roofs of houses; and so expressly in Josephus (Ant. v, i, 2). SEE STALK.

In later times this drying was done in ovens. There is a decided reference to the raw material in the Sept. rendering of Lev 13:47 (ἱματίῳ στυππυίνῳ), and Jdg 15:14 (στυππίον; comp. Isa 1:31). In several other passages, as Lev 13:48; Lev 13:52; Lev 13:59; Deu 22:11; Jer 13:1; Eze 40:3; Eze 44:17-18, we find it mentioned as forming different articles of clothing, as girdles, cords, and bands. In Pro 31:13, the careful housewife "seeketh wool and flax, and worketh it willingly with her bands." The words of Isaiah (Isa 42:3), "A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he snot quench," are evidently. referred to in Mat 12:20, where λίνον is used as the name of flax, and as the equivalent of pishtah. But there can be no doubt of this word being correctly understood, as it has been well investigated by several authors. (Celsius, Hierobot. ii, 283; Yates, Texhrinum Ansiquorum, p. 253). SEE COTTON.

Few plants are at once so lovely and so useful as the slender, upright herb, With taper leaves and large blue-purple flowers, from which are fashioned alike the coarsest canvas and the most ethereal cambric or lawn the sail of the ship and the fairy-looking scarf which can be packed into a filbert shell. It was of linen, in part at least, that the hangings of the. tabernacle were constructed, white, blue, and crimson, with cherubim in woven; and it. was of linen that the vestments of Aaron were fashioned. When arrayed in all his, glory, Solomon could put on nothing more costly than the finest linen of Egypt; and describing "the marriage of the Lamb," the seer of Patmos represents the bride as." arrayed in fine linen, clean and white; for the fine linen is the righteousness of saints." As to Egypt, we have proof in the mummny-cloth being made of linen, and also in the representations of the flax cultivation in the paintings of the Grotto of El-Kab, which represent the whole process with the utmost clearness; and numerous testimonies might be adduced from ancient authors of the esteem in which the linen of Egypt c-as held (Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. iii,. 139). From these pictures, preserved at Beni Hassan, it would seem that the Egyptian treatment of the flaxplant was essentially the same as that which was pursued till quite lately by ourselves, which even now is only modified by machinery, and which is thus described by Pliny: "The stalks are immersed in water warmed by the heat of the sun, and are kept down by weights placed upon them, for nothing is lighter than flax. The membrane or rind becoming loose is a sign of their being sufficiently macerated. They are then taken out, and repeatedly turned over in the sun until. perfectly dried, and afterwards beaten by mallets on stone slabs. The tow which is nearest the rind is inferior to the inner fibres, and is fit only for. the wicks of lamps.’ It is combed out with iron hooks until all the rind is removed. The inner part is of a finer and Whiter quality. After it is made into yarn, it is polished by striking it frequently on a hard stone, moistened with water; and when woven-into cloth it is Again beaten with clubs, being always improved in propcstiam as it is beaten" (Hist. Nat. 19:1). The various processes employed in preparing the flax for manufacture into cloth are indicated in Scripture.

1. The drying process (see above).

2. The peeling of the stalks and separation of the fibres (the name of flax itself being derivable either, as Parkhurst, from פָּשִׁט, pashat’, to strip, peel, or as Gesenius, from פָּשִׁשׁpashash’, ’to separate into parts).

3. The hackling (Isa 19:9; Sept. λίνον τὸ σχιστόν; see Gesenius, Lex. s.v. שָׂרִיקand ’for the combs used in the process, comp.Wilkinsoui, Asnc. Egypt. iii, 140). The flax, however, was not always dressed before weaving (see Sir 11:4, where ὠμόλινον is mentioned as a species of clothing worn by the poor). That the s-se of the coarser fibres was known to the Hebrews may be inferred from the mention of tow (נְעֹרֶת) is- Jdg 16:9; Isa 1:31. That flax was anciently, one of the most important crops in Palestine appears from Hos 2:5; Hos 2:9; that it continued to be grown and manufactured into linen in N. Palestine down to the Middle Ages se have the testimony of numerous Talmudists and Rabbins. At present it does not seem to be so much cultivated there as the cotton-plant. For the flax of ancient .Egypt, see Herodotus, ii, 37, 105; Cels. ii, p.). 285 sq.; Heerem, Ideesm, ii, 2, p. 368 sq. For that of modern Egypt, see Hasseiquist, Jours-y, p. 500; Ohvier, Voyage, iii, 297; Girard’s Observations in Descsipt. de lI’Lypte, 17:98; Paul Lucas, Voyages, ii, 47. SEE LINEN.

pishtah, λίνον. The common plant from which linen is made. Exo 9:31; Jos 2:6; Pro 31:13; Isa 42:3; Eze 40:3; Hos 2:5; Hos 2:9; Mat 12:20.

FLAX.—See Smoking Flax.

(Hebr. "pishtah"):

By: Emil G. Hirsch, Henry Hyvernat

The principal species of the natural order Linaceæ which includes more than fifty other species. The culture of flax in Palestine preceded the conquest of that country by the Hebrews (Joshua ii. 6).

Some of the processes in its preparation for manufacture into cloth are alluded to in the Bible. After being pulled, the stalks of flax were spread out on the flat roofs of the houses, and left to dry by exposure to the heat of the sun (ib.); they were then peeled and their fibers separated and sorted, an operation implied in the etymology of the word "pishtah"; finally, the fibers were hackled or combed and made ready to be woven into cloth (ib. xix. 9).

The flax or linen thread called "bad"—probably the best variety, white, fine, and strong, was used in making the vestments of the priests and other rich clothing (Ex. xxviii. 42; I Sam. ii. 18). The plural "baddim" (Ezek. ix. 2, 3) designates "linen garments," especially the garments of the priests (comp. Lev. xvi. 4). The angels themselves are described as being clothed in linen garments (Ezek. ix. 2; Dan. x. 5).

The commoner kinds of linen were used in the manufacture of various articles, such as cords (Ezek. xl. 3), lamp-wicks (Isa. xlii. 3; comp. Matt. xii. 20), etc. Linen used for clothing could not lawfully be mixed with wool. "Thou shalt not wear a mingled stuff, wool and linen together" (Dent. xxii. 11). The flax industry seems to have been held in high esteem by the Hebrews; for one of the characteristics of the virtuous woman is that "she seeketh wool and flax and worketh willingly with her hands" (Prov. xxxi. 13).

Bibliography:

P. Bourdais, La Flore de la Bible, Paris, 1879;

H. Tristram, The Natural History of the Bible, London, 1889;

I. Löw, Aramäische Pflanzennamen;

Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai.

FLAX (pishtah).—The plant Linum usitatissimum, and the prepared fibres used for making linen. It was early cultivated in Palestine (Jos 2:6); the failure of the flax was one of God’s judgments (Hos 2:9). The plant is about two to three feet high, with pretty blue flowers; the flax is said to be ‘bolled’ (Exo 9:31) when the seed vessels reach maturity and the plant is ready for gathering. The stalks were dried on the housetops (Jos 2:6), and then soaked in water and the fibre combed out (Isa 19:9 RV [Note: Revised Version.] ). The ‘tow’ of Isa 43:17 is teased-out flax. The oil of the seeds is the well-known linseed oil.

E. W. G. Masterman.

flaks פשת, pesheth, also פשתּה, pishtāh; λίνον, lı́non (Mat 12:20)): The above Hebrew words are applied (1) to the plant: “The flax was in bloom” (the King James Version “bolled”; Exo 9:31); (2) The “stalks of flax,” literally, “flax of the tree,” put on the roof to dry (Jos 2:6); (3) to the fine fibers used for lighting: the King James Version “tow,” “flax,” the Revised Version (British and American). “A dimly burning wick will he not quench” (Isa 42:3); “They are quenched as a wick” (Isa 43:17). The thought is perhaps of a scarcely lighted wick just kindled with difficulty from a spark. (4) In Isa 19:9 mention is made of “combed flax,” i.e. flax hackled ready for spinning (compare Hos 2:5, Hos 2:9; Pro 31:13). The reference in Jdg 15:14 is to flax twisted into cords. (5) In Jdg 16:9; Isa 1:31, mention is made of נערת, n^e‛ōreth, “tow,” literally, something “shaken off” - as the root implies - from flax. (6) The plural form pishtı̄m is used in many passages for linen, or linen garments, e.g. Lev 13:47, Lev 13:48, Lev 13:52, Lev 13:59; Deu 22:11; Jer 13:1 (“linen girdle”); Eze 44:17 f. Linen was in the earliest historic times a favorite material for clothes. The Jewish priestly garments were of pure linen. Egyptian mummies were swathed in linen. Several other Hebrew words were used for linen garments. See LINEN.

Flax is the product of Linum usitatissimum, a herbaceous plant which has been cultivated from the dawn of history. It is perennial and grows to a height of 2 to 3 ft.; it has blue flowers and very fibrous stalks. The tough fibers of the latter, after the decay and removal of the softer woody and gummy material, make up the crude “flax.” Linseed, linseed oil and oilcake are useful products of the same plant.

Isa 42:3 (b) This interesting type is used to illustrate the struggling Christian who is endeavoring to serve the Lord to the best of his ability, but is not doing it very well. This one is not to be discouraged by those who are better taught. (See also Mat 12:20).

Flax. A plant growing one meter (three feet) tall with pale blue flowers, and used for making cloth. When mature, the entire flax plant was pulled and placed in water to separate the fibers from the stems. It was then laid on housetops to dry ( Jos 2:6), and later woven into linen. Flax was also used as wicks for lamps in Bible times ( Isa 42:3). Also see Reed Rush.

Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is one of several plants of this genus. One type is widely grown both for the linseed oil from its seeds and the fine textile fibers from its stems. Flax is the oldest known textile fiber. Cloth woven from flax is called linen. Cotton appears only once in the Bible (Esther 1:6). There is no mention of any other fiber plant being grown in Egypt or Israel and the surrounding areas in biblical times. For this reason, experts think linen was the material used to make clothes other than woolen ones.

People also used linen for household items such as:

• towels (John 13:4–5),

• napkins (11:44),

• belts and undergarments (Isaiah 3:23; Mark 14:51),

• nets (Isaiah 19:8–9), and

• measuring lines (Ezekiel 40:3).

The priests serving in the temple had to wear only linen clothes. The Jews were strictly forbidden to use cloth made of a mixture of wool and flax (Leviticus 19:19; Deuteronomy 22:11).

People in biblical times used at least three kinds of linen, and each kind had particular uses. The Bible mentions ordinary linen of the coarsest texture in Leviticus 6:10, Ezekiel 9:2, Daniel 10:5, and Revelation 15:6. It mentions a second type of linen of better quality in Exodus 26:1 and 39:27. A third type of linen of the finest texture and high cost appears in 1 Chronicles 15:27, Esther 8:15, and Revelation 19:8.

The common flax plant grows from 0.3 to 1.2 meters (1 to 4 feet) tall. It has a simple, slender, wirelike stem and many small, pale, lance-shaped green leaves. The failure of the flax crop is listed as one of God's punishments (Hosea 2:9). Jewish women made linen from flax fibers as a household industry (Proverbs 31:13, 19). They made everything from ordinary clothing to the robes and aprons worn by priests and temple attendants. People also used linen for wicks in lamps (Isaiah 42:3).

See Cloth and Cloth Manufacturing.

Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

Flax is the linum plant from which linen is made

EXO 9:31; ; JOS 2:6; ; JDG 15:14

Making flax into linen

PRO 31:13; ; ISA 19:9

Dictionary of Bible Themes © 1999 Martin H. Manser. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.