06. CHAPTER VI SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE

CHAPTER VI SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS LIFE

Escape from self is better than escape from a lion.
There are two that are never satisfied — the seeker of knowledge
and the seeker of wealth.
The best wealth is that which is pleasing to God.
Syrian Proverbs. The present chapter brings us to a point of view that commands a very extensive and variegated prospect. It is the illustration of Scripture from the social life, public government, and literary, scientific, and religious institutions of the East.

1. Oriental Villages. -(1) Their origin. — The landscape of the East shows no farm-houses scattered here and there over the plains and valleys. Those who cultivate the soil in any district build their houses beside each other in a village. As already mentioned, one of the chief reasons for this was the unsettled state of the country. The produce and various possessions of the farmers, and their own lives also, had to be protected against the shepherd tribes. Further, the leading sheikhs of the different clans were constantly at war with each other, and the peasantry who tilled the property of their local prince had to make common cause with him. His enemies were their enemies.

How thorough this submission must have been may be inferred from the recent remark of an old sheikh, who maintained that government on the present national plan was not so good as that of the old system of ruling families. When asked what he meant by good government, he pointed to a large gray rock and said: “ When I said to one of my people, ’ That stone is red,’ he used to answer ’ It is red ’; if I said ’ No, it is green,’ he would answer ’ It is green.’ That is good government, but it is lost now.’’ These local feuds meant a constant exposure to attack, and the village became offensively and defensively the home of the clan, as the house was of the family. A third reason pointing in the same direction was the necessity of water.. This was required not only for the inhabitants and their animals, but also for vegetable gardens. In this way the village often got its name from the fountain (’am) or well (beer) beside which it was built, coupled with the cliff, tree, meadow, castle, or some such natural feature in the vicinity. Bible examples of this were Abel-ma-im, Beersheba, Endor.

(2) Appearance. — The small villages of the peasantry in the wheat plains are mere mud-brick hovels, allotted by the proprietor to those who till the surrounding fields. Those on the hill-sides are built of limestone; their inhabitants have more independence and greater variety of occupation, and the whole appearance of such villages is very much better. The houses with their flat roofs look like so many large boxes that have rolled down from above and been suddenly arrested in their descent. They are often so near each other that the door of one leads out to the flat roof of the house below it. The white walls gleam out of the surrounding mulberry foliage, the monotony being usually broken by the larger dimensions and better architecture of the sheikh’s house, and sometimes the houses cluster round the prominent nucleus of the village church, leaving a few to straggle up the slope towards the ridge where the old shrine-tomb under its oak-tree gives a picturesque outline to the background.

(3) Village life. — The farmers go out to their work in the fields, which are often at a considerable distance, and usually they do not return till sunset. This is the going forth referred to in the Bible in connection with the labours of the field (Psalms 104:23; Psalms 126:6; Luke 14:19; Luke 15:25). It is village life that is also referred to in Isaiah 1:3, where it is said, “ The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master’s crib.” At sunset, the village cattle and donkeys that have been out all day in the neighbouring common and bare fields are brought by the herdsman to the entrance of the village. There they all leave him, and find their way through the village lanes each to its own place of rest for the night. Some of the trades that receive their fullest development in the towns have their beginning among the peasantry of the village. The village oven is heated on alternate days; one of the inhabitants does simple carpenter work; another shoes the horses, mules, and donkeys, and is resorted to when branding is considered necessary; once, or oftener, according to the size of the village, the butcher has mutton or kid’s-flesh for sale, and the muleteer transports merchandise between the village and the neighbouring towns. Life is very simple, kindly, and laborious; there is intimate knowledge of each other’s afiairs, and ready sympathy in all times of family rejoicing and sorrow. The arrival of any stranger is immediately known through the village, and any of its residents returning from a journey is courteously waited upon and welcomed (Rth 1:19). The women have much to speak about at the fountain as they wait their turn to fill the jar, and the elders meet in the evening to discuss village matters and receive and give the latest news. Feuds abound between the rival sects, the older and the more recent residents, and the families that compete for the place of chief influence and honour. All, however, unite in resenting any affront put upon the village by those who do not belong to it. The annual capitation tax, or sum paid by each adult to the Government, is reckoned and paid in the village in which he is born. His relatives are there, and any ancestral land he may have inherited. If he goes elsewhere he must first appoint those who shall be responsible for the payment. Though his employment may make him live in another village, and his children and grandchildren may have been born and brought up away from the original home, their tax also must be paid there. Thus Joseph returned to Bethlehem because he was of the lineage of David (Luke 2:4).

2. The City. — The growth of the town or city is chiefly due to the neighbourhood of large wheat-growing plains, or of extensive vineyards, or to its appointment as a seat of government, or the opportunity of maritime commerce. In ancient times the halting-places on the great caravanroutes became towns of wealth and luxury.

(1) The wall. — The great high wall enclosing all the houses continued and emphasised the chief purpose of the house and the village, namely, protection. The distant glimmer of the white turreted wall rising out of the bare desert or green surrounding foliage was a vision of comfort and encouragement to the weary traveller. Once within these walls there would be rest and release from danger, the society of those he loved, and the supply of every want. These features of the ancient city appear in the description of the New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:1-27), and give their beautiful symbolism to the mediseval hymns and meditations about “ the city of God.” Under the more settled conditions of the present day in Syria and Palestine the city walls are being rapidly obscured by the houses of the open suburbs. As the ancient masons had no explosives for blasting purposes, the stones were laboriously cut out of the solid rock. As it was less trouble to cut one thick one than two thinner ones, some of these stones are of gigantic size. Those of the wall of Jerusalem are very large, and

CITY GATE. in their variety of Jewish, Roman, Crusading, and Saracen styles of workmanship they are emblematic of the different nations that have received the Gospel.

(2) The gate. — The city gate is often referred to in Scripture. It is large and massive, made of oak with a facing of studded iron or bronze. A foot or tv/o above the ground there is inserted in the middle of the great door a smaller one about 21 x 2 feet in size, by which the porter at his discretion may admit one who arrives after sunset. The city gate was a precaution against the approach of an unseen enemy attacking the city under cover of the night. Hence the Heavenly city, where there is no darkness and nothing hostile can ever enter, has its gates always open in token of friendly welcome (Revelation 21:25).

(3) The streets. — The Oriental street is a mere lane for foot passengers and baggage animals. No names are needed for the chief streets, as each is set apart for a particular trade or the sale of special commodities. You have only to enter it to know when you are in Vegetable Street, Perfumers’ Street, Silversmiths’ Street, etc. The narrowness of the streets shelters the tradesmen and passers-by from the heat of the sun. Here and there a high roof is thrown over the street, deepening the shade and protecting against rain. These intervals of subdued light make the dazzle all the greater when a widening or turn of the street allows the sunlight to pour down upon the variegated costumes and bright wares of an Oriental town. A walk through the bazaars of Damascus with its silk stuffs, cloth of gold, ornaments of brass, and ancient perfumes of incense and various gums, makes it easy to follow and realise the prophet’s description of ancient Tyre (Ezekiel 27:1-36) As one leaves the bazaars or rows of shops, and walks through the quiet part of the town occupied by dwellinghouses, one is impressed by the suspicious, prohibitive appearance of the houses. No windows look out upon the streets near the ground, and those of the upper rooms are closely latticed. No one is seen, and no sound is heard, unless occasionally the shrill, peevish voices of women engaged in some domestic quarrel. Beautiful houses, with large marble courts adorned with fountains and evergreen trees, and having reception-rooms enriched with carpets and ornamental carvings, are entered by a narrow lane and a mere stable door. It is more easily defended in any time of sudden attack, and its humble appearance averts the punishment of pride and the curse of the evil eye. The street is for the passer-by, and the house is a sacred and guarded enclosure. Everything vfithin it speaks of welcome, and everything without of exclusion. In cities where there are Jews, Christians, and Moslems, these occupy separate quarters, forming a city within the city, with the religious name for a bond of union. No description of an Oriental city would be complete without some reference to the dogs that lie about in the streets. They are of wolf -like appearance, black or tawnyyellow in colour, lazy and unclean, and tolerated because they devour the kitchen refuse that is thrown into the street, and act as sanitary police without payment. The town is carefully divided by them into districts, each of which is occupied by the dogs belonging to it, and beyond which they must never pass. When one of their number goes beyond his proper boundary, the dog who first sees him gives a yelp of alarm; this is caught up and passed on by those who hear it, and in a minute or two the whole pack is seen tearing along like a fire-brigade towards the point where the first bark was heard.- If the intruder has not already made his escape, he is rolled over, worried, and pursued a good way into his own district.

Lying in the road, a menace and impediment to ordinary traffic, most numerous where men most congregate, and yet seeking no real companionship with them, happiest when twenty of them can get together and jump upon one poor offender, and disturbing the public peace with their code of honour about dust-heaps and old refuse — such are the similarities that unite Oriental dogs and Pharisees (Php 2:2). (Probably should be Php 3:2 instead -- editor)

3. Neighbourhood. — As Oriental houses are always either in villages or towns, the fact of neighbourhood is of great social importance. All the Bible references to friends, neighbours, and sojourners apply to these relationships at the present day. The Oriental is never alone, and the most numerous and familiar class of proverbs is that which deals with the necessity of neighbourhood, and all the advantages and disadvantages connected with it. Its influence for good or evil is described in the maxims: “ If you live forty days with people, you will then either leave them or become like them “; “ We are your neighbours, and have learnt from you.” To one about to build or rent a house, or go on a journey, the advice is given: “ Consider the neighbour before the house, and the companion before the road.”

Identification of interest is taught in the words: “If it is well with your neighbour, it is well with you;" “He who cropped your neighbour will crop you;" and “A loaf more or less, but never let your neighbour want.” The patience due to this relationship is stated in the proverb: “Your neighbour is your neighbour though he should act otherwise.” The thought of Proverbs 25:17 is repeated in figurative form: “If your friend be honey do not eat him.” Proverbs 27:10 is constantly quoted. The neighbours are present on all occasions of family sorrow and joy (Luke 15:6, Luke 15:9). Such intimate knowledge of each other is implied in the words, “ I have called you friends” (John 15:15). The commandment against bearing false witness is framed for the special protection of the neighbour, as, in his constant contact with those around him, he may at times give offence and so provoke reprisals. The strength of the Oriental law of neighbourhood is seen in the various abuses it endures. Its kindly provisions originated under circumstances of social equality, mutual helpfuluess, and common danger, but the law of neighboudy duty as an obligation of honour is often appealed to by those who have no opportunity or thought of doing anything in return. Thus the merchant is expected to sell cheaper and the doctor to lower his fees to those in the neighbourhood, though they may have no acquaintance with them, and even the European manager of a Waterworks Company will be urged to reduce the rate for those who live near his dwelling-house.

Oriental neighbourhood enlarges the family, but contracts the world. It is a trade union on family lines. Any one outside of the circle is a foreigner, alien, enemy, heathen (2 Kings 5:20). Christ recognised the law of neighbourhood in commanding that the preaching of the Gospel should begin at Jerusalem, the place where the Apostles were, but its terminus was the ends of the earth. The parable of the Good Samaritan taught the true meaning and fulfilment of neighbourhood. In the Sermon on the Mount it was pointed out that a religion of mere social selfishness and mutual catering was impossible for those who would be children of the Highest (Matthew 5:43-48).

4. Hospitality. — The East is celebrated for its laws of hospitality. Among the Bedawin and those living in remote villages these laws retain their primitive meaning and veneration, and in the towns the parade of compliment with which a caller or guest is received is still suggestive of the original custom. Taken in connection with the laws of neighbourhood and the generally avaricious tone of Oriental life, the importance assigned to hospitality is not only beautiful but mysterious. The attentions shown to invited guests (Luke 14:12) present no diflSculty, as they belong rather to the courtesies of neighbourhood; also the motive of the feast of Ahasuerus is always more or less in evidence (Esther 1:4). The peculiar feature of Oriental hospitality is that it commands the most devoted service to be rendered to those who are passing strangers, and have none of the claims that belong to kinship and acquaintance. Towards an explanation of the mystery two facts deserve to be mentioned.

(1) There is the greatness of the favour. — It is an appeal to what is noblest and best in the human heart. The stranger who comes to the door has reached his limit. He can go no farther (Revelation 3:20). He is at the mercy of those within, either to receive him or rob him. The moment he enters by permission he becomes virtually the master of the house. He is told that the house is his. The owner waits upon him, all the supplies of the house are for his necessities, all its strength is for his defence. The guest’s act of trust is responded to by a chivalrous readiness on the part of the host to lay down his life for the stranger. In addition to the fact of safety, there is the great comfort of rest after labour, food and drink after exhaustion, and society after solitude. A proverb says, “ He who sows kindness reaps gratitude,” and the many worries and unexpected dilemmas incident to Oriental travel make the moment of release from them one of heart-felt thankfulness.

(2) The sanctity of the guests. — These customs were established long before travel was undertaken in the interests of commerce or exploration, and some very strong reason was needed to make a man face the dangers and hardships of a journey. The arrival of a stranger was a rare occurrence, and the law of hospitality forbade any inquiry as to where he had come from or where he was going, until the expiry of at least three days showed that his case was not one of urgency or personal danger. It would be generally supposed that the reason of his journey was either flight from an enemy, some grave family necessity, or the performance of a religious vow. With regard to the first of the three causes, the bitterness of the blood-feuds made every entertainer feel that lie might be the next to need shelter. The arrival of the stranger showed that whatever his trouble might be, God had so far favoured him, and a grave danger was thus incurred by any one who treated him with unkindness. Hence a mysterious sacredness became connected with a guest, and with the duty of protecting him and ministering to his wants. There was a deeper necessity than that of hunger and thirst; “I was a stranger and ye took me in“ (Matthew 25:35). The Koran echoes the exhortation of Hebrews 13:2 by the negative statement, “The house that receives no guests never receives angels.” The act by which the claim of hospitality is established is the partaking of the family bread, salt or water, or even the laying hold upon thetent pole. If a fugitive approaches a shepherd in the wilderness he will be invited to partake of the bread and cheese which the latter has in his scrip, and the moment he has done so the shepherd must protect him against any pursuers who may arrive to kill him. The appointment of the Cities of Kefuge in the land of Israel will occur to the mind in this connection as an endeavour to mitigate the ferocities of the blood-feuds by national legislation. A case occurred some years ago near Tripoli in Syria, which shows what a strong sense of duty and honour is pledged for the protection of a guest. A man had committed manslaughter, and in his flight from the avengers of blood came to the mountain hut of a shepherd. The shepherd was absent with his flock, and the fugitive begged and received protection in the name of God from his wife and young son. Half an hour afterwards the house was surrounded by horsemen. Their law of courtesy made it impossible for them to enter the only room of the house, which was sacred as being the women’s apartment, and they demanded that the criminal should be brought forth. The poor woman came to the door holding by the hand her son, twelve years of age, and said, “ I cannot surrender my guest, but take my only son and kill him instead.” Her resolute chivalry so impressed them that after a short pause they told her that for her sake the fugitive was pardoned and free. Then they rode away. This devotion has no thought of the sanctity of life for its own sake, or the claims of humanity as such. The guest-law is entirely a creation of place and circumstance. When a traveller is met by Bedawin in the desert, their ordinary salutation is “Strip!” If resistance is offered they think very lightly of the crime of murder. The authority of the guest law within its own area shows to what a deep state of misery the Israelites and their friends must have been reduced when Jael killed her guest, and such profanation of the law of hospitality was publicly commended. In the East work of any kind is generally regarded as degrading, but there are three recognised exceptions, namely, a man’s service to his guest, to his household, and to his horse.

5. Property. — (1) Possession. — Land in the East is held in three ways.

(a) The arable ground around a village, like the pasture land, is held in common by its inhabitants, and allotted in proportion to the number of oxen belonging to a villager for the purpose of ploughing. The first disciples at Jerusalem applied this already familiar principle to their personal wealth (Acts 2:44-45).

(b) Under more settled government the above arrangement presented difficulties in the collection of taxes and the punishment of those who failed to pay them. Thus land came into the possession of personal owners, or was bought in the name of a commercial company.

(c) Large portions of the country belong to the Government, as crown lands. These are rented to the highest bidder, who re-lets them to peasant cultivators at such a price as will secure him a profit by the transaction.

(2) Cultivation. — The peasants who till the land belonging to a large proprietor have houses built for them, and as they generally remain in charge even when the land changes owners they thus become in a manner serfs upon it. In grain-land, if the owner supplies seed and oxen for ploughing, and pays the government -tithe, the peasantlabourer in charge gets one-fourth of the produce; if the owner only pays the tax the peasant has two-thirds, or one-half if the land be very remunerative in proportion to the labour expended upon it. For vineyards and the cultivation of fruit-trees generally, the peasant receives for his labour one-third of the produce, but after some years, during which the property has been improved by cultivation and additional vines and trees, he is entitled to one-half, and can claim to be regarded as coproprietor (Matthew 21:33-41).

(3) Sale. — When property, either in the form of house and garden or cultivated land, is to be sold, the particulars are mentioned with elaborate detail, and the deed of sale is attested in the local court and recorded in its books.

These formalities, however, often afford very insecure protection to the purchaser. After the money has been paid other part-owners present their claims and prohibit the new owner from taking possession. When land is sold, the first right of purchase belongs to a partner, and after him to a neighbour, especially if the same water irrigates both lands. When it is desired to defeat his claim, and also to obviate the danger of future claimants appearing to dispute the ownership, a peculiar device is resorted to. The land is divided into two sections, A and B. Thus a piece of ground, 400 yards square, is to be sold for £300. Section A is about one-sixth of the whole — a mere strip adjoining that of the objectionable neighbour, and its price is fixed at £200: the remaining five-sixths of the ground are priced at £100. The two sections are bought on these terms by the new purchaser, and he and the seller repair together to the court to have it made legal. Here the neighbour may enter his protest and obtain the strip A nearest his own, but he must pay £200 for it. He has no claim on B, because the new owner has now a neighbour’s claim on it, from having paid the price of A. If the original neighbour should purchase the strip A for £200, he could only sell it to him who purchased the B section because the latter has now the pre-emption right of a neighbour!

Much of the artificiality that pervades the Jewish observance of the law is doubtless due to the Talmudic incorporation of strictly religious duties with petty legal details about property. They are thus reduced to the same moral level, and the business instinct that seeks its own advantage, and purchases in the cheapest market, is put on the alert to find out the minimum of service that will secure a name for piety and a place in the heavenly inheritance. The purchase of property among modern Orientals often resembles Abraham’s transaction with the sons of Heth (Genesis 23:1-20) It is usually a matter abounding in indirect preliminaries, solemn conference, ostentatious politeness, shameless lying, and hard haggle.

(4) Inheritance. — In modern Oriental law property is divided equally among the sons, each daughter receiving half the share of a son.

6. Law and Government. — The administration of law reveals the best and worst of Oriental life. The basing of statutes on moral and religious principles was originally intended to teach forbearance and charity by bringing litigants before the Unseen Judge of all. It had much in its favour as long as those principles were honestly interpreted and reverently obeyed, but when they ceased to be regarded, and public opinion was intimidated and debased, the judge could do very much as he pleased. It became of the first importance to secure the personal favour of the judge. The unjust judge of the parable (Luke 18:1-7), who had no fear of God, would find it very easy to disregard men. An Arabic proverb says, “ When the judge’s mule dies, everybody goes to the funeral; when the judge himself dies, nobody goes.”

Bribery and perjury are the two sides of the cloven hoof in both ancient and modern courts of law in the East. Thus Samuel, in reviewing his administration, emphasised the fact that he had never taken bribes, and the corruption of the judges in the kingdom of Israel is stigmatised by the prophets as one of the chief causes of the nation’s rejection and ruin.

Modern Orientals are extremely subtle and insidious in their manner of making presents. The fact that “ a man’s gift maketh room for him” (Proverbs 18:16) is constantly acted upon. In private life, the sending of a gift is usually a prelude to a request for some favour or exercise of influence. In Oriental courtesy the rejection of a gift is a serious affront, and its acceptance implies a debt of honour calling for some suitable return. Sometimes the authorities plainly indicate that money is required, but usually the initiative comes from the people. Upright pashas and judges for a time purge the administration of these abuses, but when they are removed the contending parties who seek the favour of their successors soon restore the old corruptions. Religious influence, instead of helping the cause of mercy and justice, runs in the line of ecclesiastical parties and institutions, and these always do battle for their own ends. At every point the religious sanction makes a family covenant, and the family bond in Oriental use and wont protects its membership without regard to the rights of common citizenship or the supreme claims of truth.

Perjury is very common. In the New Testament one is shocked to read how the Pharisees, the leaders of religion, got witnesses to swear to what they either knew nothing about or knew to be untrue. Such witnesses are only too easily obtained for any emergency in the East, and in this respect the witness of priests and monks is proverbially untrustworthy.

Prisons. — The Oriental prisons of the present day vividly recall the allusions to those of ancient times. There is the common prison for debt, arrears of taxes, and ordinary offences. Besides this there is the inner or underground prison for criminals, called the prison of blood. There Paul and Silas were kept (Acts 16:24), and though cut off from companionship with others, their voices were heard as “ they sang praises unto God.” The difficulty of getting out of prison (Matthew 5:26) is exemplified not only in the postponement of the day of trial, but after the term of imprisonment has expired, in meeting the various claims of the jailors, such as a fee exacted for the handcuffs or chain utilised by the prisoner. Most of these abuses resemble those in the English prisons at the beginning of the eighteenth century.

Owing to this hard treatment and the frequent miscarriage of justice, and also the kindly uncritical sympathies of Orientals generally, imprisonment is regarded as a misfortune rather than a disgrace. Friends go about to collect money for the relief or release of those imprisoned. The Saviour did not mean that humanity should cease from hoping, serving, and rescuing at the prison gates (Matthew 25:36).

7. Rich, and Poor. — (1) Poverty. — Beggars are very numerous in the East. The usual types are given in Luke 14:13, “the poor, the maimed, the lame, and the blind.” Besides these there are those who are simply indolent. An Arabic proverb says, “ Begging is an easy trade, only the standing at the” door is tiresome.”

Among those who suffer from bodily iniirmity, loss of limb by machinery is seldom met with, but disease in skin, blood, and bone is frequent and often assumes loathsome forms, the chief instance being that of leprosy. The commonest and most pathetic form of infirmity that has nothing repulsive about it is blindness. Some of these blind beggars, either led by children or guiding themselves by their long sticks, move about from door to door, but usually they are found at regular places in the town. The blind and lame are conducted or carried to the doors of churches at the time of service, especially on fast days, and line the steps at marriage and funeral ceremonies. They also congregate in front of chief houses on any occasion of family rejoicing or sorrow.

Sometimes blindness, deformity, and disease meet in one poor shrivelled frame; and year after year the beggar is borne daily to his place at a public corner in the town, or at the end of a bridge on its outskirts, and sitting on the ground under the rain or burning sun, with the dust flying over him in clouds from carriages and baggage animals, he recites the promises of God to those who care for the poor. Thus it was with Lazarus at the rich man’s gate (Luke 16:20), Bartimaeus by the road - side at Jericho (Mark 10:46), and the cripple at the Temple gate (Acts 3:2).

(2) Mode of appeal. — This is sometimes a simple statement of poverty, “ I am poor,’’ “ I want a loaf of bread,” “ Give me the price of a loaf “ (half-penny). The plea is occasionally enforced by the expressive gesture of bringing the forefinger across the teeth and holding it up as a proof that there is absolutely no trace of food there. It is “ cleanness of teeth “ (Amos 4:6). Usually, however, the appeal is to religious feeling or duty. As the beggar stands at the door, he calls out, “I am your guest! I am God’s guest! God will direct you! God will recompense you! God will preserve your children! God will prolong your days!" If this fails, he tries the effect of rebuke: “Is there nothing here for God?" “You are all servants! “ When there is nothing for him, he is told, “ God will give you! The Lord will relieve you! “ (James 2:16). The beggars are thus the great street-preachers of the East. The thought of 1 Samuel 2:7 pervades the whole relationship of poverty and wealth. God has a purpose in giving wealth and permitting poverty (Proverbs 14:31). Beggars apportion the shops among them, and at the close of the week go their rounds to get their allowance. The rich and poor are thus brought into personal touch with each other, but Oriental benevolence has no thought of attacking the cause of poverty (Deuteronomy 15:11). The absence of alcohol prevents the Oriental beggar from having the degraded appearance of the Western tramp, and the cause of poverty, apart from cases of pure indolence, is usually found in sickness, or the loss of the breadwinner in the family or his indefinite imprisonment. A proverb says, “Never teach an orphan how to weep.” A great deal of Oriental almsgiving arises from the love of praise, or a superstitious hope that coppers given away may atone for pounds obtained by cheating. Almsgiving has a high place among the religious virtues of the East (Deuteronomy 15:10; Proverbs 28:27). In the Jewish synagogue there is often a box for receiving anonymous contributions with an inscription in Hebrew, “A gift in secret” (Proverbs 21:14).

Sometimes a mother belonging to one of the richer Oriental families puts on beggar’s clothes and goes out barefoot to beg for the poor, in the hope that her almsgiving and self-abasement may avail with God to spare the life of her beloved child lying dangerously ill.

(3) Riches. — This subject has already been referred to in connection with the Trades. In the East the desire of gain is regarded as an instinct that imperatively seeks its own ends like hunger and thirst, and is common to humanity. A proverb says, “It is better to hear ’ take ’ a thousand times than once the word ’ give.’ “ The words of Christ, “It is better to give than to receive,’’ were in such defiant contrast to common Oriental sentiment that they were remembered though unrecorded by the Evangelist (Acts 20:35). The East has neither the eminent saints nor the great criminals of the West, but a dull air of avariciousness pervades every relationship. Marriage is a money-bargain; murder has its equivalent price, piety is prudential, to go to a funeral is to attend the merit, and almsgiving is a current account with God.

8. Travel and Transport. — (1) Oriental idea of travel. — Among Orientals travel means discomfort, danger, and expense. It is avoided as much as possible. Their proverbs say, “ All strangers are relatives to each other,” “If three go on a journey, one must be elected chief,” “A man in a strange place is blind though he has eyesight,” “ There are three states of wretchedness — sickness, fasting, and travel.” The following is the Oriental recipe or statute for one setting out upon a journey: “ Pay all debts, provide for dependants, give parting gifts, return all articles under trust, take money and good temper for the journey; then bid farewell to all, and be merciful to the animal you ride upon.” In the East the road is usually a mere bridle path, rough and stony. When it passes along the side of their fields, the farmers empty the stones upon it, as it belongs to nobody; in the wilderness it often forks off unexpectedly or disappears altogetlier. In the long blank distances between the villages and towns there is little chance of getting direction or help in any difficulty. Something goes wrong with the harness, a saddle-bag drops off noiselessly, the wrong path is taken, or the distance is miscalculated and the night has to be passed under the stars and without the needed water.

Orientals care little for beauty of scenery. The wild gorges and precipices belong to jackals and bats, and the traveller cannot turn the trees into charcoal or carry the sheaves to his own threshing-floor. Travel for the enjoyment of the exercise and the pleasure of seeing new scenes is a mystery to most of them. The Bedawin and peasants are often puzzled and moved to laughter and pity when they see the companies of English and American travellers who annually visit the ancient sites of interest in the Holy Land. Until they come to understand the reason, their own surmise is that they are searching for treasure in the ruins by means of magic books, or visiting the shrines in order to atone for their sins.

(2) Mode of travel. — Travelling is usually done by riding, the animals being horses, mules, donkeys, and in the sandy desert camels. Summer is especially the time for travel, as the rains are over, and the rivers can be easily forded or crossed dry-shod. Bridges are not mentioned in the Bible. The transport of goods and merchandise is almost all done by baggage animals. When muleteers are engaged to bring a certain number of animals on an appointed day, it is customary to demand a guarantee in money which is forfeited if they fail, and returned if the contract be faithfully carried out. In Jeremiah 30:21, there is the beautiful figure of a heart given as a pledge of good faith. In the great waterless deserts encountered in the journey to Palmyra, Baghdad, or Sinai, camels are used, and the travelling is chiefly done by night to escape the heat, and to escape the notice of the Bedawin tribes, whose neighbourhood is generally indicated by lights or sounds of some sort. Under such circumstances the guide takes his direction from the stars. In ancient times the Bedawin tribes were the great escorts of the overland caravans. During the time when they transported the treasures of the East to the Koman market of the West, they became very rich and influential, and founded under Zenobia the wonderful kingdom of Palmyra or Tadmor. The nation that does the trade of the world by sea has now entered into their labours, and the Union Jack in the Suez Canal takes the place of the camel’s bell in the star-led caravan.

(3) Road-making. — In different parts of the country small pieces of the ancient Koman paved roads are still seen as the memorial of work well done, but the ordinary roads of to-day are soon made almost impassable by the rush of the winter rains. When a distinguished visitor arrives in the country, or the governor sets out on a tour of inspection through his district, the roads are all put into temporary repair by removing boulders and filling up clefts and hollows, so that the passage over them may be easy, quick, and safe.’

(4) The forerunner. — In the narrow streets of the town thronged with men and baggage animals, high officials have a servant in uniform walking in front of them. He calls out to the people to move aside, touches

1 During the present summer several hundred men are engaged, ty order from Constantinople, on the roads leading from the coast to Jerusalem and to the Sea of Galilee, preparing for the expected visit of the Emperor of Germany in autumn. When the occasion is over the roads return to their usual Oriental condition. Such preparations are alluded to in Isaiah 40:3-5 with his rod the inattentive, stirs up the dogs lying in the path, and so clears the way for his master. In Syria they are represented by the eavasses or guards of the consuls and the out-riders of the Pasha. In Egypt two of them race in front of the carriage of the Khedive, and those of some of the principal native families have also one or two runners. When the cry is heard all move aside instinctively, and in an instant there is the swift flutter of his white robes, the sparkle of a bright sash, a swing or two of the black tassel of the turbin, then comes the carriage, and the cry of the forerunner is already sounding faint in the distance. Being athletic young men specially selected and trained by constant exercise, they keep well in front of the carriage and its trotting horses, running along with the easy unspent lurch of a deer-hound. Such was the cry raised in front of Joseph, the new vizier, long ago (Genesis 41:43); thus Elijah raced in front of Ahab’s chariot to Jezreel (1 Kings 18:46); and the office of the forerunner is especially associated with the name and work of John the Baptist (John 1:23).

(5) Salutations. — The formalities of Oriental salutation are chiefly derived from the dangers of travel. It is the hail of approaching parties to know whether they are friends or foes (Joshua 5:13). From the following epitome it will be seen how important was the command to the Gospel heralds to salute no man by the way. Many other matters of compliment and courteous solicitude are introduced, and the same inquiries as to health, etc, are repeated over and over again. As each must consider his own matters of no consequence compared with those of his friend, at the end of the salutation very little information is really obtained about either.

A, and B, are represented as meeting on the road,

A. Blessed is lie that cometh.
B. And you twice blessed.
A. How is your health?
B. Well, by your favour.
A. By the favour of God.
B. God is merciful.
A. How is your work?
B. Praise be to God.
A. How is your father?
B. He sends you his salutation.
A. I have been longing to see him.
B. And he still more.
A. Can I do anything for you?
B. The Lord prolong your days.
A. That is a fine horse you have.
B. He would like to carry you.
A. When do you return, meaning no harm?
B. As the Lord wills.
A. The Lord be with you.
B. May you have peace. The consideration of the labours, anxieties, and dangers incident to Oriental travel made the Israelites look back on the journey through the wilderness as a memorial and triumph of God’s providence. It put the Queen of Sheba among those who have borne privation in the pursuit of knowledge (Matthew 12:42). It gave depth and endearment of meaning to the “place of habitation” and the “city to dwell in.” Oriental travel also helps us to understand, in its spiritual applications, what help is offered when our Lord calls Himself “ the way,” and what hope is held out with regard to welcome, rest, and blessedness, when life’s pilgrimage leads at last to the City with open gates.

9. Medicine and Sickness. — The East has two names for its healers of disease, “ the wise man “ and “ the holy man.” In modern language this expresses the modern truth that medicine requires intelligence in the physician and the restfulness of trust on the part of the patient.

(1) The wise man. — Orientals have a great number of herbal remedies, but in their traditions the chief place is given to branding the flesh. They have not much faith in any one doctor, and call in one after another, and frequently summon consultations of doctors. It is a matter of family pride to have a large consultation, a gathering of eight or nine being quite common for a rich and important man. The experience of the woman mentioned in Mark 5:26 suggests that a similar custom prevailed in ancient times. The variety of treatment which the sufferer thus draws upon himself creates a wisdom that is supposed to be above that of the doctor, and gives rise to their proverbial saying, “ Consult the patient, not the physician.” The commonest ailments, apart from the effects of over-eating common to East and West, are ophthalmia, skin - disease, consumption, and fevers of the malarial and typhoidal types. The term applied to the sickness of Peter’s mother-in-law (Luke 4:38), “a strong fever,” now describes a sharp attack of ague or malaria. It is not, of course, of an infectious character. Job seems to have suffered from the same trouble (Job 30:17-18), judging from the symptoms of aching bones and fever sweat.

(2) The holy man. — The religious or superstitious view of healing regards health as the natural condition, and disease the departure to be accounted for. God is on the side of life and has power over permitted sickness, but commits this power only to those who commit themselves to Him. This is the point at which in Oriental custom truth departs and imposture enters. The reputation for sainthood is obtained by fasting, pilgrimage, magic books, and attention to the forms of religion. In riding through the land one sometimes sees far up on a lonely but conspicuous cliff a rude contrivance of poles and leaves, and learns on inquiry that a man is spending his days and nights there, living upon the bread and water brought to him, giving his whole time to prayer.

AMULET. and so accumulating the merit and holiness that in course of time will bring to him inquirers with suitable presents. The Christian saints, Moslem dervishes, and Jewish chachams, who heal by religious power, appeal to the superstitious veneration of the people, and, with all their absurd and often disgusting orders, they show a shrewd knowledge of how the troubled heart can be comforted, and the will may receive a new determination to live and not die. Their help is chiefly appealed to in cases that have the appearance of Satanic possession, such as insanity, epilepsy, and estranged affection. The first preaching of the Gospel in Samaria, Cyprus, Philippi, Ephesus, and other places, encountered opposition from such holy men and their vested interests. The ceremony of exorcism is still practised, chiefly among the uneducated Moslems, and the process and result are described by them with much confidence and in full detail. The good-humoured smile of the European doctor is its worst enemy. Associated with this form of treatment is the popular and almost universal device of wearing amulets of some sort to guard against the evil eye and Satanic influences.

Among the Jews the chief protective symbol is the phylactery, a small black box about a cubic inch in size, containing Exodus 13:5-9; Deuteronomy 6:4-9, Deuteronomy 11:13-21. At prayer on week-days one is fastened on the brow and another on the left arm by the leather straps attached to them. The Pharisees made these boxes large and the straps broad. Matthew 23:5. In the case of Asa (2 Chronicles 16:12), who consulted the physicians instead of entreating the Lord for recovery, we should not understand that a contrast is implied between faith - healing and physical remedies. Those Oriental lihysicians would also appeal to supernatural influences; but, like the rabbis of the present day, it would be to angels or demons whose names are too mighty and sacred to be pronounced, such as Senoi, Sansenoi, and Samnangaleph. To accept the great science of medicine as a gift from God is at once the largest exercise of religious feeling and of reason.

Orientals show the value they attach to faith by the often quoted proverb, “ Have faith, though it be only in a stone, and you will recover.’’ The tendency to superstition is seen in another maxim which resembles one of the so-called Sayings of Christ recently discovered in Egypt, namely, “ The church that is close at hand can work no cures.” [1] The deep-laid conviction that while the use of means is a human duty, the healing is a work of Divine power, survives the ancient impostures that have been heaped upon it, and at the present day gives special appropriateness and influence to the medical missionary in all Oriental lands.

10. Education. — Oriental education is especially in the interests of religious knowledge and morality. The school is an appendage to the church, mosque, or synagogue. Its importance is indicated by the proverb: “ The teaching of children is like engraving in stone, the teaching of adults like waves on the sea.” Children are sent to school almost in infancy, and remain till the twelfth or thirteenth year. The Oriental theory of instruction includes the influences of both education and heredity. “You can only take out of a pot what you put into it,” and, “ If the father be onion and the mother garlic, how can there be any sweet perfume? “ The teaching is chiefly done by making the chUdren recite sentences and passages after the teacher. His ambition is that the clamour of the voices chanting in concert may be well heard by those who pass by in the street. It proves to the parents that work is being done, and brings other children to his school. The school among the Jews is called “the house of the book” — that is the Bible, especially the Pentateuch. In the reading of the Bible and the Jewish Prayer-book a knowledge of manuscript Hebrew writing is also taught, having different characters for the Askenazim or European Jews and the Sepharidim or Oriental Jews. This Hebrew script is used in letter-writing and book-keeping whatever may be the language that is used — English, Arabic, Russian, German, or Sanscrit.

Next in importance to the rules of religion is the teaching of languages as a means of social contact and commercial success. Education as a mental discipline is not understood. Popular literature is represented by the crowds sitting in the cafe in the evenings and listening to the storyteller reciting tales of demon influence, war exploits, and discovered treasure, such as abound in the Arabian Nights. A favourite study among the more thoughtful is found in proverbial literature. The Book of Proverbs is prized by Jews, Christians, and Moslems alike. The Arabs have a vast stock of proverbial sayings gleaned from the whole field of nature and experience.

Great and guiding thoughts of the wise are expressed in forms of much force and beauty, though the emphasis often goes far beyond the requirements of plain fact. This exaggeration is an onslaught on the door of Truth in order to awaken the porter Judgment who lies asleep within. The rhymed poetical form in which most of the Proverbs are cast makes them easily remembered and keeps them in constant use. Many of them show great acuteness in the detection of a resembling point between things that differ in kind. The beautiful and persuasive parables of Christ appealed to this enjoyment and appreciation of similitudes among Orientals.

11. Religion. — Religion is the great fact of Oriental life. “Of Him, and through Him, and to Him are all things" (Romans 11:36), such is the acclamation of everything that lives or has a name to live in the East. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam have many deep distinctions, but they are all one with regard to the existence and power of God. In the East, to be without religion is not an intellectual view but a moral void.

Scepticism is still regarded as the self-defence of a disobedient heart (Psalms 14:1). To deny and to prove the existence of God are considered almost equally frivolous. So strong and universal is this conviction with regard to the glory of God’s name, that if the Missionary. Gospel could only find an entrance into the mind and heart, and cause love to be added to faith, the East might again send forth a wave of religious influence that would carry blessing to the world. Oriental religion has a heart of profound reverence, but it is almost paralysed by superstition, fatalism, and formality.

A. Superstition. — In the multiplying of mediators between God and man. Oriental Christianity has fallen into an error from which Judaism and Islam are comparatively free. Faith in amulets is, however, common to all, and the power of the evil eye and the discovery of secret things by means of witchcraft are widespread superstitions. The revealer of secrets by necromancy or communication with the dead is called in Arabic a seer. This name and practice go back to the days of Samuel. In 1 Samuel 9:7 an embarrassment arises about consulting the man of God without having a present to give him. The word translated “present” means in Hebrew and Arabic a direction fee, and the creation of this technical term implies that such appeals to the seer were popular and had a recognised commercial value. Another similarity that shows the continuity of these dark traditions is that the Hebrew name for a wizard, “one who knows” is in the living Arabic of to-day “one who tells.” Again, when the Bible speaks of a man or woman with a familiar spirit, the term means one who makes use of a bottle. This is explained by the modern practice in the East. If a sum of money disappears in a house, the witch who is summoned to reveal wliere it is hidden and by whom it has been stolen always brings an empty bottle with her. By this medium she professes to appeal to the dead relatives of the party who has lost the money, and the audible answers are declared to proceed from the bottle.

B. Fatalism. — The doctrine of fate is constantly resorted to, not only in submitting to the inevitable, but in excusing carelessness and indolence. Personal disposition cannot, and public custom must not be changed. The Jew fulfils all righteousness in following Jewish traditions, and so with the Christian and Moslem. All admit that the supreme end of religion is to glorify God, but the way to that end is rutted and blocked by the transport waggons of ceremonial and legal ordinance.

Israel has the certainty of the commandments, and to this Islam adds the duty of submission, but only the Gospel of the grace of God can change the outward law into inward preference, and self-surrender into perfect freedom. It is the hope and prayer of the Christian Church, which sends its missionaries to labour in Syria and Palestine, that the Holy Spirit may speedily bless the means used towards the accomplishment of this great result. God has not cast off His ancient people, it is not His will that Ishmael should perish, nor is it in vain that the Christian name has been preserved through centuries of trial and oppression. There is blessing in store for the land in which “the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us.”

Even now the religious thought of the East teaches a lesson that is often greatly needed in more enlightened lands. Those who have handed down so much of the outward form from ancient times have also preserved this inward truth, that the mission of religion is not so much to satisfy the highest claims of the intellect as to supply the deepest needs of the heart. In the West, God does a certain thing because He is good; in the East, the same thing is good because He has done it. God is greater than East and West, but these have much to learn from each other. The East shrinks from prescribing what God must do. There may be fatalism in definitions as well as in destiny. It is hard to enclose the purpose of eternity in the formula of a day. The religion that has for its first truth and its terminus “ the name of Jesus,’’ will constantly find its system of theology thrown out of perspective by the changing face and new proportions of an ever-expanding Ideal.

C. Formality. — While this abounds in the Oriental Church as well as in the Synagogue, its illustration in the latter presents details of greater interest on account of the connection with Bible history, and because it shows what things are preferred to the still rejected Gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ. The life of a Jew is religious from the cradle to the grave. In the room occupied by the mother and her newborn infant the rabbi puts a paper containing Psalms 71:1-24 in Hebrew, with an intercession for the favour of Adam and Eve’ and the good angels, and an anathema against the power or approach of Leilith, the demon of the night.

After completing his thirteenth year a Jewish boy is taken by his father to the synagogue, and there made “ a son of the Commandment.” The father thanks God for release from moral responsibility over the boy’s actions, as he has now received the spirit of discernment between good and evil (comp. Php 1:9-10). When the Jew rises in the morning he puts on under his vest the small tallith or prayer-cloth with its sacred fringes, and goes through the prescribed morning devotions in the house or synagogue.

There are set and separate graces in Hebrew to be said in connection with bread, meat, wine, and fruit. Those for scents are specialised as adapted to bark, blossoms, leaves, or fragrant powder. There are similar phrases for the sight of anything beautiful or wonderful in nature, for hearing a word of wisdom, or meeting a man eminent in piety. These are all learnt by heart in childhood, in a language that is not used for common conversation and daily life. In the house, on the right-hand door-post of each inhabited room, there is the mezilza, a small box containing the commandment in Deuteronomy 6:4-9. The custom may at one time have had a beautiful significance as a reminder of the unseen Guest in the house Whose presence should control and hallow all that is said and done in it, but it is now merely an amulet or charm protecting the sleepers against the entrance of any demons of the night. Outside of the house there are the synagogue prayers for morning, afternoon, and evening, with special additions for the weekly Sabbath and the religious Festivals. The service of God is always presented as a law that has to be carried out both in its evident meanings and in the farfetched and often facetious inferences drawn from them.

Rabbinical teaching resembles a statute on copyright or the game-laws. Thus, with regard to the sin of seething a kid in its mother’s milk (Exodus 23:29): (1) The dish is utterly prohibited; (2) to guard against the accidental mingling of the two things, the same vessel must not be used for milk and meat; (3) an interval must be allowed between the eating of meat and milk; (4) if the former be eaten first, the interval must be longer, as it takes longer to digest; (5) curded milk must be classified as meat because it contains rennet. To trace such filigree inferences from a hypothetical case is, rabbinically, to deepen the spiritual life. It is profoundly natural that after such rules are all carried out a loving heart should say, “What lack I yet?" (Matthew 19:20).

Apart from the regulations about special matters and the weekly Sabbath, the religious life of the Jews is controlled by the round of the sacred Festivals, and can be best illustrated by a brief description of them and the manner of their observance. At every turn we shall have to notice how “the letter killeth,” but as we do so, let us remember that the same loveless formality which has brought this blight on the natural branches may do as much or more to the engrafted.

There are eight principal Festivals, of which five have their origin in the Pentateuch.’[2]

(1) Passover,Exodus 12:1-28, from the 15th to the end of the 21st of lunar April (Abib or Nisan). — This is a time of great preparation and rejoicing in the Jewish families. It is the beginning of the religious year. When the sun sets on the 14th day and the stars begin to appear, everything is in readiness for the celebration. The great house-cleaning is over, the members of the family are dressed in new clothes, and through the fastened doors and windows in the Jewish quarter of the town one hears on every side the high nasal swing of many voices reading Hebrew in concert. The Samaritans alone keep up the custom of roasting lambs according to the original directions, but all have the bitter herbs, chiefly dandelion leaves, and the mortarlike sauce with which they are eaten in remembrance of the bondage in Egypt. During the reading the head of the family explains the circumstances commemorated, and asks each of the young sons present where he is going, and receives the answer, “I am going from the land of Egypt to the land of Jerusalem.” This form is used because the names Mizraira and Yerashalaim (Egypt and Jerusalem) form a rhyme. Four cups of wine are appointed to be drunk during the celebration. For obvious reasons of comfort and decorum the wine is diluted with water. It must be of the best quality obtainable, and free from Gentile contamination. The poor may use raisin-water.

During the time of preparation great care is taken to rid the house of leaven and leavened bread, and every utensil used for making, holding, or carrying it. When the house has been thoroughly searched and cleansed by the women, the master makes his official and solemn search. As he does so in the name of God, a piece of bread is laid in a conspicuous place, as, if he found nothing, it would be like taking God’s name in vain! Sometimes a man is engaged to make a nominal purchase of everything fermented in the house or that might become so, such as vinegar, wine, syrup, and preserved fruits. He asks to have them left there till he calls for them. He calls after the seven days of the Passover feast are over and gives them back for the same sum. During the interval the articles in question did not belong, rabbinically, to the family! In making the unleavened bread, the modern Pharisee has a piece of muslin put over the mouth of the jar in which the water is brought from the fountain in case a crumb of common bread might accidentally float into the vessel. Nothing is ever said in the spirit of 1 Corinthians 5:8.

(2) Pentecost. — This occurs fifty days after the beginning of Passover, on the 7th lunar day of June (Sivan). It is also called the Feast of Harvest (Exodus 23:16), and the Feast of Weeks (Deuteronomy 16:6). In the synagogue the appointment of the seventy elders is commemorated (Exodus 24:1; Numbers 11:16).

(3) The ninth of August (Ab). — This is kept in remembrance as the dark day on which the first and second Temples were destroyed and Jerusalem was ploughed over. The synagogue furniture is overthrown and littered about, the worshippers fast, and have their clothes soiled and disordered, the Book of Lamentations is read, and prayer is offered for the coming of the promised Deliverer.

(4) The Feast of Trumpets (Leviticus 23:24; Numbers 29:1-40) — This, the 1st of October (Ethanim or Tisri) is the beginning of the secular year. It acquires religious importance as the first of the ten days of repentance before the Day of Atonement. Tradition teaches that on this New Year’s day the names of those Israelites who are to die during the current year are written down in the Book of Death, and the names of those who are to survive it in the Book of Life. The opportunity afforded by the ten days is that of having the name possibly transferred from one book to the other by means of increased attention to prayer, penance, and the rules and claims of the synagogue. This superstition is superior to that of the Roman Catholic Confessional and Mass, inasmuch as the decision rests with God and not with the priest, but it serves the same purpose of moral intimidation and mercenary pressure, and represents blessing as laboriously wrung from God.

(5) Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16:3-10; Numbers 29:7-11). — This day, 10th October, is one of special solemnity. Jews who absent themselves from the synagogue during the rest of the year are present and take part in the all-day service. White cocks and hens are killed as symbolical of forgiveness and purity. White clothes are worn for the same reason, and the whole day is spent in reciting prayers of humiliation and penitence. The vehement gestures and voices choked with sobs make the stranger feel that he is looking upon the anguish of some great bereavement. It is like a soul trying to recover a lost instinct or re-enter some previous state of existence. It is the annual pageant of penitence, but it is powerless to change the heart (Hebrews 10:3-4).

(6) The Feast of Tabernacles (Leviticus 23:34; Numbers 29:12; Deut. 16:30 (sic probably should be Deuteronomy 16:13, Deuteronomy 16:16 -- editor). — This begins after sunset on the 14th of October. It was the harvest home or thanksgiving day for the ingathering of the fruits of the summer, especially raisins, figs, and olives. During the eight days of this feast the Jews erect tabernacles or arbours of branches and calico awnings on the balconies and flat roofs of their houses and take their meals there.

(7) The Feast of Lights, 25th December (Chisleu), John 10:22, commemorates the restoration of the Temple service after the sacred place had been desecrated in the time of the Maccabees by Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 168-165.

(8) The Feast of Purim (Esther 9:19) is held on the 14th of March (Adar). The roll of the Book of Esther is read through in the synagogue, the name of Mordecai being hailed with blessings and that of Haman with imprecations. It is the Gunpowder-plot Day of Jewish history with Haman as conspirator. His effigy is made and pelted by the children, and the rich send gifts of food to the poor so that all Israel may rejoice. It is customary to say of a well-furnished table or a hearty meal that it is a, feast of Furim. The synagogue service and festivals are chiefly valued by the Jews as a means, the only one left to them, of declaring and preserving their distinction as a race. They become the substitute rather than the support of true religious feeling, as every commemoration of the past finds its contradiction in the facts of present-day circumstance.

Thus Passover recalls the fact of the national name and place to those who have neither. The agricultural feasts of Pentecost and Tabernacles are celebrated by those who shrink from manual labour. The Jew is proverbially the emigrant and wanderer of the earth, but he daily recites in his Prayer-book, “Lord, I thank Thee that Thou hast not made me a foreigner.”

It is a strange anomaly that the national bond of union should be found in those very formalities that emphasise the fact of the people’s severance from their original conditions. There is much in these particulars that should appeal pathetically to the sympathy of the Christian who knows that what is needed is God’s gift of pardon and righteousness and the constraining love of Christ.

Perhaps the crowning instance of such contradiction between the past and the present is seen at the close of the synagogue service, when the priest’s face is veiled with the tallith as he pronounces the benediction of Moses (Numbers 6:24-26). This precaution is observed lest the utterance of the words of Moses by one occupying his place should bring up the glory that shone upon the face of the great lawgiver, and so strike the people dead. This tyranny of empty form and the limiting to one nation of what God has thrown open to the ’whole world give to the Christian Church its missionary duty towards Israel. It is the message of the younger brother who once wasted his substance to the elder who is now in danger of being impoverished by his. This exclusive claim to God’s favour was and remains the line of cleavage between the synagogue and the church. It is zeal, but not according to knowledge; for the truth which the Jews reject is that God’s glory is exhibited in the saving of all nations (Acts 2:21-39; Acts 3:25; Acts 6:14; Acts 20:28-43; Acts 13:47; Acts 14:27; Acts 17:27; Acts 22:21-22; 1 Timothy 2:7).

Palestine is a land of sacred memories. Some of them still retain the tones of the living voice, while others are bleached and faded inscriptions recording on the tombstone what was done when the breath of life was warm. The great truth of personal religion which the East during the centuries has taUght by symbol and sacrifice, and often debased by formality and superstition, is that God entrusts His power to those who entrust themselves to Him. The story of its institutions and their expansion from primitive times is an unfolding of the great social law that the individual exists for the family, the family for the nation, the nation for the world, and the world for God. With regard to the Bible itself this study of Manners and Customs has set before us a great array of surviving thoughts, habits, and institutions that explain and confirm the allusions to similar details in the Bible. It has shown us how fully and familiarly the message of revelation was adapted to human circumstances. The impression thus left upon the mind is that the Bible is a book that is meant to be studied, and to be taken on its merits as a record of the past, and above all that it is to be loved and reverenced as the voice of Him who through it speaks for ever, and to all nations.

[1] “Jesus saith, ’A prophet is not acceptable in his own country, neither doth a physician work cures upon them that know him’“

[2] It “will be remembered that the Jews observe the lunar year, which being shorter than the solar, causes the dates to move forward until they are checked and brought bade to solar time by the insertion of an extra twelfth month, Adar; that the lunar mouth does not always begin on the same day as that of the solar year, and usually includes days from two different months according to the Western reckoning, and that the Jewish day always begins with the sunset of the previous evening (Genesis 1:5).