14. Women and Children

Women and Children Matron in Full Dress

1. Women appear to have enjoyed considerably more freedom among the Jews than is now allowed them in Western Asia, although in other respects their condition and employments seem to have been not dissimilar. At present, women of all ranks are much confined to their own houses, and never see the men who visit their husbands or fathers; and in towns they never go abroad without their persons and faces being completely shrouded; they also take their meals apart from the males, even of their own family. But in the rural districts they enjoy more freedom, and often go about unveiled. Among the Jews, women were somewhat less restrained in their intercourse with men, and did not generally conceal their faces when they went abroad. Only one instance occurs in Scripture of women eating with men (Ruth 2:14); but that was at a simple refection, and only illustrates the greater freedom of rural manners.

2. The employments of the women were very various, and sufficiently engrossing. In the earlier or patriarchal, state of society, the daughters of men of substance tended their father’s flocks (Gen 29:9; Exo 2:16). In ordinary circumstances, the first labor of the day was to grind corn and bake bread, as already noticed. The other cares of the family occupied the rest of the day.

Indoor Veils

Dress Veils, etc. Indoor

The women of the peasantry and of the poor consumed much time in collecting fuel, and in going to the wells for water. The wells were usually outside the towns, and the labor of drawing water from them was by no means confined to poor women. This was usually, but not always, the labor of the evening; and the water was carried in earthen vessels, borne upon the shoulder (Gen 24:15-20; John 4:7; John 4:28). Working with the needle also occupied much of their time, as it would seem that not only their own clothes but those of the men were made by the females. Some of the needlework was very fine, and much valued (Exo 26:36; Exo 28:39; Jdg 5:30; Psa 45:14). The women appear to have spun the yarn for all the cloth that was in use (Exo 35:25; Pro 31:19); and much of the weaving seems also to have been executed by them (Jdg 16:13-14; Pro 31:22). The tapestries for bed-coverings, mentioned in the last-cited text, were probably produced in the loom, and appear to have been much valued (Pro 7:16).

Young Lady in Full Dress

3. We have no certain information regarding the dress of the women among the poorer classes; but it was probably coarse and simple, and not materially different from that which we now see among the Bedouin women, and the female peasantry of Syria. This consists of drawers, and a long and loose gown of coarse blue linen, with some ornamental bordering wrought with the needle, in another color, about the neck and bosom. The head is covered with a kind of turban, connected with which, behind, is a veil which covers the neck, back, and bosom. We may presume, with still greater certainty, that women of superior condition wore, over their inner dress, a frock or tunic like that of the men, but more closely fitting the person, with a girdle formed by an unfolded kerchief.

Outdoor Veils

Nose Jewel

Their head-dress was a kind of turban, with different sorts of veils and wrappers worn under various circumstances. The hair was worn long, and, as at present, was braided into numerous tresses, with trinkets and ribbands (1Co 11:15; 1Ti 2:9; 1Pe 3:3). With the head-dress the principal ornaments appear to have been connected, such as a jewel for the forehead, and rows of pearls (Solomon’s Song of Solomon 1:10; Eze 16:12). Ear-rings were also worn (Isa 3:20; Eze 16:12), as well as a nose-jewel; consisting, no doubt, as now, either of a ring inserted in the cartilage of the nose, or an ornament like a button attached to it. The nose-jewel was of gold or silver, and sometimes set with jewels (Gen 24:47; Isa 3:21). Bracelets were also generally worn (Isa 3:19; Eze 16:11), some on the wrists, and some on the upper arm. They were worn both by men and women, but chiefly by the latter; and, for a man, the bracelet on the upper arms, seems to have been, as it is now in the East, a mark of royalty (2Sa 1:10).

Bracelets

Anklets

Anklets were also worn by females, and were, as at present, probably more like fetters than ornaments (Isa 3:16; Isa 3:20). The Jewish women had the art of staining their eyelids black, for effect and expression (2Ki 9:30; Jer 4:30; Eze 23:40); and it is more than probable that they had the present practice of staining the nails, and the palms of their hands and soles of their feet, of an iron-rust color, by means of a paste made from the plant called henna (Lawsonia inermis). This plant appears to be mentioned in Solomon’s Song of Solomon 1:14, and its present use is probably referred to in Deu 21:12; 2Sa 19:24.

4. Fathers claimed the absolute disposal of their sons and daughters in marriage (Gen 21:21; Exo 21:9; Deu 22:16; Jdg 14:1-4); but in a family where the children were from different mothers, the full brothers of a young woman expected also to be consulted (Gen 34:11; Gen 34:27; 2Sa 13:20-29). If a young man saw a damsel whom he liked, he might ask his own father to apply to her father on his behalf (Gen 34:4; Jdg 14:1-2). To prevent the contamination of idolatry, all marriages with foreigners were forbidden to the Israelites (Exo 34:15-16; Neh 13:23). If it happened that, for want of male heirs, daughters inherited an estate, it was expected that they should marry near kinsmen, or at least in their own tribe, that the property might be kept in the family or tribe to which it was first allotted (Num 27:1-11; Num 36:1-12). For a somewhat similar reason, if a man died without sons, his next brother was expected to marry his widow, and the first-born son of this union was considered as the son of the deceased, and inherited his estate (Deu 25:5-10; Ruth 4:1-5).

5. A father did not, as with us, give a fortune with his daughter, but expected to receive a consideration or dowry for giving her in marriage; the amount of which was settled in the contract of marriage which was formed by the fathers of the respective parties (Gen 29:18; Gen 29:27; Gen 34:11-12; Jos 15:6; 1Sa 18:23-26). This covenant, which was, in fact, the essential act of marriage, was in earlier times rendered valid by the presence of witnesses; but in later days it was reduced to writing, and appears to have been confirmed by oaths (Pro 2:17; Mal 2:14). In Jacob’s case we have an instance of the husband’s personal services to the father being accepted in lieu of money. Sometimes, however, a daughter was freely given by a father, without the exaction of what was called her “price,” and such wives were the more highly honored (Gen 11:15). In particular cases, it also occurred that a dowry was given by the father with his daughter (Jos 15:18-19; Jdg 1:12-15; 1Ki 9:16).

6. An interval of ten or twelve months, or even longer, usually passed between the contract of marriage and the actual nuptials. During this time the affianced pair saw little of each other; but were nevertheless accounted as man and wife—so much so, that the engagement could not be broken off without a regular divorce; and the woman was stoned as an adulteress, if, in the meantime, she proved unchaste (Gen 24:55; Jdg 14:8; Mat 1:18-20). When the nuptial day arrived, the bridegroom went, in the evening with his friends and associates, in holiday attire, to take home his bride from her father’s house. She, splendidly arrayed, and with the bridal crown upon her bead, came forth attended by her young companions; and, walking under a canopy, was escorted to her future home with songs, and dances, and instrumental music. On their arrival there, the men and women feasted in separate apartments; and if the parties were wealthy, the feast was prolonged for a week (Jdg 14:17). We know not of any ceremony attending this actual marriage, unless it were that the nuptial blessing—a prayer for a numerous offspring—was invoked on the newly-married pair.

7. For a man to have more than one wife was an abuse which existed at a very early date (Gen 4:19), and, in the course of time, became very prevalent. It was common among the Hebrews in the time of Moses, when it was deemed advisable to discourage rather than absolutely to interdict so rooted a practice. Afterwards, however, it became very unusual for a man to have more than one wife; as is, in fact, the case at present in countries where polygamy is allowed.

8. In like manner, Moses imposed some restrictions on the practice of divorce, which appears to have been before his time merely an oral act on the part of the man, but which he required to be effected by a written document. The repudiation might afterwards be retracted, if the woman had not, in the meanwhile, married another man; but if she had, it could not be recalled (Deu 24:1-4). It was disputed in later times, what the law intended to be a sufficient ground of divorce. One party contended that the man might divorce his wife for any cause, however trifling; the other, that he could do so for adultery only. Our Lord, in whose time the practice of divorce had become frightfully common, decided the latter to be the just alternative (Mat 5:31-32). Even before the time of Moses, the punishment for adultery in a woman was death (Gen 38:24; Lev 20:10), but we meet with no instance of its actual infliction. If a man suspected the chastity of his wife, without having legal evidence of the fact, it was in his power to subject her to the ordeal of “the water of jealousy,” which, through the agency of a very awful oath, was to be instrumental in making her guilt or innocence appear (Num 5:11-31).

9. The Israelites eagerly desired children, and especially sons. Hence the messenger who first brought to the father the news that a son was born, was well rewarded (Job 3:3; Jer 20:15). The event was celebrated with music; and the father, when the child was presented to him, pressed it to his bosom, by which act he was understood to acknowledge it as his own (Gen 50:23; Job 3:12; Psa 22:10). On the eighth day from the birth the child was circumcised (Gen 17:10); at which time also, a name was given to it (Luk 1:59). The first-born son was highly esteemed, and had many distinguishing privileges. He had a double portion of the estate (Deu 21:17); he exercised a sort of parental authority over his younger brothers (Gen 25:23, etc.; Gen 27:29; Exo 12:29; 2Ch 21:3); and before the institution of the Levitical priesthood, he acted as the priest of the family (Num 3:12-13; Num 8:18). The patriarchs exercised the power of taking these privileges from the first-born, and giving them to any other son, or of distributing them among different sons; but this practice was overruled by the Mosaical law (Deu 21:15-17).

10. The child continued about three years at the breast of the mother, and a great festival was given at the weaning (Gen 21:8; 1Sa 1:22-24; 2Ch 31:6; Mat 21:16). He remained two years longer in charge of the women; after which he was taken under the especial care of the father with a view to his proper training (Deu 6:20; Deu 6:25; Deu 11:19). It appears that those who wished for their sons better instruction than they were themselves able or willing to give, employed a private teacher, or else sent them to a priest or Levite, who had perhaps several others under his care. The principal object was, that they should be well acquainted with the law of Moses; and reading and writing were taught in subservience to this leading object.

11. The authority of a father was very great among the Israelites, and extended not only to his sons, but to his grand sons—indeed, to all who were descended from him. His power had no recognized limit, and even if he put his son or grandson to death, there was, at first, no law by which he could be brought to account (Gen 21:14; Gen 38:24). But Moses circumscribed this power, by ordering that when a father judged his son worthy of death, he should bring him before the public tribunals. If, however, be had struck or cursed his father or mother, or was refractory or disobedient, he was still liable to capital punishment (Exo 21:15; Exo 21:17; Lev 20:9; Deu 21:18-21).