21. Commerce and War

Commerce and War

1. The ancient Israelites were not a commercial people; nor did the Law of Moses afford much encouragement to what was calculated to promote that intercourse with other nations, which it was the object of so many of the Jewish institutions to prevent. They had no maritime traffic, and ships are rarely mentioned, except in connection with the spirited attempts of Solomon and Jehoshaphat to establish a commerce, through the Red Sea, with the shores of the Indian Ocean. The former, having the aid of Phoenician ships and mariners, was not unsuccessful; but the operations begun in his reign were broken off in the troubles which afterwards ensued, and Jehoshaphat’s attempt to revive them proved abortive (1Ki 9:26; 1Ki 22:48-49; 2Ch 9:21; 2Ch 20:36). Joppa, which was the only harbor in the Mediterranean belonging to the Jews, was the port of Jerusalem (2Ch 2:16), and Phoenician vessels of some burden resorted to it (Jon 1:3). It was much improved in the time of Simon Maccabeus; but was ultimately superseded by Caesarea, after Herod the Great had formed a better harbor there by the construction of magnificent moles.

Persian Daric

2. At the time the Jewish history commences, the land traffic of Western Asia had become something more than mere barter. In the time of Abraham silver had become the medium of exchange; but it was estimated by weight (Gen 23:16). The weight most in use was the shekel, which was nearly half an ounce. No distinct mention is made of coined money, or of any other metallic medium of exchange than silver, till after the Captivity. Gold, although of course estimated highly above silver, was, even so late as the time of David, known only as a costly article of merchandise, proper for trinkets, arms, and rich works in metal. The most ancient coin which history makes known was the Persian daric, a gold coin somewhat heavier than a guinea; and this is also the first coin mentioned in the Bible (1Ch 29:7; Ezr 2:69; Ezr 8:27; Neh 7:70-72). During the Captivity, and for some time after it, the Jews used the coins of the nations to which they were subject. The first coinage by themselves was under Simon Maccabeus (1Ma 15:6), who issued a currency under the name of shekels. These coins were mostly silver, and were worth nearly half-a-crown; but some were of gold, and, in the proportion which gold now bears to silver, must have been worth nearly two pounds sterling. Greek and Roman coins also came into use, the latter of which are frequently mentioned in the New Testament.

Shekel

Quarter Shekel

Their value may be seen in the tables prefixed to this work. But it must be remembered, that the value affixed merely expresses the present English value of such a quantity of metal. Gold and silver were probably scarcer in ancient times than now, and therefore of higher relative value. It is possible that a given quantity of silver or gold may have purchased as much as ten times the same quantity will purchase now; and in that case a shekel of silver, equivalent to nearly half-a-crown, was really worth as much as five-and-twenty shillings in this country, at the present time. But all this is uncertain; and it is possible that the quantities of the precious metals existing in ancient times, from sources, the subsequent exhaustion of which, rendered them scarce until the discovery of America, has been greatly underrated in common opinion.

3. Prior to the introduction of coins among the Israelites, the use of weights and balances was necessary in all sales and purchases. Scales were commonly employed, but an instrument on the principle of the modern steel-yard also came into use. The weights were originally stones; and hence the word for a weight denotes a stone in the Hebrew. Dealers were in the habit of carrying balances and weights about with them in a kind of pouch (Lev 19:35-36; Deu 25:13-15; Pro 11:1; Pro 16:11; Mic 6:11); and the frequent injunction against the use of “divers weights,” applies to those who carried in their bags two sets of weights, lighter and heavier, which they used fraudulently, as they had opportunity.

4. Among the Israelites, the soldiers were not a separate class, as in Europe, but every adult male was considered liable to bear arms, the priests and Levites not excepted. They were like a militia, and were called out in such proportion as the public service required, the whole body not being expected to take the field except on very extraordinary occasions. All the adult males, above the age of twenty, were enrolled, and from them the necessary levy was drawn by the genealogists. When a man was required to engage in military service, he might claim exemption on any of the following grounds; 1. If he had built a house, and had not occupied it; 2. If he had planted a vineyard or oliveyard, and had not yet eaten of the produce; 3. If he had espoused a wife, but had not yet taken her home; 4. If he were fainthearted (Deu 20:5-8). All the Israelites being thus regarded as fighting-men, we perceive how it was that large armies were often raised in a very short time (Jdg 20:8-11; Jdg 20:17; 1Sa 11:1-9). Put they could be kept together only for a brief campaign, as every man served at his own expense (1Sa 17:13; 1Sa 17:17). This inconvenience, and others of a similar kind, made the kings desirous of having a body of troops always at command. Hence Saul, instead of disbanding the whole army after his first campaign, retained three thousand in arms (1Sa 13:1-2). David kept up a much larger number; but still they were only militia, in twelve legions of twenty-four thousand men each, which relieved one another in monthly rotation, so that each legion was one month in service and eleven at home (1 Chronicles 27). Later kings appear to have followed this example more or less; but we do not find that there were ever soldiers by profession among the Israelites. The mercenary soldiers of the Herods were foreigners.

The Hospitaler Castle of Krag in the Holy Land

5. The armies of the Israelites were composed entirely of infantry till the time of the kings. Cavalry was of little use in a mountainous country, and was discouraged by the law (Deu 12:16). David had a hundred horses, more for show than use (2Sa 8:4); but Solomon maintained a large number of horses and chariots of war (2Ch 9:25). After him, however, the kings appear to have had no considerable force in cavalry, except when they obtained succors from Egypt. The infantry were divided into light-armed troops and spearmen: the former were furnished with slings, darts, bows and arrows, quivers, and in later times, bucklers; the spearmen had spears, swords, and shields (1Ch 12:24; 1Ch 12:34; 2Ch 14:8; 2Ch 17:17). We can collect little from Scripture respecting the order of battle; but there can be little doubt that, as among other nations, the light-armed troops made the onset; and that the main body following, with extended spears, made a rapid and impetuous rush upon the enemy. If the enemy’s front remained unbroken they withdrew, and again came on in like manner. They advanced to the charge with a about (Jos 6:20; Jdg 7:20; 1Sa 17:52). Battles were very sanguinary, and the slaughter immense, because quarter was seldom expected or given; and the soldiers being often engaged hand to hand, the animosity and passions of the combatants were furiously excited. The barbarities committed by the conquerors upon the conquered were generally very, revolting. Prisoners of distinction were often grievously maltreated (Jos 10:24; Jdg 1:6-7; 2Ki 25:7); and the captured soldiers were either kept in hard bondage, or sold as slaves (2Sa 12:31; 2Ch 18:10; Psa 44:12). When a town was taken by assault, all the men were slain, and the women and children sold into slavery.

6. Like all Orientals, the Israelites were averse to under take sieges, in which they had but little skill. Sudden and violent onsets, stratagem, treachery, or famine, were the means employed for taking towns. When the siege was much protracted an extended ditch was sometimes dug between the camp and the city, and another parallel to it, behind the camp, for the purpose of protecting it in front and rear, and of cutting off from the town all assistance and supplies (Deu 20:19-20; 2Sa 20:15). The earth thrown up formed a wall on which towers were sometimes erected; or else it formed a mound against the city wall on which the besiegers might plant their engines, if they had any, project their missiles, and assail the wall (2Sa 20:15; 2Ki 19:32). In later times battering-rams were used in the assault of towns (Ezekiel 4 :l-2; Eze 21:22; Eze 26:9); and engines of defence, for casting large stones and other missiles, were introduced in the reign of King Uzziah (2Ch 26:15).

Battering Ram

Balista

7. The commander-in-chief of the army was called the captain of the host. Joshua was the first who held this office. After him the command was taken by the “Judges,” who were successively raised up to deliver the nation. Under the kings, the command of the army was maintained as a distinct office, the possessor of which was of the highest rank and influence; although, in action, the kings themselves often took the chief command (Jos 5:14; Jdg 4:2; 1Sa 14:50; 2Sa 20:23; 2Ki 4:13). The whole army appears to have been formed into three grand divisions, each commanded by a general, but the whole under the commander-in-chief (Jdg 7:16; Jdg 7:20; 1Sa 11:11; 2Sa 18:2); and these were subdivided into bodies of ten thousand, a thousand, a hundred, and fifty, each under its appropriate commander. These commanders were generally the paternal chiefs of the clans and families from which the troops were levied (1Sa 8:12; 2Ki 1:9; 1Ch 12:14; 2Ch 25:5).

Egyptian War Chariot