10. Pastoral Life and Animals

Pastoral Life and Animals

Pastures

1. In the first period of their history the Hebrews led an unsettled pastoral life, such as we still find among many Oriental tribes. One great object of the Mosaical polity was to turn them from this condition into that of fixed cultivators of the soil. Pasturage was, however, only discouraged as a condition of life, unfriendly to settled habits and institutions, and not as a pursuit connected with agriculture. Hence, although in later times the principal attention of the Hebrews was given to agriculture, the tending of sheep and cattle was not at any time neglected.

2. The shepherds who move about with their flocks from one pasture-ground to another according to the demands of the season, the state of the herbage, and the supply of water, are called nomads—that is, not merely shepherds, but wandering shepherds. They feed their flocks in the “commons,” or the deserts and wildernesses, which no settled or cultivating people have appropriated. At first, no pastoral tribe can have any particular property in such tracts of ground in preference to another tribe; but, m the end, a particular tract becomes appropriated to some one tribe, or section of a tribe, either from long occupation, or from digging wells therein. According to the ideas of the East, the digging of a well is so meritorious an act, that he who performs it acquires a property in the waste-lands around. In the time of the patriarchs, Palestine was but thinly peopled by the Canaanites, and offered many such tracts of unappropriated grounds fit for pasturage. In these they fed their flocks, without establishing any exclusive claims to the soil, until they proceeded to dig wells, which, being considered as an act of appropriation, was opposed by some of the inhabitants (Gen 21:25-26). After the conquest of Canaan, those Israelites who possessed large flocks and herds, sent them out, under the care of shepherds, into the “wildernesses,” or commons, of the east and south, where there are rich and juicy pasturages during the moist seasons of the year (1Sa 17:28; 1Sa 25:4; 1Sa 25:15; 1Ch 27:29-31; Isa 65:10; Jer 50:39). The nomads occupy, successively, the same stations in the deserts every year. In summer, when the plains are parched with drought, and every green herb is dried up, they proceed northwards, or into the mountains, or to the banks of rivers; and in winter and spring, when the rains have re-clothed the plains with verdure, and filled the water-courses, they return. When these pastors remove, they strike their tents, pack them up and convey them on camels to the next station. Nearly all the pastoral usages were the same, anciently, as now. The sheep were constantly kept in the open air, and guarded by hired servants, and by the sons and daughters of the owners. Even the daughters of emirs, or chiefs, did not disdain to tend the sheep (Gen 24:17-20; Gen 29:9; Exo 2:16).

Tower

The principal shepherd was responsible for the sheep entrusted to his care, and if any were lost he had to make them good, except in certain cases (Gen 31:39; Exo 22:12; Amo 3:12). Their services were often paid by a certain proportion of the young of the flock (Gen 30:30). On the more dangerous stations, towers were erected, from which the approach of enemies might be discovered. These were called the Towers of the Flock (Gen 35:21; 2Ch 26:10; Mic 4:8).

3. Waters—Water is even more than usually necessary in warm regions, especially to those who have many cattle; and, being very scarce, especially in the plains and deserts, it is highly valued, and very frugally used (Num 20:17-19; Deu 2:6; Deu 2:28; Job 22:7). Hence, wells and cisterns are dug by the nomads, at the places which they frequent; and these wells being formed with great labor, by a rude people, are objects of much solicitude and care. We have already alluded to the property in the land which is thus acquired. A well is invariably the property of the party by whom, or at whose cost, it was dug; and is inherited by his descendants. No stranger has any right to draw water from it, without the permission of the owner; and for this he generally expects payment (Num 20:17-19). It appears that sometimes the wells were owned by a number of pastors in common, and that the flocks were brought to them on appointed days, in an order previously arranged. A well was often covered with a great stone, which being removed, the person descended some steps to the surface of the water, and, on his return, poured into a trough that which he had brought up (Gen 24:11-15; Gen 29:3-10; Exo 2:16; Jdg 5:11). But as this process was only applicable where the well was not deep, and we must assume that the Israelites had the use of the same contrivances for raising water which we still find in operation in the East, and the antiquity of most of which is evinced by the Egyptian paintings and sculptures.

Well and Bucket at Jaffa

From the deeper kind of well, the water is usually drawn by hand in a leathern bucket—sometimes by the aid of a windlass, but oftener, where the well is only of moderate depth, by the shadoof which is the most common and simple of all the machines used in the East for raising water, whether from wells, reservoirs, or rivers. This is a tapering lever unequally balanced upon an upright stem, and to the smaller end of which the bucket is attached by the rope. The weight of the larger end balancing the laden bucket, it is drawn up with ease, the only care being to regulate its ascent. The water of wells, as well as of fountains, was called by the Hebrews “living water” (translated “running water”), and was highly esteemed (Lev 14:5; Num 19:17). This epithet was not applied to the waters preserved in cisterns and other reservoirs.

4. Cisterns—These were large reservoirs, in which the waters from rain and melted snows were collected, and reserved for use in the season of drought. They sometimes occur as large subterraneous vaults, perhaps an acre in extent, but with a very small mouth, or entrance. In cities, they were very elaborate works, being often hewn out of the solid rock, or lined with masonry, covered with a firm incrustation, on which water had no effect. Remains of such cisterns are still found in Palestine, especially in the country beyond Jordan. The cisterns of the open country, intended for the pastors and their flocks, when they have received their supply of water, have often the mouth covered with large flat stones, over which sand is spread, so that strangers may pass without being aware of the treasure beneath their feet. Sometimes, however, the owners, on returning from distant stations, find their cisterns without water, either from their having been broken by earthquakes or other causes, or from their having been discovered and rifled of their precious contents. In such cases, the shepherd and his flocks are in a situation of great danger; and hence, a failure of this description is used as an image of any great calamity (Isa 41:17-18; Isa 44:3). As there is often a large deposit of mud at the bottom of these cisterns, a miserable death awaits any who fall into them (Gen 37:22, etc.; Psa 40:2; Psa 69:15; Jer 38:6; Lam 3:53). Cisterns, when empty of water, were very often used as prisons, and as such were very secure.

Flocks and Herds A brief view of the flocks and herds of the Israelites, will chew the kinds of animals most common among them, before, as well as after, they ceased to be a nomad people.

5. Sheep—In Scripture mention is made of different species and varieties of sheep. At present, the chief breeds in the country are the broad-tailed and the common horned white. The latter resembles the horned breed of continental Europe, but with a somewhat thicker and larger tail. It is often black and white about the face and feet, but is seldom otherwise black, and sheep wholly black of any breed are and were uncommon (Psa 147:16; Isa 1:18; Dan 7:9). The other breed is chiefly valued for the fat of their broad tails, which tastes very much like marrow. The flesh of neither breed is remarkably delicate, nor is the wool of peculiar fineness. Mutton is, and always has been, the principal animal food used in the East, on which account, as well as for the milk and the wool, sheep were held in high estimation. Sometimes one person owned many thousands of them (Job 1:3; 1Sa 25:2; 1Ch 5:21). Sheepshearings were great festivals (1Sa 25:2; 1Sa 25:4; 1Sa 25:8; 2Sa 13:23). On such occasions, the sheep were collected within uncovered enclosures, which are the “sheepfolds” mentioned in Scripture; for there are no other sheepfolds in the East (Num 32:16; Num 32:24; Num 32:36; 2Sa 7:8; Zep 2:6).

Syrian Sheep

Syrian Goat

6. Goats were comprehended with sheep under the general term of “flock,” both being commonly pastured together, as is still the case in Palestine. There are two varieties or species of the goat in Palestine—one of them differs little from the common goat; the other is distinguished by its larger size, and still more by its very long, hanging ears (Amo 3:12), and by the ram-like appearance of its horns and head. The hair is long, and almost invariably black. The “wild goats,” mentioned in Scripture, were, probably, the ibex and the kebsch, both of which are still found in the mountains in or near Palestine. The first is well known; the latter is remarkable for the long pendant mane with which its front is furnished. The milk of goats was more esteemed than that of any other animal (Pro 27:27), and the flesh was much liked, especially that of the kids. The hair was woven into tent-coverings; and the entire skins formed vessels, or “skin bottles,” in which water was carried. Smaller vessels, made of kidskins, were in very common use. When the vessel was intended for water, the side on which the hair grew was turned inward; when for wine, that side was turned outward.

Water Skins

7. Oxen—Animals of this kind belong rather to the agricultural than the pastoral condition of life; and do not, therefore, figure in the possessions of the modern nomads of Western Asia. In this respect, the patriarchal fathers more resembled the Eastern Tartars, for they had large possessions of black cattle (Gen 24:35; Job 1:3). In after-times, oxen are more frequently mentioned in connection with agricultural life. The richest pastures were those of Bashan, Sharon, and Achor; and the well-fed bulls of Bashan were particularly strong and ferocious (Deu 33:17; Psa 22:12; Psa 68:30; Pro 14:4; Isa 34:7). Oxen were employed in carrying burdens, as well as in drawing ploughs and carts. Beef is now but little used in the East; but considerable quantities appear to have been consumed by the Israelites. Veal also was more in use than now, and “the fatted calf” was often slaughtered for a feast (Gen 18:7; Luk 15:23). Cheese was made from the milk of cows (2Sa 17:29); but for drinking, goat’s milk was preferred. At present there are two principal breeds of oxen in Syria; both short-horned, but one larger, and having longer legs than the other. There are also buffaloes, and the wild ox is still found in the bordering deserts.

8. Camels—There are two species of camels; one with a single hump, and the other with two. The camel so often mentioned in Scripture, is that with the single hump; the other was, probably, scarcely known to the Israelites, as it belongs rather to central than to western Asia. The Dromedary is merely a finer and swifter breed of the camel, used exclusively for riding (Isa 60:6; Isa 66:20; Jer 2:23).

Arabian Camel: baggage

Arabian Camel: saddle

The camel can endure much abstinence from food and water, by which, and by its other habits, it is adapted, as by the special destination of Providence, to traverse the deserts, in which much privation must be sustained. Its broad and well-cushioned foot is also peculiarly suited to tread the bard, dry, gravelly soil of the desert. Hence, this is animal is the favorite and the most valued beast of the nomads, who now, as in the times of Scripture, possess large numbers of them (Gen 24:10; Gen 31:17; 1Sa 30:17; 1Ki 10:2; Isa 30:6; Eze 25:4). The milk is much used, chiefly in a sour or thickened state, and the flesh is eaten by the Arabs, though it was forbidden to the Jews (Lev 11:4). The hair, which is shed yearly, is made into a kind of coarse cloth, of which robes are made, such as John the Baptist wore (Mat 3:4). Camels were used to carry all kinds of burdens (Gen 37:25; Jdg 6:5; 2Ki 8:9; 1Ch 12:40; 2Ch 14:15), and also for riding (Gen 24:61; Gen 31:17; 1Sa 30:17). The travellers sit astride, on a proper riding camel, as on horseback; or squat in a peculiar fashion on the luggage. Great persons, the sick. and women sometimes journey at ease in a covered litter, or sort of tent, which is secured upon the camel’s back; or else two persons balance each other in covered cribs, or cradles, slung over the camel’s back, after the manner of panniers. The camels on which wealthy persons ride, are often garnished with chains and other rich ornaments of metal (Jdg 8:21; Jdg 8:26).

Double Camel Litter

Single Camel Litter

9. Horses were not much used among the more ancient Israelites, and, as they were then employed chiefly in war-like enterprises, the rearing of them was discouraged by the law (Deu 17:16). The horses of Egypt are the earliest mentioned (Gen 47:17), and that country was always noted for its horses. Joshua encountered chariots and horses in northern Palestine (Jos 11:4-9); and not long after we find them in use among the Philistines (Jdg 1:19; 1Sa 13:5). David reserved some of the horses and chariots which he captured in his wars (2Sa 8:4; 1Ch 18:4); and there are frequent allusions to these animals, and to equestrian troops, in the book of Psalms. Solomon established a large trade with Egypt for chariots and horses (1Ki 10:28; 2Ch 1:16-17); and after his time horses are often mentioned, but chiefly as connected with the state and the army, for they were never much in use by private persons. A piece of cloth served instead of a saddle, and stirrups were not known; but a bridle and curb were in use (Psa 31:3). As horses were not shod, a hard hoof was much esteemed (Isa 5:28; Amo 6:12).

Domestic Ass

Wild Ass

10. Asses—In the East, when properly trained and cared for, the ass is a fine and even elegant animal, while it is still patient and diligent. Hence, its name is applied in Scripture not, as with us, to characterize doltish or obstinate, but industrious and active men (Gen 49:14). Before horses were used by the Israelites, and while they were employed chiefly in war, all peaceful operations were carried on by means of asses. Persons of the first consequence rode on them (Gen 22:3; Gen 22:5; Num 22:21; Num 22:30; Jos 15:18; Jdg 1:14; Jdg 5:10; Jdg 10:4; Jdg 12:14; 1Sa 25:20; 1Sa 25:42; 2Sa 17:23; 2Sa 19:26; 1Ki 2:40; 1Ki 13:13; 2Ki 4:22; 2Ki 4:24; Zec 9:9; Mat 21:1-7). When the Jews returned from the Babylonish captivity, there were in their caravan no fewer than 6720 asses, but not more than 736 horses and 245 mules, and only 435 camels (Ezr 2:66-67). White asses, which are less uncommon in the East than with us, were much admired (Jdg 5:10). When a person of consequence, or a lady, rode forth, a servant followed to urge the beast occasionally with his staff (Jdg 19:3; 2Ki 4:24; Pro 26:3). Asses were also employed to carry burdens, and in the labors of the field; but Moses relieved the ass from plowing in the same yoke with the ox (Deu 22:10). Wild asses are often named in Scripture. They are still found in Mesopotamia and further east, but not now in the Syrian deserts. They are of a fine figure and great swiftness, and roam in desert places, far from the abodes of men. They go in herds, and by their acute scent discover water at a great distance (Psa 104:11; Isa 32:14; Jer 14:6). Asses and mules are still much used for riding in Palestine, as they afford a species of locomotion well suited to the nature of the country.

11. Mules are first mentioned in the time of David; but were, probably, known much earlier. They were used for riding and burthen; but do not seem to have become very common (2Sa 13:29; 2Sa 18:9-10; 1Ki 1:33; 1Ch 12:40; Psa 32:9; Eze 32:14). Litters were sometimes borne by mules, as is still the case in those parts of Western Asia where camels are not common.

Double Mule Litter