13. Food and Dress

Food and Dress

1. Like most Eastern people, the Israelites were plain and simple in their food, which consisted chiefly of bread, vegetables, fruits (green and preserved), honey, milk, curds, cream, butter, and cheese. Meat could hardly be called an ordinary article of food, except among the higher class of the people dwelling in towns. The use of animal food was, indeed, restricted in some degree by the law, which allowed the flesh of no beasts to be eaten but such as chewed the cud and parted the hoof, nor any fish but such as had both fins and scales (Lev 11:1-28). Blood and fat were also interdicted, as well as the large lobe of the liver, and the kidneys (Lev 3:15; Lev 3:17). These restrictions rendered it difficult for a strict Jew to eat with a heathen: and this was probably the motive; as it was one great object of the Mosaical law to keep the Israelites separate from all other nations. The hog was not forbidden more especially than many other animals; but being the only unclean beast the flesh of which was usually and commonly eaten, its absence from the diet of the Jews attracted more attention than any other prohibition. Poultry was but sparingly used. The only domestic birds kept were pigeons and the common fowl; and the Scripture gives no instance of their being used for food, except the “fatted fowl,” provided for the regal and vice-regal tables of Solomon and Nehemiah (1Ki 4:23; Neh 5:18). The quails eaten in the wilderness furnish the only other instance of birds used for food (Exo 16:12-13; Num 11:31). Eggs are only twice mentioned as articles of food (Job 6:6; Luk 11:12). Although fish with fins and scales were allowed to the Israelites for food, it does not seem that much use was made of this indulgence until the later days of the Jewish history. In the Old Testament, the only direct reference to the consumption of fish is where we learn that Mediterranean fish were brought across the country by the Phoenicians for sale at Jerusalem (Neh 13:16). The fish brought to the city were sold at a particular gate, called the Fish-Gate (2Ch 32:14; Neh 3:3; Neh 12:39). Fish-ponds are mentioned (Solomon’s Song of Solomon 7:4); and there are such allusions to fishing with nets (Job 19:6; Isa 51:20), with hooks (Job 41:1; Isa 19:8; Amo 4:2), and with spears (Job 41:7), as show that these operations were well known. In the New Testament we read oftener of fish and fishing. Several of the Apostles were fishermen of the lake of Gennesareth, which abounded in fish; and the Gospels frequently notice their proceedings in that character, with which some of the most signal miracles of Christ were connected. The eating of fish is also often mentioned, and it would seem to have been generally broiled (Mat 7:10; Luk 24:42; John 21:9-10; John 21:13).

2. Bread was not baked in loaves, as with us, but in cakes, in rolls, and in large and thin plats, like pancakes. Every family generally baked its own bread, and that daily, after the flour had been ground. The modes of baking were various, and on these the shape of the bread depended. There was the heated hearth for the thicker cakes and rolls; and the thin bread was baked either on a metal plate over hot embers, or by being stuck against the heated sides of a large earthenware vessel, or of a pit in the floor (Gen 18:6; Gen 19:3; Lev 2:4; Lev 6:21; Lev 11:35; 1Ki 19:6). This work of baking bread, like that of grinding corn, was at first performed by the wives and daughters, however high their station (Gen 18:6; Lev 26:26; 2Sa 13:6; 2Sa 13:8; Jer 7:18-19); but was in time abandoned, in families of consequence, to female servants (1Sa 8:13). There were, however, in large towns, as at present, public ovens and bakers by trade (Jer 37:21; Hos 7:4); and from the former text which mentions “the bakers’ street,” it appears that, as is still the case, the bakers, as well as other trades, had a particular part of the market or bazaar set apart to their own use, instead of being, as with us, dispersed through the towns in which they lived. The customers of the bakers were chiefly the small households, the poor, and the unsettled part of the population. For their more extensive operations, the bakers have ovens of brick, not unlike our own; and in very large households similar ovens are used. Bread, such as has been mentioned, needed not to be cut; it was always broken (Isa 58:7; Lam 4:4; Mat 14:19; etc.).In eating, generally, no knives, and much less forks, were used, but each morsel of food was conveyed from the disc to the mouth by the right hand (Ruth 2:14; Pro 26:15; John 13:26). Meat was dressed so as to be easily separated by the fingers; and if a morsel was too large, it was transferred to the cake of bread which was placed before each person; for the use of plates was unknown. This mode of feeding made it necessary that the bands should be washed before and after meals (Mat 15:2; Mark 7:3); which was done by a servant pouring water over the bands from an ewer, and receiving it in a basin held bellow, as it fell from them (2Ki 3:11).

Modern Syrians at Meat

3. A kind of lunch, consisting of bread, milk, cheese, etc., was taken in the forenoon; but the principal meal was in the evening after the labors of the day were over, and when the coolness of the air allowed enjoyment and created appetite. Hence it is called a supper (Mark 6:21; Luk 14:24; John 12:2). A short prayer was said before and after meals (Mat 14:9; Mat 15:6; Mat 26:27; etc.).We have supposed before that the Hebrews had two modes of sitting; when they used seats they ate from a table, but when they sat on the ground, the meal was laid out on a cloth spread on the floor, with a large piece of leather under it, to prevent the mats or carpets from being soiled. Or a kind of table, raised only a few inches, may have been occasionally employed, as at present. During the Captivity, the Jews learned (as did afterwards the Romans) the Persian practice of reclining at meals upon mats or cushions, around the table, in such a way that the head of every person approached the bosom of the one who reclined next above him (John 13:23). In ancient times, every person seems to have had his separate portion of meat, and honor was shown to a distinguished or favored guest, by the quantity or quality of that which was set before him (Gen 43:34; 1Sa 1:4-5; 1Sa 9:23-24); but in later times every one helped himself from the dish nearest to him, or from one dish if the party was small enough for one dish to be within the reach of all (Mat 26:23; John 13:26). The Orientals do not drink during meals, but afterwards water or wine is handed round in vessels of tinned copper (Mat 26:27). Wine was used freely among the Jews, whose country was, indeed, noted for wine and oil: all their wines appear to have been red (Pro 23:31; Isa 27:2). The kind most commonly drunk was weak, or much diluted with water, and was used much as we use table ale or beer. Strong and generous wines were necessarily confided to the rich, and were sparingly used. Wine was also sometimes strengthened or flavored with spices, especially myrrh (Num 15:10; Psa 75:8; Pro 23:30; Hos 14:7). That which was called “strong drink,” included the higher kinds of wine, but more particularly denoted a very inebriating liquor made of dates and of various seeds and roots (Lev 10:9; Deu 29:6; 1Sa 1:15; etc.).From this and pure wine was made another drink, which appears to have been much used for common purposes (Num 6:3; Ruth 2:14; Mat 27:48).

Ancient Dinner-Bed

4. At feasts or entertainments, the guests were anointed with precious and perfumed oils (Psa 23:5; Psa 45:7; Amo 6:6; Luk 7:37-38; etc.).It was not uncommon for the carousal to be prolonged through the night, with much excess of drinking (Rom 13:13; Gal 5:21; 1Pe 4:3). Jests, riddles, singing, music, dancing, were not wanting on these festive occasions (Jdg 14:12; Pro 9:2-4; Isa 5:12; Isa 24:7; Isa 24:9; Amo 6:4-5; Luk 15:25). The Jews do not appear to have been addicted to gaming, for there is no allusion to it in the Scriptures. Neither is story-telling, that great pastime of the modern East, directly mentioned; but as they were in the habit of producing apologues, or short stories, on particular occasions, we may safely number this among their amusements.

Arabian Dress

5. We know how the ancient Egyptians, Persians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans were dressed, for their costumes are represented in sculptures and paintings which still exist; but it is not so with respect to the Jews, who did not consider it lawful to carve or paint the human figure. This want is, however, well supplied by the existing costumes of the East. Dress does not change there as with us; and it is clear, that the habits now worn by the people, as well as the common usages of life, are, for the most part, the same as in the times of the Bible. The patriarchs dressed somewhat differently, probably, from their settled descendants; and the difference was in all likelihood such as we now see between the pastoral Bedouin Arabs and the inhabitants of settled countries. The dresses of the great Arabian family, in its various conditions, appear to have been transmitted with little alteration from very ancient times, and may be taken as affording the nearest approximation which can now be obtained to the raiment worn by the ancient Israelites. The Arabian costumes may be deemed to agree with the dresses worn in the patriarchal and pastoral periods of the Hebrew history. The garb conventionally assigned by painters and sculptors to Scripture characters seems to have been founded partly on tradition, and partly derived from actual observation of Oriental dress in early pilgrimages to the Holy Land. It is, upon the whole, a noble costume, and makes a nearer approach to the truth than has been of late usually supposed.

Sculptural Scripture Costumes

Arms Bared

Long garments were worn by the Israelites, as they were, indeed, by most ancient nations, and are by the modern Orientals. Such garments were also wide and loose; and thus, although easy and dignified, they rather impeded active and vigorous exertion; for which reason, in manual action, the sleeves were drawn up, or, as the Scripture describes it, “the arm made bare” (Isa 52:10; Eze 4:7); and in travelling on foot, or running, the skirts were gathered up, and confined by the girdle; this was called “girding the loins” (1Ki 18:46; 2Ki 4:29; Luk 12:35; 1Pe 1:13). We may conceive the figure of a Jew, viewed externally, as that of a full-bearded man, clad in a long and loose garment with large sleeves, which was confined to the person by a girdle about the loins; the neck bare, the feet protected by a piece of leather strapped to the sole, and the head either bare (as it seems very often to have been), or covered, among the higher classes, by a kind of turban, and among the common people by a piece of cloth thrown over the head, and confined by a fillet around the brows.

Common Dress: Shirts or Frocks without Outer Mantles and with or without Girdles

Full Dress: with different sorts of Outer Mantles

The ordinary appearance of the Jew, however, was varied by circumstances, as when a large, loose, and shapeless garment was thrown, like a cloak, over the dress which has been described. This was worn with studied grace by the upper classes, who had it of finer materials; and to the poor it was of such service that it was forbidden by law to keep it in pledge over-night (Exo 22:25-26; see also Job 22:6; Job 24:7). This was because such persons wrapped themselves up in it when they slept; it also served them to carry burthens in, when nothing more suitable was at hand; and this use of it may be seen every day in the East (Exo 12:34; 2Ki 4:39). It was peculiar to the Jews to have a fringe with a piece of blue tape upon the four corners of this garment, to remind them that they were a peculiar people and under peculiar laws Num 15:38-39; Mat 9:20; Luk 8:44).

Captive Jews

In a tomb discovered by Belzoni in the valley of Babel-Melook, near Thebes, there are, among other figures, four supposed to be of captive Jews of the time of Josiah, where the fringe is conspicuously represented—perhaps with some exaggeration.

Frontlets

It was also peculiar to them, in later days, to wear ‘frontlets,’ or ‘phylacteries,’ which were little boxes of hard calf-skin, bound by thongs to the forehead, and folded up slips of parchment, on which were written out the texts of the law which were supposed to prescribe this curious observance (Exo 13:16; Deu 6:8).

6. All these dresses of the Israelites were of linen or cotton, excepting the capacious outer garment which was of wool, or of wool and hair interwoven. The Egyptians were famous for the manufacture of various kinds of cloth; and that the Israelites had learnt this art from them, is evinced by their producing in the wilderness the various rich cloths required for the coverings and curtains of the tabernacle, and for the dress of the high-priest (Exodus 26, 28). From various passages of Scripture we infer that the art of embroidery was carried to some degree of perfection (Exo 35:35; Exo 38:23; Jdg 5:30). There was a family of Judah particularly celebrated for its skill in the manufacture of fine linen (1Ch 4:21). White, blue, and various shades of red and purple, seem to have been the favorite colors among the Israelites. No other colors of clothes are named in Scripture.

Shirt

7. From Oriental analogies, we should suppose that the Israelites wore shirts under their tunics; but there is no positive evidence of this, unless, as some suppose, such were the “thirty sheets” (margin “shirts”) which, with thirty changes of raiment, formed the forfeit of Samson’s riddle (Jdg 14:12). Loose linen drawers or trousers, such as are still used in the East, were worn by the priests, and probably by others (Exo 28:42). These were at first very short, not reaching to the knees, but were at length extended to the middle of the leg, or to the ankle.

8. The girdle which confined the tunic was of two kinds. One was a broad band of leather, fastened with clasps (2Ki 1:8; Mat 3:4), and the other was of fine linen or cotton, long and narrow, and wound in many folds around the waist (Jer 13:1). The girdle answered the purpose of a pocket to carry money and other valuables, hence the word rendered “purse” in some passages literally means “a girdle” (2Sa 18:11; Mat 10:9; Mark 6:8). It might be inferred from 2Sa 20:8, that the Israelites wore daggers in their girdles, like the modern Orientals; but this is not very clear; and Joab, as the commander of the forces, might carry arms not generally worn.

Sandals

9. Stockings and socks were not in use, and the mass of the people went altogether barefoot, except in winter, or upon a journey; but the wealthier classes always wore sandals out of doors, except during mourning. These sandals are called “shoes” in our Bible. They were pieces of hide or tanned leather, shaped to the sole of the foot, and bound to it with thongs of leather (Gen 14:23; Exo 12:11; Isa 5:27; Mat 3:11; Mat 10:10; etc.).When a person entered a house, or the presence of a superior, he took off his sandals, as the modern Orientals do their shoes (Exo 3:5; Deu 25:9; Ruth 4:7-8; Isa 20:4; Eze 24:17). It was the office of the lowest class of servants to take off and carry the master’s sandals (Mat 3:11; Mark 1:7). Servants of that class also washed the soiled feet of the guests who came to an entertainment; although the master himself sometimes stooped to perform this office for a much honored visitant (Gen 18:4; Luk 7:44).

Beards of Syrian and other Foreign Nations, from Egyptian Monuments

10. The Israelites allowed the hair of the head and beard to grow. The former was shorn occasionally; and the partial use of the razor in trimming the beard was not unlawful to any but the Nazarites (Num 6:5; Jdg 13:7; Jdg 16:17). A full head of hair seems to have been much admired (2Sa 14:26; Solomon’s Song of Solomon 5:11). The hair was dressed and anointed with much care, especially at festivals (2Sa 14:2; Isa 3:24; Mat 6:17; Luk 7:46). Baldness in men not old was rare, and was despised (2Ki 2:23; Isa 3:24; Jer 47:5). The beard, as the characteristic sign of manhood, was much respected by the Israelites; to shave it, to spit upon it, to pull it, and even to touch it, except for the purpose of salutation, were the grossest insults which men could inflict upon one another (2Sa 10:4-6; 1Ch 19:3-6; Isa 7:20); and hence, for a man to neglect or maltreat his own beard was a sign of madness or of extreme grief (1Sa 21:13; 2Sa 19:24; Isa 15:2).

Modern Oriental Beards

11. It appears to have been the custom to use walking-staves, even when not upon a journey (Gen 32:10; Gen 38:18; Exo 12:11; 2Ki 4:29; Mark 6:8; etc.).Rings were worn on the fingers: these were generally signet-rings bearing the name of the owner, and the impression from which was equivalent to his signature. This explains the high powers and dignities which a monarch conferred by the delivery of his own signet-ring (Gen 41:42; Est 3:10; Est 3:12; Est 8:2; Dan 6:9; Dan 6:13; Dan 6:17).