08. Laws and Operations

Laws and Operations

Laws

1. It appeared to the Divine Wisdom, that the agricultural life was best suited to maintain the Israelites in that particular position in which it was designed that they should be placed. A country well adapted to agriculture was, therefore, given to them; and laws were framed to encourage and to render necessary the culture of the ground, and, in some degree, to discourage other pursuits. That all might find an interest in the culture of the soil, every one had some land to cultivate. A plot of ground was given to every head of a family, which he had full power to cultivate as he pleased, and to transmit to his heirs. The difficulty was not in acquiring, but in alienating a possession in land. No one could dispossess himself of his lands for a longer time than to the next ensuing jubilee, which occurred every fifty years; and if he disposed of his land for this limited period, himself, or his nearest relative, always retained the right of resuming possession, by paying the calculated value of the unexpired term up to the year of jubilee. As, by the original constitution, God himself was the political head of the state, and the sovereign proprietor of the soil, the land, thus secured to the heirs of the first proprietors, was exempt from any other rent-charges than the tithes and first-fruits which were offered to Him, and used by His servants—the priests and Levites (Lev 27:30; Deu 12:17-19; Deu 14:22-29). As fields are not divided by hedges in the east, the stones which marked the boundaries of lands (land-marks) were rendered inviolable by a solemn curse against whoever should remove them (Deu 19:14). All the inhabitants, except the priests and Levites, were considered by the laws, and were, for the most part, in fact, agriculturists, whether they dwelt in the country or in towns. This legislation had due effect; for agriculture was long held in high honor, and persons of condition did not disdain to put their hand to the plough (1Sa 11:5; 1Sa 11:7; 1Ki 19:19; 2Ch 26:10). As luxury increased, this esteem for agriculture declined; especially after the Captivity, when many turned their attention towards merchandise and the mechanic arts.

2. The Fallow Year—That the Israelites might exercise trust in their Divine King; that they might be trained to habits of economy and foresight; and that the soil might not be exhausted, it was ordered that every seventh year should be a sabbath of rest to the land. There was to be no sowing nor reaping, no pruning of vines nor olives, no vintage nor gathering of fruits; and whatever grew of itself was to be left to the poor, the stranger, and the beasts of the field (Lev 25:1-7; Deu 15:1-10). But such an observance required more faith than the Israelites were prepared to exercise; it was for a long time utterly neglected (Lev 26:34-35; 2Ch 36:21), but after the Captivity was more observed.

3. Fertilization—The soil of Palestine is, for the most part, very fertile, when the rains and dews of autumn and spring are not withheld. Water is the great fertilizing agent; and therefore the ancient inhabitants were able, in some parts, to avert the aridity which the summer droughts occasioned, and to keep up a garden-like verdure, by means of aqueducts communicating with the brooks and rivers (Psa 1:3; Psa 65:10; Pro 21:1; Isa 30:25; Isa 32:2; Isa 32:20; Hos 7:11). Hence springs, fountains, and rivulets, were as much esteemed by husbandmen as by shepherds (Jos 15:19; Jdg 1:15). The soil was also cleared of stones, and carefully cultivated; and its fertility was increased by the ashes to which the dry stubble and herbage were occasionally reduced by burning over the surface of the ground (Pro 24:31; Isa 7:23; Isa 32:13), The dung and, in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, the blood of animals, were also used to enrich the soil (2Ki 9:37; Psa 83:10; Isa 25:10; Jer 9:22; Luk 14:34-35).

4. Fields—Under the term dagan, which we translate “grain,” and “corn,” the Hebrews comprehended almost every object of field-culture. Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the ancients as one of the first countries for corn. Wheat was abundant and excellent; and there is still one bearded sort, the ear of which is three times as heavy, and contains twice as many grains, as our common English wheat. Barley was also much cultivated, not only for bread, but because it was the only kind of corn which was given to beasts; for oats and rye do not thrive in warm climates. Hay was not in use, and therefore the barley was mixed with chopped straw to form the food of beasts: this is what is called “provender” in Scripture. Other objects of field-culture were millet, spelt, various kinds of beans and peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons, flax, and perhaps cotton. Many other articles might be mentioned as being now cultivated in Palestine, but, as their names do not occur in Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were grown there in ancient times.

Garden House

5. Gardens—The Israelites appear to have been fond of gardens, which, in the East, are chiefly planted with trees, with little regard to order or effect. As, however, the Egyptians were skilful florists, and laid out their gardens with care, introducing beds and borders of flowers, it is likely that the Israelites had some similar practices. Shade was chiefly sought; and, that a double benefit might be realized, the shade of fruit trees was preferred. The more important gardens were named from the prevalence of certain trees in them; as “the garden of nuts,” “the garden of pomegranates,” etc. (Song of Solomon 6:11). The gardens owed all their freshness to the waters, of which they were never destitute (Num 24:6; Deu 9:10; Song of Solomon 4:15; Isa 1:30; Isa 66:17; Jer 31:12). So attached were the Israelites to their gardens, that they often had their sepulchers in them (2Ki 9:37; 2Ki 21:18; Mark 15:46). Trees were multiplied by seeds and shoots; they were transplanted, dug around, manured, and pruned (Job 8:16; Isa 17:10); and the operation of grafting was well known (Rom 11:17).

Operations and Implements

1. Of late years much light has been thrown upon the agricultural operations and implements of ancient times by the discovery of various representations on the sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt. As these agree surprisingly with the notices in the Bible, and, indeed differ little from the existing usages in Syria and Egypt, it is very safe to receive the instruction which they offer.

Syrian Plough

Hoeing

2. Plowing—This has always been a light and superficial operation in the East. At first the ground was opened with pointed sticks; then a kind of hoe was employed, and this, in many parts of the world, is still the substitute for a plough. But the plow was known in Egypt and Syria before the Hebrews became cultivators (Job 1:14). In the East, however, it has always been a light and inartificial implement. At first it was little more than a stout branch of a tree, from which projected another limb, shortened and pointed; this being turned into the ground made the furrows, while at the further end of the larger branch was Fastened a transverse yoke, to which the oxen were harnessed. Afterwards a handle to guide the plough was added; thus the plough consisted of—3, the pole; 2, the point or share; 3, the handle; 4, the yoke. The Syrian plough is, and doubtless was, light enough for a man to carry with one hand; it was drawn by oxen, which were sometimes urged by a scourge (Isa 10:26; Nah 3:2), but oftener by a long staff, furnished at one end with a flat piece of metal for clearing the plough, and at the other with a spike for goading the oxen: this ox-goad might be easily used as a spear (Jdg 3:31; 1Sa 13:21). Sometimes men followed the plough with hoes to break the clods (Isa 28:24); but in later times a kind of hammer was employed, which appears to have been then, as now, merely a thick block of wood pressed down by a weight, or by a man sitting on it, and drawn over the ploughed field.

Ancient Egyptian Plow

Plow Equipment

1. The plough.
2. The pole.
3. Shares (various).
4. Handle.
5. Yokes.
6. Ox-goad.

3. Sowing—The ground, having been ploughed as soon as the autumnal rains had mollified the soil, was fit, by the end of October, to receive the seed; and the swing of wheat continued, in different situations, through November and into December. Barley was not generally sown till January and February. The seed appears to have been sown and bar rowed at the same time; although sometimes it was ploughed in by a cross furrow. The Egyptian paintings illustrate the Scriptures by showing that the sower held the seed in a basket, with one hand, and scattered it with the other; while another person filled a fresh basket. We also see that the mode of sowing was what we call “broad-cast,” in which the seed is thrown loosely over the field (Mat 13:3-8).

Sowing

Plucking Corn

Reaping

4. Reaping—The season of harvest has been noticed (p. 23). Different modes of reaping are indicated in Scripture, and illustrated by the Egyptian monuments. In the most ancient times the corn was plucked up by the roots, which continued to be the practice with particular kinds of grain after the sickle was known; in Egypt, at this day, barley and dourra are pulled up by the roots. When the sickle was used, the wheat was either cropped off under the ear, or cut close to the ground; in the former case the straw was afterwards plucked up for use, in the latter the stubble was left and burnt in the ground for manure. As the Egyptians needed not such manure, and were economical of straw, they generally followed the former method; while the Israelites, whose lands derived benefit from the burnt stubble, used the latter, although the practice of cutting off the ears was also known to them (Job 24:24). Cropping the ears short, the Egyptians did not generally bind them into sheaves, but removed them in baskets. Sometime, they bound them. into double sheaves; and such as they plucked up were bound into long sheaves. The Israelites appear always to have made up their corn into sheaves (Gen 37:7; Lev 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7; Ruth 2:15; Job 24:10; Jer 9:22; Mic 4:12), which were collected into a heap, or removed in a cart (Amo 2:13) to the threshing-floor. The reapers were the owners and their children, men and women-servants, and hired day-laborers, (Ruth 2:4; Ruth 2:8; Ruth 2:21; Ruth 2:23; John 4:36; Jas 5:4). Refreshments were provided for them, especially drink, of which the gleaners were often allowed to partake (Ruth 2:9); so, in the Egyptian scenes, we see reapers drinking, and the gleaners applying to share the draught. Among the Israelites, gleaning was one of the stated provisions for the poor; and for their benefit the corners of the fields were left unreaped, and the reapers might not return for a forgotten sheaf. Gleaners could not, however, force themselves upon a particular field, without the consent of the owner (Lev 19:9-10; Deu 24:19; Ruth 2:2).

Binding Corn

Reaping Hooks

Reapers Drinking

Threshing

Corn-Drag

5. Threshing—The ancient mode of threshing, as described in Scripture, and figured on the Egyptian monuments, is still preserved in Palestine. Formerly the sheaves were conveyed. from the field to the threshing-floor in carts, but now they are borne generally on the backs of camels and asses. The threshing-floor is a level plot of ground, of a circular shape, generally about fifty feet in diameter, prepared for use by beating down the earth till a hard floor is formed (Gen 50:10; Jdg 6:37; 2Sa 24:16; 2Sa 24:24); sometimes several of these floors are contiguous to each other. The sheaves are spread out upon them, and the grain is trodden out by oxen, cows, and young cattle, arranged five abreast, and driven in a circle, or rather in all directions, over the floor. This was the common mode in Bible times; and Moses forbade that the oxen thus employed should be muzzled to prevent them from tasting the corn (Deu 25:4; Isa 28:28). Flails, or sticks, were only used in threshing small quantities, or for the lighter kinds of grain (Ruth 1:17; Isa 28:27). There were, however, some kinds of threshing-machines, which are still employed in Palestine and Egypt. One of them, represented in the annexed figure, is very much used in Palestine. It is composed of two thick planks, fastened together side by side, and bent upward in front; sharp fragments of stone are fixed into holes bored in the bottom. This machine is drawn over the corn by oxen, a man or boy sometimes sitting on it to increase the weight; It not only separates the grain, but cuts the straw and makes it fit for fodder (2Ki 13:7). This is most probably the corn-drag which is mentioned in Scripture (Isa 28:27; Isa 41:15; Amo 1:3, rendered “threshing-instrument”), and would seem to have been sometimes furnished with iron points instead of stones. The Bible also notices a machine called a moreg (2Sa 21:22; 1Ch 21:23; Isa 41:15), which is unquestionably the same which still in Arabic bears the name of noreg; and which, although not now seen in Palestine, is common in Egypt. It is a sort of frame of wood in which are inserted three wooden rollers, armed with iron teeth, etc.; it bears a sort of seat or chair, in which the driver sits to give the benefit of his weight; it is generally drawn over the corn by two oxen, and separates the grain and breaks up the straw even more effectually than the drag. In all these processes the corn is occasionally turned by a fork, and when sufficiently threshed is thrown up by the same fork against the wind to separate the grain, which is then gathered up and winnowed.

Noreg

Winnowing

6. Winnowing—This was generally accomplished by repeating the process of tossing up the grain against the wind with a fork (Jer 4:11-12), by which the broken straw and chaff were dispersed and the grain fell to the ground. The grain afterwards passed through a sieve, to separate the bits of earth and other impurities; after this it underwent a still further purification, by being tossed up with wooden scoops, or short-handled shovels, such as we see in Egyptian paintings (Isa 30:24).

7. Corn-stores—The unwinnowed grain was originally kept in subterranean storehouses, and even in caverns; but, in process of time, granaries were built both in Egypt and Palestine (Gen 41:35; Exo 1:11; 1Ch 27:25).