PLANTS

By: Emil G. Hirsch, Immanuel Löw

—In the Bible:

The following names of plants and plant materials are found in the Old Testament:

[The plant-names in this table follow the order of the Hebrew alphabet, but are transliterated according to the system adopted by The Jewish Encyclopedia.]

Hebrew Name.	Botanical Name.	Popular Name.
א
Ebeh	Cyperus Papyrus, Linn. (?)	Papyrus (?).
Abaṭṭiḥim (plural).	Citrullus vulgaris, Schrad	Watermelon.
Abiyyonah	fruit of Capparis spinosa, Linn.	Thorny caper.
Egoz	Juglans regia, Linn	Walnut.
Agam, agmon	Juncus, Arundo, Phragmites.	Rush, reed
Ahalim, ahalot (pl.).	Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxb. (Gildemeister and Hoffmann, "Die Aetherischen Ocle," p. 645, note).	Alocs-wood.
Orot	Eruca sativa, Lam. (?)	Eruca.
Ezob	Origanum Maru, Linn	Wild marjoram.
Aḥu, gome	Cyperus Papyrus, Linn	Papyrus.
Aṭad	Lycium europæum, Linn	Box-thorn.
Elah (see ẓori)	Pistacia Terebinthus, var. Palstina, æEngl.	Terebinth.
Allah, allon	Quercus	Oak.
Algummim, almuggim (pl.).	...............................	Sandalwood (?).
Erez	Cedrus Libani	Cedar of Lebanon.
Oren	a conifer, Pinus or of Abies	Pine or flr.
Eshel	Tamarix Syriaca, Boiss., or Tamarix articulata, Vahl.	Tamarisk.
ב
Bo'shah	...............................	Stinkweed (?).
Bedolaḥ	gum of the Balsamodendron Mukul, Hooker.
Boṭnim (pl.)	fruit of Pistacia vera, Linn	Pistachio.
Beka'im	mulberry	In the Mishnah a sort of fruit.
Beẓalim (pl.)	Allium Cepa, Linn	Onion.
Barḳanim	Phæopappus scoparius, Sieb	Phæopappus.
Berosh, berot	Abies Cilicica Ant. and Ky	Cilician spruce.
Borit	vegetable lye of Mesembryanthemum Salicornia, Aizoon, etc.
Basam, bosem	Balsamodendron Opobalsamum, Kunth.
Beter	not a plant, but erroneously identified by Wellhausen and Kautzsch with Malabathrum.
נ
Gad	Coriandrum sativum, Linn	Coriander.
Galgal	(prototype) Plantago Cretica, Linn., Gundelia Tournefortii, Linn., Centaurea myriocephala, Schrad., and others (Fonck. "Streifzüge etc., p. 87; Kerner, "Pfianzenleben," ii. 787).	rolling balls of dry weeds, "witch-balls," as explained by Bar Hebræus on Ps. ixxxiii. 14.
Gome (see aḥu).
Gefen	Vitis vinifera, Linn	Grape-vine.
Gefen sadeh (see Paḳḳu'ot).
Gofer	Cupressus	Cypress.
ד
Duda'im (pl.)	Mandragora officinarum, Linn.	Mandrake.
Doḥan	Andropogon Sorghum, Linn	Bread, durra.
Dardar	a thistle, especially Centaurea Calcitrapa, Linn., and others.	Star-thistle.
ה
Hobnim	...............................	Ebony.
Hadas	Myrtus communis, Linn	Myrtle.
ז
Zayit	Olea Europæa, Linn	Olive.
ת
Ḥabaẓẓelet	Colchicum, especially Colchicum Steveni, Kunth.	Meadowsaffron.
Ḥedeḳ	Solanum coagulans, Forsk	Nightshade.
Ḥoaḥ	prohably Echinops viscosus, DC.; perhaps Acanthus Syriacus, Linn.	According to tradition, a fodder for camels.
Ḥiṭṭah	Triticum vulgare, Linn	Cultivated wheat.
Ḥelbenah	resin of Ferula galbaniflua, Boiss and Buhse.
Ḥallamut	Anchusa, Linn	Bugloss or alkanet.
Ḥaẓir	Allium Porrum, Linn.	Leek.
Ḥarul	Lathyrus, Linn	Vetchling.
Yiẓhar	figurative for "zayit"	Olive.
כ
Kammon	Cuminum Cyminum, Linn	Cumin.
Kussemet	Triticum Spelta, Linn	Spelt.
Kofer	Lawsonia alba, Lam	Henna.
Karkom	root of Curcuma longa, Linn. (sic).	Turmeric.
ל
Libneh	Populus alba, Linn	White poplar.
Lebonah	from Boswellia Carteria, Birdwood, and others.	Frankincense
Luz (see shaḳed).
Loṭ	mastic (sic) of Pistacia Lentiscus Linn.
La'anah	Artemisia monosperma, Delile, Artemisia Judaica, Linn.	Absinth.
ם
Malluaḥ	Atriplex Halimus, Linn	Orach.
Mor	especially from Commiphora Abyssinica, Engl., and Commiphora Schimperi. Engl. (according to Holmes, perhaps Commiphora Kataf, Engl., Balsamodendron Kafal, Kunth; see Gildemeister and Hoffmann, l.c. p. 639; Schweinfurth, "Berichte der Deutschen Pharmacologischen Gesellschaft." iii. 237, cited by Gildemeister and Hoffmann, l.c. p. 637).	Myrrh.
נ
Nahalolim (pl.).	according to Saadia, Prosopis Stephaniana, Willd.
Naḥal (see tamar).
Naṭaf	resin of Styrax officinalis, Linn.	Storax.
Nekot	tragacanth of Astragalus gummifer, Labill., and others.	Varieties of astragalus.
Na'aẓuẓ	a prickly plant, which can not be identified with certainty.	Alhagi (?).
Nerd	Nardostachys Jatamansi, DC.	Spikenard.
ס
Suf	Juncus	Rush.
Sir	Poterium spinosum, Linn (?)	Thorny burnet; perhaps, also, other thornbushes.
Sillon (pl. sallonim).	...............................	Thorn, thornbush.
Seneh	Rubus sanctus, Schreb	Blackberry.
Sirpad	according to Ibn Janaḥ, Atraphaxis spinosa, Linn.; according to Jerome, Urtica, Linn.	Atraphaxis, or nettle.
ע
'Adashim (pl.).	Lens esculenta Mnch	Lentil.
'Eẓ; shemen	Elæagnus hortensis, M. Bieb. (?), Pinus Halepensis, Mill. (?).	Pine
'Arabah	Populus Euphratica, Oliv	Euphrates poplar.
'Arot, considered by the LXX. as identical with "aḥu."
'Armon	Platanus orientalis. Linn	Plane-tree.
'Ar'ar	Juniperus oxycedrus, Linn	Juniper.
פ
Pol	Vicia faba, Linn., probably also Vigna Sinensis var. sesquipedalis, Linn.	Horse-bean, bean.
Pannag	Panicum miliaceum, Linn. (?).	Millet.
Paḳḳu'ot (pl.)	Citrullus Colocynthis (Linn.), Schrad.	Bitter cucumber.
Pishtah	Linum usitatissimum, Linn	Flax.
צ
Ẓe'elim	Zizyphus spina-Christi, Linn	Christ's -thorn.
Ẓinnim (pl. ẓ;eninim)	...............................	Thorn-hedge, thorns.
Ẓafẓ;afah	Salix safsaf, Forsk	Willow.
Ẓori (see elah).	resin of Pistacia Terebinthus, var. Palæstina Engl., but, according to Jewish tradition, resin of Commiphora Kataf, Engl. (Balsamodendron Kafal, Kunth).	Terebinth.
ק
Ḳiddah, ḳeẓ;i'ah.	varieties of Cinnamomum Cassia, Bl.	Cassia.
Ḳoẓ;	...............................	Thorn-bush.
Ḳiḳayon	Ricinus communis, Linn	Common castoroil Plant.
Ḳimmos	Urtica, Linn (?)	Nettle.
Ḳaneh	Arundo Donax, Linn., and Phragmitis communis, Trin.	Reed.
Ḳeneh bosem and ḳaneh haṭob.	Acorus Calamus, Linn	Calamus (Gildemeister and Hoffmann, l.c. p. 384).
Ḳinnamon	Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Breyne.	Cinnamonbush.
Ḳeẓ;aḥ	Nigelia sativa, Linn	Nutmeg-flower.
Ḳishshu'im (pl.)	Cucumis Chate, Linn., and Cucumis sativus, Linn.	Cucumber.
ר
Rosh	according to Post, Citrullus Colocynthus (Linn.) , Schrad. (see paḳḳu'ot), but this is very doubtful).
Rimmon	Punica Granatum, Linn	Pomegranate.
Rotem	Retama Rætam (Forsk.), Web.	Juniper-bush.
Sorah (same as doḥan [?]).
Siah	Artemisia, Linn	Wormwood.
Sikkim (pl.)	...............................	Brambles.
Se'ora	Hordeum, Linn	Barley.
Shum	Allium sativum, Linn	Garlic.
Shoshannah, shushan.	Lilium candidum, Linn	Lily.
Shiṭṭah	Acacia Nilotica, Del., and others.	Acaciá.
Shayit (?).
Shamir	Paliurus aculeatus, Linck (?)	Garland-thorn.
Shaḳed luz	Prunus Amygdalus, Stokes (Amygdalus communis, Linn.).	Almond.
Shiḳmah	Ficus Sycomorus, Linn	Sycamore.
ת
Te'enah	Ficus Carica, Linn	Fig.
Te'asbshur	Cupressus sempervirens, Linn.	Cypress.
Tidhar	according to the Targ., Cornus mas, Linn., or Cornus Australis, Cam.	Cornel, dogwood.
Tamar, and possibly also naḥal.	Phœnix dactylifern, Linn	Palm.
Tappuaḥ	Malus communis, Desf	Apple.
Tirzah	(1) according to Saadia and Ibn Janaḥ, Pinus Halepensis. Mill.; (2) according to the Vulgate, Ilex, either Quercus Ilex, Linn., or Quercus coccifera, Linn.	(1) Pine; (2) oak.

—In the Apocrypha:

In the Apocryphal books the following plants and plant-products are mentioned: vine, palm, fig, olive-tree, mulberry-tree (pomegranate), wheat, barley, pumpkin, rush, reed, grass, cedar, cypress, terebinth, mastic, holm-oak, rose, lily, ivy, hedge-thorn, spices, cinnamon, aspalathus, myrrh, galbanum, stacte, and incense. The rose and ivy are mentioned in the Mishnah also; but they do not occur in the Hebrew Old Testament.

The rose-plant of Jericho, mentioned in Ecclus. (Sirach) xxiv. 14, has been identified, through overhasty speculation, with Anastatica Hierochuntica, which, however, is not found in that district. This Anastatica is frequently used by the Christians as a symbol, while the modern Jews have frequently mentioned it in their poetry. The Asteriscus pygmœus, Coss., which grows at Jericho, also has been regarded as the rose of Jericho. The branches of the Anastatica bend inward when the fruit becomes ripe, so that the numerous closed, pear-shaped pods, found at the ends of the branches, seem to be surrounded by a lattice. In the case of the Asteriscus, on the other hand, after the time of ripening it is not the branches, but the top leaves, grouped in rosettes, which close over the fruit (Robinson, "Palästina," ii. 539; Sepp, "Jerusalem und das Heilige Land," i. 610; Post, "Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai," p. 67; Kerner, "Pflanzenleben," ii. 783).

—In Philo and Josephus:

Philo gives no additional information regarding the knowledge of botany possessed by the Jews in antiquity. It is true that he made allegorical use of grass and flowers, wild trees and those that bear fruit, the oak, the palm, and the pomegranate, incense, and the tree of life (Siegfried, "Philo von Alexandria," pp. 185 et seq., Jena, 1875), but he wrote neither on botany nor on agriculture (Meyer, "Gesch. der Botanik," ii. 80). Josephus, on the other hand, deserves special mention, since he was the only author in Jewish antiquity who attempted to describe a plant in exact detail. He says, in his discussion of the head-dress of the high priest ("Ant." iii. 7, § 6): "Out of which [the golden crown] arose a cup of gold like the herb that we call '⋅accharus,' but which is termed 'hyoscyamus' by the Greeks." The form σάκχαρον is the Greek transliteration of the Aramaic "shakruna," which is not mentioned again until it is named in the medical work ascribed to Asaph ben Berechiah. The next description of the plant is given in Hebrew by Azariah dei Rossi ("Me'or 'Enayim," ch. xlix.). Josephus describes it from personal observation and shows a very clear knowledge of the peculiarities of the plant. In describing it he mentions the μήκων, or poppy, for the first time in Jewish literature, as well as the plants εὐζωμον (rocket), ουνίας, and σιδηρίτις. He is likewise the first to refer to the chick-pea in ἐρεβίνθων ("B. J." v. 12, § 2), the vetch ("karshinna"; Vicia Ervilia, Linn.; ὄροβος, ib. v. 10, § 3), the fenugreek (Trigonella Fœnum-Grœcum, Linn.; τῆλις, ib. iii. 7, § 29), the amomum ("Ant." xx. 2, § 3) growing near Carrhæ, and the laurel-wreaths of the Romans (δάφνη, "B. J." vii. 5, § 4).

Plants First Mentioned by Josephus.

The second specifically botanical reference is tothe πήγανον, a rue of extraordinary size growing in the precincts of the palace at Machærus. The rue is mentioned by Josephus ("B. J." vii. 6, § 3) for the first time among Jewish writers, though it occurs also in Luke xi. 42. Later the Greek name appears as a foreign word in the Mishnah. The rue at Machærus was equal to any figtree in height and breadth, and according to tradition it had been standing since the time of Herod; the Jews cut it down when they occupied this fortress. The valley bounding the city on the north, Josephus continues, is called Ba'arah (; Epstein, "MiḲadmoniyyot," p. 108), and produces a marvelous root of the same name. "It is a flaming red, and shines at night." Then follows the popular description of a magic root that can be drawn from the earth only by a dog, which loses its life thereby. Ælian (c. 180) repeats the tale; but a picture in the Vienna manuscript of Dioscorides, made in the fifth century, is the earliest proof that this mysterious root was supposed to be the mandragora or mandrake (Ferdinand Cohn, in "Jahresbericht der Schlesischen Gesellschaft für Vaterländische Cultur," botanical section, 1887, 27, x.; "Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthropologischen Gesellschaft," 17, x. [1891] 730; 19, xii. 749. Instead of a dog, an ass pulls out the root according to Midr. Agada, ed. Buber, on Gen. xlix. 14. On the human form of the mandrake see Ibn Ezra on Cant. vii. 14; Salfeld, "Hohelied," p. 72. The popular belief regarding the mandragora is given in full by Judah Hadassi [1148] in "Eshkol ha-Kofer," 152c; Maimonides, "Moreh," French transl. by Munk, iii. 235; Güdemann, "Gesch." iii. 129; Grünbaum, "Jüdisch-Deutsche Chrestomathie," p. 176).

The Sodom-Apple.

Josephus was also the first to mention the so-called Sodom-apple, Calotropis procera, Willd. (Post, l.c. p. 526), describing it as a fruit exactly resembling edible apples in color, but composed only of ashes, and crumbling in the hand to dust ("B. J." iv. 8, § 4). He speaks highly also of the fruitfulness of Palestine, mentioning particularly the palms ("Ant." iv. 6, § 1; "B. J." i. 6, § 6; iii. 10, § 8; iv. 8, § 2, 3, 4) and balsam at Jericho ("Ant." xiv. 4, § 1; xv. 4, § 2) and Engedi (ib. ix. 1, § 2), as well as the palms at Phasaelis, Archelais (ib. xviii. 2, § 2), and Peræa ("B. J." iii. 3, § 3). The balsam-tree was introduced by the Queen of Sheba, and was afterward planted ("Ant." viii. 6, § 6) and tapped ("B. J." i. 6, § 6). At Jericho the cypress (κύπρος, ib. iv. 8, § 3) and the μυροβάλανος (ib. iv.8, § 3) also grew. In Peræa, furthermore, there were fruitful places where olive-trees, vines, and palms flourished (ib. iii. 3, § 3), but the fruits of Gennesaret surpassed all (ib. iii. 10, § 8, a statement which is confirmed by the Talmud).

Biblical Names Recapitulated by Josephus.

Naturally every recapitulation of Biblical history contains references to all the Biblical plants; and in Josephus references are found to Adam's fig-leaves ("Ant." i. 1, § 4); the olive-leaf of Noah's dove (ib. i. 3, § 5); Noah's vine (ib. i. 6, § 3); Ishmael's fir-tree (ib. i. 12, § 3, ἐλάτη, as LXX. and Josephus render by analogy with ); Abraham's oak, Ogyges (ib. i. 10, § 3); the terebinth standing near Hebron since the creation of the world ("B. J." iv. 9, § 7); Esau's lentil pottage ("Ant." ii. 1, § 1); Reuben's mandrakes (ib. i. 19, § 8); the wheat-sheaf in Joseph's dream (ib. ii. 2, § 2) and the grapes in the visions of the two Egyptians (ib. ii. 5, § 2); Moses' ark of bulrushes (ib. ii. 9, § 4), and the burning bush (βάτος, ib. ii. 12); the manna that was like bdellium and coriander (ib. iii. 1, § 6); the blossoming almond-rod (ib. iv. 4, § 2); the seventy palms (ib. iii. 1, § 3); Rahab's stalks of flax (ib. v. 1, § 2); the trees in Jotham's parable (ib. v. 7, § 2); the cypress and thistle of the parable in II Kings xiv. 9 (ib. ix. 9, § 2); Hiram's cedar-trees (ib. vii. 3, § 2; viii. 2, § 7; 5, § 3; "B. J." v. 5, § 2); the pine-trees, which Josephus says were like the wood of fig-trees (πεύκινα, "Ant." viii. 7, § 1); the lilies and pomegranates on the pillars of the Temple (ib. viii. 3, § 4) and on the golden candlestick (iii. 6, § 7).

Solomon "spoke a parable on every sort of tree, from the hyssop to the cedar" (ib. viii. 2, § 5) and built the Δρυμών (ib. viii. 6, § 5; comp. δρυμός, "oak-coppice," ib. xiv. 13, § 3; "B. J." i. 13, § 2; Boettger, "Topographisch-Historisches Lexicon zu den Schriften des Flavius Josephus," p. 105).

Josephus, as well as the Biblical narrative, mentions apples eaten by Herod ("Ant." xvii. 7; "B. J." i. 33, § 7); fig-trees ("Ant." viii. 7, § 1; "B. J." vii. 6, § 3); pomegranates ("Ant." iii. 7, § 6); cages of sedge (ib. ii. 10, § 2); wheat (ib. xvii. 13, § 3; "B. J." v. 13, § 7); wheat and barley ("Ant." ix. 11, § 2; "B. J." v. 10, § 2); barley alone ("Ant." iii. 10, § 6, v. 6, § 4); and herbs (λαχανεία, "B. J." iv. 9, § 8).

Plants Named in the Legal Code.

In describing the legal code, Josephus recapitu, lates the following Biblical plants: hyssop at various sacrifices ("Ant." ii. 14, § 6; iv. 4, § 6); flax in the priestly robes (ib. iii. 7, § 7); pomegranates, signifying lightning, on the high priest's garments ("B. J." v. 5, § 7); lilies and pomegranates on the golden candle-sticks ("Ant." iii. 6, § 7); cinnamon, myrrh, calamus, and iris ("ḳiddah") in the oil of purification (ib. iii. 8, § 3; Whiston: "cassia"); cinnamon and cassia ("B. J." vi. 8, § 3); the first-fruits of the barley ("Ant." iii. 10, § 5); he likewise cites the precept against sowing a diversity of plants in the vineyard (ib. iv. 8, § 20). In like manner the Biblical metaphor of the broken reed (ib. x. 1, § 2) is repeated.

Josephus is of course acquainted with the citron-apple, mentioned in the Mishnah and forming part of the festival-bush together with the palm-branch, willow, and myrtle, although he calls it vaguely the "Persian apple" (μῆλον τῆς Περσέας), not the "Median" ("Ant." iii. 10, § 4). He is more accurate in designating the fruit itself (κιτρία, ib. xiii. 13, § 1). The golden vine of the Temple is mentioned twice (ib. xiv. 3, § 1; "B. J." v. 5, § 4).

The "Yosippon."

The "Yosippon" (ed. Gagnier, ii. 10, § 70) mentions among the wonders seen by Alexander on his way to India a tree, , which grew until noon, and then disappeared into the earth. In the same work (ii. 11, § 77) the trees of the sun and moon forewarn Alexander of his early death.

—In the New Testament:

The following names of plants may be cited from the New Testament:

New Testament Name.	Botanical Name.	Popular Name.
ἀγριṳλαιος (opposed to καλλιέλαιος).	Olea Europæ, Linn., var. sylvestris.	Wild olive of northern Syria.
ἄκανθα	..............................	Thorn.
ἀλόη	Aquilaria Agallocha, Roxb	Aloe.
ἄμπελος (σταϕυλή).	............................	Vine.
ἄμωμον	..............................	Amomum.
ἄνηθον	Anethum graveolens, Linn	Dill.
ἄψινθος	Artemisia, Linn	Wormwood.
βάτος	Rubus, Linn	Blackberry.
ἐλαία	Olea Europæa, Linn	Olive.
ζιζάνιον	Lolium temulentum, Linn	Bearded darnel.
ηὀὐοσμον	Mentha	Mint.
θύινος derivative from θυία.	Thuja articulata, Vahl	Arbor-vitæ.
κάλαμος	Arundo Donax, Linn., and Phragmitis communis, Trin.	Reed.
κηράτιου	Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn	Saint-John's-bread, carob.
κιυνάμωμον	..............................	Cinnamon.
κριθῄ	Hordeum, Linn	Barley.
κρινον	Lilium candidum, Linn	Lily.
κύμινον	Cuminum Cyminum, Linn	Cumin.
λίβανος	..............................	Frankincense.
λίνον	Linum usitatissimum, Linn	Flax (used only metaphorically for wick and for linen garments).
μάννα	from the Tamarix mannifera, Ehrenberg, and Alhagi Maurorum DC.	Manna.
νάρδος	Nardostachys Jatamansi, DC.	Spikenard.
πήγανον	Ruta, Linn	Rue.
σίναπι	Sinapis, Linn	Mustard.
σῑτος, στάχυς	Triticum	Wheat, grain.
σμύρνα	..............................	Myrrh.
συκάμινος	Morus nigra, Linn	Mulberry.
συκομοραία	Ficus Sycomorus, Linn	Sycamore.
συκη, συκον,ὅλυνθος	Ficus Carica, Linn	Fig.
τρίβολος	Tribulus terrestris, Linn	Land-caltrop.
ὓσσωπος	Origanum Maru, Linn	Wild Marjoram.
ϕοινιξ, βάιον	Phœnix dactylifera, Linn	Palm.

More general terms are ἄνθος (flower), βοτάνη (herbage), δένδρον (tree), κλημα (branch), λάχανον (vegetable), φρύγανον (brushwood), φυτεία (plant), χλωρός (green), χόρτος (grass).

The following names of plants are found in proper names in the New Testament: the palm (Thamar), the lily (Susanna), the fig (Beth-phage), the narcissus (as the name of the Roman Narcissus); the name of the date has been conjectured to form part of the name of Bethany (Bet-hine). The crown of thorns placed on Jesus may have been composed of the garland-thorn, Paliurus aculeatus, Lam., of the jujube, Zizyphus vulgaris, Lam., or of a variety of hawthorn, the Cratœgus Azarolus, Linn., or the Cratœgus monogyna, Willd.

—In the Pseudepigrapha:

There are few references to plants in the pseudepigrapha, so far as the latter are included in Kautzsch's collection ("Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments," Freiburg-im-Breisgau and Leipsic, 1900, cited here as K.). In these references Biblical figures and concepts prevail for the most part. The fertility ("shebaḥ ha-areẓ") which was the glory of Palestine (Deut. viii. 8) is lauded by Aristeas (§ 112; K. ii. 15), who praises the agriculture there. "The land," he says, "is thickly planted with olive-trees, cereals, and pulse, and is rich in vines, honey, fruits, and dates." When Abraham entered Palestine he saw there vines, figs, pomegranates, the "balan" and the "ders" (two varieties of oak, βάλανος and δρῦς), terebinths, olive-trees, cedars, cypress-trees, frankincense-trees (λίβανος), and every tree of the field (Book of Jubilees, xiii. 6; K. ii. 63).

According to the later (Christian) version of the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (iv.; K. ii. 451), Noah planted the vine only because the wine was destined to become the blood of Jesus; otherwise, the vine from which Adam ate the forbidden fruit would have fallen under a curse. Noah is saved like one grape of a whole cluster, or one sprig in an entire forest (II Esd. ix. 21; K. ii. 384). The vine is also mentioned in the Sibylline Books (iv. 17; K. ii. 201), the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (x. 10; K. ii. 415), and in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (Levi, 2; K. ii. 466), where the Lord becomes to Levi his farm, vine, fruits, gold, and silver. When the Messiah shall come the earth will bring forth its fruit ten thousandfold; and on each vine there will be 1,000 branches; on each branch, 1,000 clusters; and on each cluster, 1,000 grapes; and each grape will yield a "cor" of wine (Syriac Apoc. Baruch, xxix. 5; K. ii. 423). The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (xxxvi. 3 et seq.; K. ii. 424 et seq.) contains also a vision of a forest, a vine, and a cedar, and the Book of Jubilees (xiii. 26; K. ii. 65) mentions tithes of seed, wine, and oil.

Fig-leaves are said to grow in paradise, a belief based upon the Biblical account (Apoc. Mosis, § 21; K. ii. 522), while, according to the Ethiopic Apocalypse of Baruch, the figs which Ebed-melech carries remain fresh and unwithered during his sleep of sixty-six years and are taken to Babylon by an eagle (p. 402).

Among other trees and fruits mentioned in the pseudepigrapha are: the olive-tree (Sibyllines, iv. 17; K. ii. 201; Test. Patr., Levi, 8, p. 467; instead of "siaḥ" [Gen. xxi. 15], the Book of Jubilees, xvii. 10; K. ii. 70, reads "olive-tree"), palms (Enoch, xxiv. 4; K. ii. 254), dates of the valley (Jubilees, xxix. 15; K. ii. 90), nut-tree (Enoch, xxix. 2; K. ii. 256; not the almond-tree, which is mentioned shortly afterward, ib. xxx. 3), almonds and terebinth-nuts (Jubilees, xlii. 20; K. ii. 109, following Gen. xliii. 11), aloe-tree (Enoch, xxxi. 2; K. ii. 256), cedar (Test. Patr., Simeon, 6; K. ii. 464). A book sprinkled with oil of cedar to preserve it is described in the Assumption of Moses (i. 17; K. ii. 320); the locust-tree (Enoch, xxxii. 4; K. ii. 256), and, especially, oaks also are mentioned, as in the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch (lxxvii. 18; K. ii. 441); they are said to grow at Hebron(Enoch, vi.; K. ii. 414), at Mamre (Jubilees, xiv. 10; K. ii. 65), and in the land of Siehem (Jubilees, xxxi. 2; K. ii. 92); the oak is likewise mentioned in the lament over Deborah (Jubilees, xxxii. 30; K. ii. 96).

Of all the information regarding trees the most interesting is the list of evergreens given in Jubilees (xxi. 12; K. ii. 76), while this class of trees is also alluded to in Enoch (iii.; K. ii. 237) and in the Testament of Levi (ix.; K. ii. 468; Löw, p. 59). Similar catalogues occur in the Talmud and Mishnah, and in the Greek writings on agriculture. The Book of Jubilees mentions the following as appropriate for the altar: cypress, juniper, almond-tree (for which, following Dillmann, "acacia" has been suggested as an emendation), Scotch pine, pine,cedar, Cilician spruce, palm (?), olive-tree, myrtle, laurel, citron (Citrus medica, Risso), juniper (? Ethiopic "arbot," for which Dillmann conjectures "arkot," ἄρκευθος), and balsam.

On account of their beauty the following flowers are mentioned in the pseudepigrapha: lily (Test. Patr., Joseph, 18; K. ii. 502), rose (Test. Patr., Simeon, 6; K. ii. 464; Enoch, lxxxii. 16; K. ii. 287; cvi. 2, 10; K. ii. 308 et seq.: "rubra sicut rosa" and "rubrior rosa": it is also mentioned in the Apocrypha, Mishnah, Targum, and LXX.), and the roselaurel. The oleander seems to be intended by "the field of Ardaf" in II Esd. (ix. 26; K. ii. 385) (the last letter with the variants "s," "d," "t," and "b"). "Harduf" ("hirduf," "hardufni") is a borrowed word even in the Mishnah, and shows, together with the Arabic "diflah," that the Nerium Oleander, Linn., came from Europe, or, more exactly (according to O. Schrader, in Hehn, "Kulturpflanzen," 6th ed., p. 405), from the Spanish west. The plant had reached Greece before the time of Dioscorides and Pliny; and it may have grown wild in Palestine by the end of the first century just as it does at present; it is always found in water-courses, and flourishes from the level of the Ghor to an altitude of 3,280 feet in the mountains (Post, l.c. p. 522). To such a region the seer of II Esdras was bidden to go, there to sustain himself on the flowers of the field. In Sibyllines (v. 46; K. ii. 206, a passage originally heathen) the flower of Nemea, σέλινον (parsley), is mentioned.

As in the Bible narrative, thorns and thistles appeared after the fall of man (Apoc. Mosis, § 24; K. ii. 522), while thorns and prickly briers are mentioned in the Sibyllines (Preface, 24 et seq.; K. ii. 184). The Biblical "duda'im," mentioned in the Testament of Issachar (i.; K. ii. 478), are mandrakes, which grow in the land of Aram, on an elevation, below a ravine. Tithes of the seed are mentioned (Jubilees, xiii. 26; K. ii. 65); while according to Aristeas (§ 145; K. ii. 17), the clean birds eat wheat and pulse. Egypt is mentioned (Sibyllines, iv. 72; K. ii. 202) as producing wheat; and the marrow of wheat, like the Biblical "kilyot ḥiṭṭah" ("kidneys of wheat," Deut. xxxii. 14), is spoken of in Enoch (xcvi. 5; K. ii. 302), while II Esdras (ix. 17; K. ii. 384) declares (R. V.): "Like as the field is, so is also the seed; and as the flowers be, such are the colors also." In the same book (iv. 31 et seq. [R. V.]; K. ii. 357) occurs also an argument "de minore ad maius," found in the Bible likewise: "Ponder now by thyself, how great fruit of wickedness a grain of evil seed hath brought forth. When the ears which are without number shall be sown, how great a floor shall they fill!" (comp. the "ḳal wa-homer" in II Esd. iv. 10, end; K. ii. 355; and see Schwarz, "Der Hermeneutische Syllogismus," p. 82, Vienna, 1901). Lolium (ζιζάνιον) is mentioned in Apoc. Mosis, § 16 (K. ii. 520). Among the spices and condiments, cinnamon is described as obtained from the excrement of the worm which comes from the dung of the phenix (Greek Apoc. Baruch, vi.; K. ii. 453), and is also mentioned in Enoch, xxx. 3, xxxii. 1; K. ii. 256; Apoc. Mosis, § 29; K. ii. 524; Vita Adæ of Evæ, § 43; K. ii. 520. Pepper, spoken of in Enoch (xxxii. 1; K. ii. 25§), is new, although it is met with as early as the Mishnah.

Among other plants mentioned in the pseudepigrapha are: aloe-trees (Enoch, xxxi.; K. ii. 256); balsam (ib. xxx. 2); galbanum (ib.; Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69); sweet-calamus and saffron (Apoc. Mosis, l.c.; Vita Adæ et Evæ, l.c.); costus-root (Jubilees, xvi. 24; K. ii. 69); ladanum, and similar almonds (Enoch, xxxi. 2; K. ii. 256); gum-mastic (Enoch, xxxii. 1, xxx. 1; K. ii. 256; myrrh (Enoch, xxix. 2; K. ii. 256; Jubilees, xvi. 24; K. ii. 69); nard (Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69; Enoch, xxxii. 1; K. ii. 256; Apoc. Mosis, § 29; K. ii. 524); nectar, called also balsam and galbanum (Enoch, xxxi. 1; K. ii. 256); storax (Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69); incense (Enoch, xxix. 2; K. ii. 256; Jubilees, iii. 27, xvi. 24; K. ii. 45, 69; Test. Patr., Levi, 8; K. ii. 467).

Aristeas (§ 63; K. ii. 10) describes pictorial representations of plants as decorations on state furniture, including garlands of fruit, grapes, cars of corn, dates, apples, olives, pomegranates, etc. He speaks also (§ 68, p. 11) of the legs of a table which were topped with lilies, and (§ 70; K. ii. 11) of ivy, acanthus, and vines, as well as of lilies (§ 75; K. ii. 11), and of vine-branches, laurel, myrtle, and olives (§ 79; K. ii. 12). Plant-metaphors taken from the Bible and applied to Israel and Palestine are: vines and lilies (II Esd. v. 23 et seq.; K. ii. 361) and the vineyard (Greek Apoc. Baruch, i.; K. ii. 448).

In poetic and haggadic interpretations wood shall bleed as one of the signs of the approaching end of the world (II Esd. v. 5; K. ii. 359; Barnabas, xii. 1), and the trees shall war against the sea (II Esd. iv. 13 et seq.; K. ii. 356). At the last day many of mankind must perish, even as the seed sown by the husbandman ripens only in part (ib. viii. 41; K. ii. 381), although every fruit brings honor and glory to God (Enoch, v. 2; K. ii. 237). In the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch (xii.; K. ii. 456) angels bear baskets of flowers which represent the virtues of the righteous. In the sacred rites, palm-branches, fruits of trees (citrons), and osier-twigs are mentioned (Jubilees, xvi. 31; K. ii. 70).

At the commandment of God on the third day of Creation, "immediately there came forth great and innumerable fruits, and manifold pleasures for the taste, and flowers of inimitable color, and odors of most exquisite smell" (II Esd. vi. 44, R. V.; K. ii. 367); and the beauty of the trees in paradise is also emphasized (ib. vi. 3; K. ii. 364). The tree of knowledge and the tree of life appealed powerfully to the fancy of the pseudepigraphic writers. The former, from which Adam ate, is supposed, on the basis of other Jewish traditions, to have been either the vine (Greek Apoc. Baruch, iv.; K. ii. 451) or the fig (Apoc. Mosis, § 21; K. ii. 522). The Book of Enoch (xxxii. 3 et seq.; K. ii. 256) describes the tree of knowledge thus: "Its shape is like the pine-tree; its foliage like the locust-tree; its fruit like the grape." The tree of life is planted for the pious (II Esd. viii. 52; K. ii. 382), and is described in Enoch (xxiv. 3 et seq.; K. ii. 254) as fragrant and with unfading leaves and blossoms and imperishable wood, while as in the accounts in the Old and the New Testament its fruit, which is like that of the palm, gives eternal life (Enoch; II Esd. l.c.; Test. Patr., Levi, 18; K. ii. 471, reads "tree" instead of "wood").It is the tree of paradise, and from it flows the healing oil, the oil of life, the oil of mercy (Vita Adæ et Evæ, §§ 36, 41; Apoc. Mosis, § 9; K. ii. 518, 520).

—In the Mishnah and Talmud:

The Mishnah has preserved only about 230 names of plants, of which about 180 are old Hebrew and forty are derived from Greek terms. In the Talmudic literature of the post-Mishnaic period 100 names of plants are found in the Jerusalem Talmud and 175 in the Babylonian; about twenty of these names are of Greek origin. In the Mishnah, Talmud, Midrash, and Targum the following plants are mentioned as indigenous to Palestine and Babylon:

[Abbreviations: B. = Babylonian Talmud; Y. = Jerusalem Talmud; M. = Mishnah; Midr. = Midrash; T. = Targum. In the following table the name of the botanical family is printed in small capitals.]

Name in Mishnah, Talmud, etc.	Botanical Name.	Popular Name.
	Alismaceæ.
	Alisma Plantago aquatica, Linn.	Water-plantain.
	Amaryllidaceæ.
, B.	Narcissus pocticus, Linn., Narcissus Tazetta, Linn., and varieties.	Narcissus.
	Ampelidaceæ.
, Bible, M.: , , M., Y., B.	Vitis vinifera, Linn	Grape-vine.
	Anacardiaceæ.
, M.	Rhus Coriaria, Linn	Sumach
, Bible, M.: , T., Y., B.	Pistacia Terebinthus, var. Palæstina, Engl.	Terebinth.
, M., Bible	Pistacia vera, Linn	Pistachio-nut.
, M.	Pistacia vera, Linn	Pistachio.
, M.: , M., T	resin of . M., Pistacia Lentiscus, Linn.	Mastic.
	Apocynaceæ.
, B.; , M.	Nerium Oleander, Linn.	Oleander.
	Araliaceæ.
, M., Y.	Hedera Helix, Linn	Ivy.
	Aroideæ.
, M.	Arum orientale, M. Bieb
M.	Arum Palæstinum, Boiss.	Arum.
, M., Y.	Colocasia antiquorum, Schott.	Cocoa-root.
	Aurantiaceæ.
, M.; , T., Y., B.	Citrus medica, Reiss	Citron.
	Berberidaceæ.
, M.; (?), Y.	Leontice Leontopetalum, Linn.	Lion's-leaf.
	Boraginaceæ.
, M.,; , , B.	Cordia Myxa, Linn	Cordia.
, Bible, M.	Anchusa officinalis, Linn.	Bugloss.
	Capparidaceæ.
, M.; , B. (, bud; , B., blossom; , Bible, M.; , B., fruit).	Capparis spinosa, Linn., and varieties.	Thorny caper.
	Chenopodiaceæ.
, M., Y.	Blitum virgatum, Linn.	Blite.
	Chenopodium, Linn	Goosefoot.
, M.; , B.	Beta vulgaris, Linn	Beet.
, M.; , , Y.	Atriplex Tataricum, Linn., Atriplex Halimus Linn.	Orach.
, B.	Salicornia herbacea, Linn.	Glasswort (see also under Ficoidex).
, M., B.	Salsola, Linn	Saltwort.
	Cistaceæ.
, B.	Cistus creticus, Linn., Cistus ladaniferus, Linn., and others.	Ladanum bush, rockrose.
	Compositeæ.
, B.	Matricaria Chamomilla, Linn., and Matricaria aurea.	Feverfew.
, B.	Artemisia vulgaris, Linn.	Wormwood.
, Bible: , Y., B.;, T.	Artemisia monosperma, Del., and Artemisia Judaica, Linn	Wormwood.
, M., T., B.	Echinops spinosus, Linn., or Echinops viscosus, DC.	Echinops (?).
M., Y., B., Midr.; B. (not , despite Kohut "Aruch Completum." s.v.) ( M.?)	Cynara Scolymus, Linn.	Artichoke.
, M., T., Midr	Cynara Syrica, Boiss., and Cynara Cardunculus, Linn.	Cardoon.
, Bible, M., T., Midr.; , B.	Centaurea Calcitrapa, Linn.	Star-thistle.
, M.: , T., Y.; , B.	........................	Seed of safilower.
	Carthamus tinctorius, Linn.	Safilower saffron.
, M.; , , Y.; , B.	Cichorium Endivia, Linn.	Chicory.
, M.; , Y.	Cichorium divaricatum, Schousb.	Chicory.
(, M.) , B.	Picris Sprengeriana (Linn.), Poir., or Taraxacum, Juss.	Picris or daudelion.
, M.; , Y., B., Midr.	Lactuca Scariola. varsativa (Linn.), Boiss.	Lettuce.
, M.	Lactuca saligna, Linn. (?).	Willow-lettuce.
	Coniferæ.
, T., B.; (?), B.	Cupressus sempervirens, Linn.	Cypress.
, M.; , B.	fruit of Pinus pinea, Linn.	Pine.
, Bible, M.; , M.; , Y.	Pinus Halepensis, Mill.	Aleppo pine.
, Bible, M., B.; , , , B.	Cedrus Libani	Cedar of Lebanon.
, Bible, M., T., Y., B.; , B.; , Midr.	Abies Cilicica, Ant. and ky.	Cilician spruce.
	Convolulaceæ.
, M., B., , B.	Cuscuta, Linn	Dodder.
	Cornaceæ.
, T., Midr	Cornus mas, Linn., and Cornus Australis, Cam.	Cornel, dogwood.
	Cruciferæ.
, M., B.; , B.	Brassica Rapa, Linn	Turnip.
, M., Y., B.	Brassica oleracea, Linn.	Cabbage.
, M., B.	Sinapis alba, Linn., and Sinapis juncea, Linn.	Mustard.
, M.	Brassica nigra (Linn.), Koch, or Sinapis arvensis, Linn.; Sinapis arvensis, var. turgida (Del.), Asch. and Schweinf., and var. Allionil (Jacqu.), Asch. and Schweinf.	Wild mustard.
, M.; , Y.	Brassica oleracea, var. botrytis, Linn.	Cauliflower.
, M., B.	Eruca sativa, Lam.	Eruca, wild and cultivated.
, M.; , B.; , Y.	Lepidium sativum, Linn.	Pepperwort (?).
, M.; , B.; , Y.	Lepidium Chalepense Linn., or Erucaria Aleppica, Gaertn. (?).	Pepperwort.
, M.	Iberis (Iberis Jordani, Boiss., Iberis Taurica, DC., Iberis odorata, Linn.).	Candytuft.
, M.	Isatis tinctoria, Linn	Dyer's-woad.
, M.; , Y., B.; , B.	Raphanus sativus, Linn.	Radish (two varieties)
	Cryptogamia.
, M.; , Y.	Equisetum, Linn	Scouring- rush, horsetail.
, M.	Ceterach officinarum, Willd.	Miltwaste (?).
, B.	Pteris aquilina, Linn	Brake.
, M.; , Y. (?).	Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, Linn.	Maidenhair (but see Mentha Pulegium, Linn., pennyroyal, under Labiatæ).
, M., Y.	Scolopendrium vulgare, Sm.	Hart's-tongue.
, M.	RoccelLa tinctoria, Achar.	Litmus.
B.	Lecanora or Sphærothalliaesculenta, Nees.	Manna-lichen.
,(pl.), M.,Y.; , B.	Fungus	Fungus.
, M.; , Y.; , B.	Tuber	Truffic.
	Cucurbitaceæ.
, Bible, M.; (pl.), T.; , B.	Cucumis Chate, Linn., and Cucumis sativus, Linn.	Cucumber.
, M., T., Y., B., Midr.	Cucumis Melo, Linn	Muskmelon.
, Bible, M.	Citrullus vulgaris, Schrad.	Watermelon.
, Bible, M.	Citrullus Colocynthis (Linn.), Schrad.	Colocynth.
, M.; , , B.	Lagenaria vulgaris, Ser.	Gourd.
, M., Y.	Luffa cylindrica (Linn.), Roem., or Luffa Egyptiaca, Mill. (?).	Washinggourd.
	Echallium Elaterium, Rich.	Squirting cucumber.
	Cupuliferæ.
, M.; , Y.	Corylus Aveliana, Linn.	Hazel.
, T., Y., B.; (pl.), Midr. (Biblical proper name ).	........................	Acorn.
, M.; , B.; (?), M.	Quercus coceifera, Linn., and varieties Quercus Lusitanica, Lam., Quercus Cerris, Linn., etc.	Turkey oak, etc.
	Cyperaceæ.
, Bible; , M.; , M., T., B.	Cyperus Papyrus, Linn., and others.	Papyrus.
, Y. (Palestinian Midr.).	Cyperus esculentus, Linn. (and Cyperus longus, Linn., Cyperus capitatus, Vent.).	Galingale.
(pl.), T., B., Midr.	Cyperus rotundus, Linn.	Galingale.
	Euphorbiaceæ.
, M., T., B. (. M. ?); , Y., Midr.	Buxus longifolia, Boiss.	Box.
, M.; , B.	Ricinus communis, Linn.	Castor-oil plant.
	Ficoideæ.
, Bible, M.; , B.; , M. (?).	Mesembryanthemum, Linn., or Aizoon, Linn. (? comp. Sallcornia, Linn.).	Fig-marigold, ice-plant.
	Graminaceæ.
(pl.), M.; (?), Bible.	Panicum miliaceum, Linn.	Panic.
, M., Y., B.	Oryza sativa, Linn	Rice.
, Bible, M. ( ?, Bible, Y.).	Andropogon Sorghum, Linn.	Durra, guineagrass.
, B.	Andropogon Schoenanthus, Linn.	Beard-grass.
, M.	Avena	Oats.
, M.; , B. (Identical with , M., Y., B., Midr. ?).	Cynodon Dactylon, Linn.	Bermudagrass, scutchgrass.
, Bible, M,; , Y., B.; , T.	Arundo Donax, Linn., or Phragmites communis, Trin.	Persian reed.
, M.	Eragrostis cynosuroldes (Retz.), Roem. and Sch.
, M., Midr.	Lolium temulentum, Linn.	Bearded darnel, tares.
, Bible, M., T., Y., B., Midr.	Triticum vulgare, Linn.	Wheat.
, Bible; , M.; , T., B.; , Y.	Triticum Spelta, Linn.	Spelt.
, M.; , B.	Ægllops, Linn. (?)	Goat-grass.
, Bible, M.; , T., Y.	Hordeum distychum and Hordeum vulgare, Linn.	Barley.
, M.; , B.	Hordeum bulbosum, Linn. (?).
	Granateæ.
, Bible, M.; , T., B., Midr.; , B.	Punica Granatum, Linn.	Pomegranate.
	Hypericineæ.
, B. (?)	Hypericum, Linn	St. John's- wort.
	Iridaceæ.
, M., Y.	Iris Palæstina, Baker, Iris. pseudacorus, Linn., and others.	Iris.
, M., Y., B.; , T.	Crocus sativus, Linn.	Crocus.
	Jasminaceæ.
, B.	Jasminum officinale, Linn.	Jasmine.
	Juglandaceæ.
, Bible, M.; , B.	Juglans regia, Linn.	Walnut.
	Juncaceæ.
, M., B.; , M.; , B.; (, M.).	Juncus or Cyperus	Reed or sedge.
	Labiatæ.
, M.	Lavandula Stœchas, Linn.	Lavender (?).
, M.; (?), Y.	Menthasylvestris, Linn., and others.	Mint.
, M.; , B.	Mentha Pulegium, Linn.	Pennyroyal.
, Bible, M.; , , B.	Origanum Maru, Linn.	Marjoram.
, M.; , Y., B.; , B.	Thymus, Linn., and Satureia, Linn.	Savory.
, M., Y., B.	Calamintha, Moench	Calamint.
	Lauraceæ.
, Bible, M. ?; , , B.	Lanrus nobilis, Linn. (?)	Laurel, baytree.
	Leguminosæ.
, M., Y., B., Midr.	Lupinus Termis, Forsk.	Lupine.
, M.	Lupinus Palæstinus, Boiss., and Lupinus pilosus, Linn.	Lupine.
, T. (, Bible).	Retama Raetam, (Forsk.), Web.	Juniper-bush.
, M.; , , B.	Trigonella Fænumgræcum, Linn.	Fenugreek.
(pl.), M.; , Y., B.; , B.	Melilotus, Tourn	Sweet clover, honey-lotus.
(?)	Melilotus (?), Medicago (?), Trigonelia (?), Trifolium (?).
, B.	Medicago sativa, Linn., or Trifolium, Linn. (?).	Medic, or clover, trefoil.
, B.	Glycyrrhiza glabra, Linn.	Licorice.
, M.; , T., B. (Bible, , ?).	Alhagi Maurorum, DC.	Alhagi.
, M.; , B.	Cicer arietinum, Linn.	Chick-pea.
, M., Y.	Vicia sativa, Linn.	Vetch.
, M.; , B.	Vicia Ervilia, Linn.	Vetch.
, M. (Bible); , T., B.	Lens esculenta, Moench.	Lentil.
, Bible, M., T., Y.	Vigna Sinensis (Linn.), Endl. (not Phascolus vulgaris, Linn.).	Bean.
, M.; (?), Y.	Vicia Faba, Linn. (Faba vulgaris, Moench.).	Straight bean.
, , M.; , Y.; .	........................	Four in determinate varieties of beans.
, (?), M.; , (variants ).	........................	Three indeterminate varieties of pulse, probably = Syriac , a variety of lupine.
, M.; , Y.	Phascolus Mungo, Linn.	Hairy-podded kidney-bean.
, Bible)	Lathyrus, Linn.	Vetchling.
, M.; , Y.	Lathyrus Cicera, Linn.	Vetchling.
, M.; , Y.	Lathyrus sativus, Linn.	Everlasting pea.
, B.	Dolichos Lablab, Linn.	Lablab.
, M.	Cassia obovata, Collad. or Cassia acutifolia, Del. (?)	Aleppo senna, or senna.
, M., Y. B.	Ceratonia Siliqua, Linn.	Saint-John's- bread, carob.
(?)	Prosopis Stephaniana (Willd.), Spreng.	(see below).
, Bible, from which comes , B.	Two varieties of Acacia, Willd.	Acacia.
, B.	sap of Acacia Nitotica, Del.	Acacia.
	Lemnaceæ.
, M.; , Y. (, B. ?).	Lemna minor, Linn.	Duckweed, duckmeat.
	Liliaceæ.
, M.; , B.; , Y.	Aloe vera, Linn.	Aloe.
, Bible, M.; , B.	Allium Cepa, Linn.	Onion.
, M. (?)	Allium Ascalonicum, Linn.	Shallot.
, M.	........................	Summer onions.
, M.; , Y.	Allium Cepa, Linn.	Onion.
, M.; (, Bible); , M., T., Y., B.; , T., Y., B.	Allium Porrum, Linn.	Leek.
, M.	Allium curtum, Boiss, and Gaill. (?).
, Bible, M.; , M.; , Y.	Allium sativum, Linn.	Garlic.
, M.	........................	Onion.
, M.	Ornithogalum, Linn.	Star-of-Bethlehem.
, Bible, M., T.; , Y.	Lilium candidum, Linn.	Lily.
, M.	Fritillaria, Linn.	Fritillary (?).
	Lineæ.
, M,; , T., Y., B.	Linum usitatissimum, Linn.	Flax.
	Loranthaceæ.
.	Loranthus Acaciæ, Zuce.	Mistietoe.
	Lythraceæ.
, Bible, M.; (?), M.	Lawsonia alba, Linn.	Henna.
	Malvaceæ.
, B.	Malva rotundifolia, Linn.	Common mallow and others.
, M., (?), M.; , Y., B.; , B.	Gossyplum herbaceum, Linn.	Cotton-plant.
	Myrtaceæ.
, Bible, M.; , T., B.	Myrtus communis, Linn.	Myrtle.
, M.; , Y. (?)	Nelumbium speciosum, Willd.	Lotus.
	Oleaceæ.
, M.	Fraxinus Ornus, Linn.	Ash.
, Bible, M., T., Y., B., Midr.	Olea Europæa, Linn.	Olive.
	Palmaceæ.
, Bible, M.; , M., T., Y., B.	Phoenix dactylifera, Linn.	Date-palm.
	........................	Young palms.
, M.; , B.	........................	A variety of palm.
	Papaveraceæ.
, B.	Papaver Rhæcus, Linn.	Corn-poppy.
, Y.	opium from Papaver somniferum, Linn., var. glabrum, Boiss.	Common poppy.
, M.	Glaucium corniculatum, Linn.	Horn-poppy.
	Platanaceæ.
, Bible; , T., Y., B.	Platanus orientalls, Linn.	Oriental planetree.
	Polygonaceæ.
, M.; , , B.	Polygonum aviculare, Linn., or Polygonum equisetiforine, Sibth, and Sm.	Knot-grass.
	Portulacaceæ.
, M.; , Y., B.	Portulaca oleracea, Linn.	Purslane.
	Primulaceæ.
, M.	Cyclamen Coum, Mill., and Cyclamen latifolium, S. et. S. (?)	Round-leaved cyclamen.
	Ranunculaceæ.
, M.; , B.	Ranunculus sceleratus, Linn., and other species.	Crowfoot, buttercup.
, Bible	Nigelia sativa, Linn.	Nutmeg-flower.
	Resedaceæ.
, M. (?)	Luteola tinctoria, Web., Reseda luteola, Linn.	Dyer's- weed (?).
	Rhamnaceæ.
(pl.), M.; , B.	Zizyphus lotus, Lam., and Zizyphus spina- Christi, Linn.	Jujube, and christ's- thorn.
, M., Y.; , B.	Zizyphus vulgaris, Lam.	Common jujube.
	Rosaceæ.
, Bible, M., T.; , B.	Amygdalus communis, Linn.	Almond.
, M., Y.	Persica vulgaris, Mill.	Peach.
, M.; , M. (?); , Y.; , B. (?).	Prunus domestica, Linn.	Plum.
, Bible, M.; , , T., Y., B.	Rubus sanctus, Schreb., or Rubus discolor, Willd, and Nees.	Blackberry.
, M., T., Y., B.	Rosa, Linn.	Rose.
, M.	Pyrus communis, Linn.	Pear.
, M. (Y.)	Pyrus Syriaca, Boiss. (?)
, Bible, M.; , T., Midr.; (), , M.; , B.	Malus communis, Desf.	Apple.
, M.; , Y.	Cydonia vulgaris, Willd.	Quince.
, B.	Sorbus, Linn.	Service-tree.
, M. [, ].	Mespilus Germanica, Linn.	Medlar.
, M.; , B.	Cratregus Azarolus, Linn.	Hawthorn.
	Rudiaceæ.
, M.; , B.	Rubia tinctorum, Linn.	Madder.
	Rutaceæ.
, M.; (?), , B.	Ruta graveolens, Linn., and Ruta Chalepensis, Linn., and variety bracteosa, Boiss.	Rue, and Aleppo rue.
, M., identical with , B. (?).	Peganum Harmain, Linn.	Harmel, Syrian rue or a variety of mullein (Scrophulariaceæ).
	Salicaceæ.
, Bible, M.	Salix Safsaf. Forsk., or Salix alba, Linn.	Willow, or white willow.
, B.	Salix (nigricans, Fries. ?)	Black willow.
, Bible, M.; , , B.	Populus Euphratica, Oliv.	Euphrates poplar (, osler, according to Hal Gaon, Salix viminatis, Linn. [?]).
	Scrophulariaceæ.
........................	Verbascum, Linn.	Mullein (see Peganum Harmala, Linn., under Rutaceæ).
	Sesamaceæ.
, M.; , T., B.	Sesamum Indicum, Linn.	Sesame.
	Solanaceæ.
, Bible, M. (T., Y., B.)	Solanum coagulans, Forsk.	Nightshade.
, B.	Solanum nigrum, Linn.	Nightshade (?).
, Bible, , T.	Lycium Europæum, Linn.	Box-thorn.
, Bible; , T.; , B.	Mandragora officinarum, Linn.	Mandrake.
	Tamariscineæ.
(, Bible) , B.	Tamarix articulata, Vahl, and others.	Tamarisk.
	Tiliaceæ.
, Y.	fiber of Corchorus, Linn.	Corchorus.
	Umbelliferæ.
, M.	Eryngium Creticum, Lam.	Button snakeroot.
, M., Y., B.; , Bible.	Coriandrum sativum, Linn.	Coriander.
	Bifora testiculata., DC. (?)
	Coriandrum tordylioldes, Boiss. (?)
, M., Y., B.	Apium graveolens, Linn.	Celery.
, M.; , Y.	Petroselinum sativum, Hoffm.	Parsley.
, M.; , B.	Ammi majus, Linn., Ammi copticum, Linn., and Ammi Visnaga, Linn.	Bullwort, bishop's-weed. Spanish toothhpick.
, B.; , M. (?).	Carum Carui Linn.	Caraway.
, M.; , Y.; , M. (?).	Foeniculum officinale, All.	Fennel.
, M.; , B. (?).	A variety of Ferula.	Fennel.
, M.	Anethum graveolens, Linn.	Dill.
, M., Y.	Daucus Carota, Linn.	Carrot.
, Bible, M., T., B.	Cuminum Cyminum, Linn.	Cumin.
	Urticaceæ.
, M., Midr	Celtis australis, Linn.	Southern hackberry
, M., Y., B.	Morus nigra, Linn.	Black mulberry.
, Bible, M.; , T., Y., B.	Ficus Carica, Linn.	Fig.
, Bible, M., Midr.; , T.	Ficus Sycomorus, Linn.	Sycamore.
, M.; , Y.	Caprificus, wild varieties of Ficus Carica, Linn., variety of Ficus genuina, Boiss., of Ficus rupestris, Haussk., etc.	Fig
, M.	Cannabis sativa, Linn.	Hemp.
, T.	Urtica urens, Linn.	Nettie (?) (see Tribulus terrestris, under Zygophyllaceæ[?]).
	Verbenaceæ.
	Avicennia officianalis, Linn. (?).	Avicennia (?).
	Zygophyllaceæ.
, corrupted , T.(?).	Tribulus terrestris, Linn., or Urtica urens, Linn.	Land-caltrop, or nettie.

The foreign plants mentioned in the Talmud include the following, although the Bosicellia was cultivated in Palestine in antiquity:

Hebrew Name.	Botanical Name.	Popular Name.
, Bible; , T.	Acorus Culamus, Linn.	Sweet-flag, calamus-root.
, M.	Amomum, Linn.	Amomum.
, M.; , Y., B.	Amomum Cardamomum	Cardamom.
, M.; (?).	Saussurea Lappa, Clarke (Aucklandia Costus, Falconer; Gildemeister and Hoffmann, l.c. p. 901).	Costus.
, Bible, T., B., Midr.	gum-resin of Commiphora Abyssinica, Engl., Commiphora Schimperi, Engl., and others.
, M. (, , Bible.	Balsamodendron Opobalsamum, Kunth., Commiphora Opobalsamum (Linn.), Engl.	Balsam.
, Bible, M., T., B.	frankincense of Boswellia serrata, Roxb., and others.
	resin of the dragon-tree, Calamus Draco, Willd. (Dracaena Draco, Linn., etc.).	Dragon's-blood.
, Bible, M., Y., Midr.; , B.	Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Nees.	Cinnamon.
, M.	bark of Cinnamomum Zeylanicum, Nees.	Cinnamon.
, B. (read )	Dalbergia Sissoo, Roxb.	Sissoo-wood.
	Diospyros Ebenum, Retz.	Ceylon ebony.
, Bible, M., T., B.	Galbanum from Ferula galbaniflua, Boiss. and Buhse.	Galbanum.
	Myristica fragrans, Houtt., and others.	A species of nutmeg and mace from the nutmegtree.
, M., Bible; , T.	Nardostachys Jatamansi, DC.	Spikenard.
, M., Y., B.	Piper nigrum, Linn.	Black pepper.
, M.; , T., B.; from this, .	Scorodosma (Ferula) Asafœtida (Linn.), Benth. and Hook.	Asafetida.
, B.; from this, .	Tectona grandis, Linn.	Teak.
	Zingiber officinale, Rose.	Ginger.

The following are names of briers not yet identified: Tradition, comparative philology, and botany alike fail to furnish any aid in the identification of the following names of plants, which appear, for the most part, only once:

, M. (, Y.);

, M. (not lichens);

, Y.;

, B. (not St.-John's-wort);

, M.;

), M.;

, Y.;

, M. (not blossoms of the κίσσαρος);

, M. (not the oak or the ash);

, B.;

, Y.;

, M.;

), M.;

, Y.;

(), (not Verbascum, mullein);

, M.;

(not μελισσόφνλλον, balm);

and varieties;

and varieties;

(not Costus Arabicus, Linn.).

Unidentified Names.

Where tradition is lacking it is extremely difficult to identify the plant-names recorded in the Mishnah and Talmud, though inferences may occasionally be drawn from the plants mentioned in connection with a problematical term. An instance of this is the , mentioned together with the , carob, St.-John's-bread (Ter. ii. 4; Tosef. v. 33 = Yer. 'Orlah ii. 62a; Yer. Bik. iii. 65, 13c; 'Uḳ. i. 6), and which occurs by itself (: Tosef., Ter. vii. 37; Yer. Ter. viii. 45, 68b; Sifra, Shemot, 57a; Ḥul. 67a). This was traditionally explained as a variety of bean ("Halakot Gedolot," ed. Hildesheimer, 547, 4, where the correct reading is =TaSHBaẒ, iii. 11, ), but later was regarded as an acorn. The proximity of the carob suggested Cercis Siliquastrum, Linn. (Leunis, "Synopsis," § 437, 14), the Judas-tree, on which Judas Iscariot is said to have hanged himself, although according to other traditions he died on an elder or a jujube. Pulse is called "false carob," ἄγρια ξνλοκερατήα (Lenz, "Botanik der Griechen und Römer," p. 733; Fraas, "Synopsis," p. 65; Post, l.c. p. 297). It is, however, to be identified with the Prosopis Stephaniana (Willd.), Spreng., which belongs to the same family. This is in accordance with the view of Ascherson, who was surprised, while in the oases, by the similarity of the sweet, well-flavored pulp of the fruit of this tree with that of the St.-John's-bread (ib. p. 298).

The "Halakot Gedolot." —In the Geonic Literature:

The geonic period, which came to an end in 1040 (See Gaon), saw a development of the botanical knowledge of the Babylonian Jews, as is evident from the decisions of the Geonim and the first great post-Talmudic-halakic work, the "Halakot Gedelot" (cited hereafter as "H. G."). The chief cultivated plant that is mentioned in this work for the first time in Hebrew literature is the sugar-cane. Other important trees, plants, and fruits menioned are the following: tree and fruit of the Musas sapientium, Linn., the banana, perhaps also a variety of the Musa paradisiaca, the plantain, under the Arabic name "mauz," derived from the Sanskrit ("H. G." 56, 19; 57, 5; "Responsa der Geonim," ed. Lyck, No. 45, p. 18; "Toratan shel Rishonim," ii. 56; "Shibbole ha-Leḳeṭ," 12b; RaDBaZ, ed. Fürth, No. 531, s.v. "Hai"; "Bet Yosef," Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 203; Löw, "Aramäische Pflanzennamen," p. 336); Daucus Carota, Linn., carrot, (also in Arabic and Syriac, "H. G." ed. Hildesheimer, 60, 19; ed. Venice, 8, b4; "Eshkol," i. 68, 10; Post, l.c. p. 372; Löw, l.c. p. 86); , Sinapis arrensis, Linn., a variety of mustard, put in brine in Roman fashion ("H. G." ed. Hildesheimer, 72; read thus instead of ; Post, l.c. p. 76; Löw, l.c. p. 178); plums, under the name of , like the Syrian "ḥaḥa" ("H. G." ed. Venice, 7, c15; Löw, l.c. p. 149); ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8, b23; lacking in ed. Hildesheimer, 58, 28; "Eshkol," i. 68, , as in Syriac), a variety of bean (in this same passage and in "H. G." ed. Hildesheimer, 547, 5, also , Arabic "baḳilta"); another variety of bean (Löw, l.c. p. 245); ("H. G." 58, 4-5), myrobalan, as in Syriac, from the Arabic "halilaj," not mentioned again until the time of Asaph ben Berechiah, but used later in all the works on medicine (Steinschneider, "Heilmittelnamen der Araber," No. 1997; Löw, l.c. p. 129); ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8b, 21-22), the Aramaic form of the mishnaic , a Persian loan-word, appearing again in Asaph (Löw, l.c. p. 373); (?), marginal gloss in "H. G." (ed. Hildesheimer, 57, 6), a ground-fruit. In "H. G." 70, last line = "Eshkol," i. 68, the Arabic "ḥinnah" is used for the Biblical "henna" (Löw, l.c. p. 212).

Persian and Arabic Names.

Other Arabic and Persian names of plants which are mentioned in works of the Geonim are: , hemp-seed ("H. G." 56, 20; "Eshkol," i. 68, with "resh," but in ed. Venice, 7b, rightly with "dalet"; RaDBaZ, ed. Fürth, 531, s.v. "Hai"; Löw, l.c. pp. 211, 248); , Polypodium ("H. G." 111, 5; Löw, l.c. p. 268); , Brassica Rapa, Linn., turnip ("H. G." 72, 21; Mishnah, Talmud, ; Löw, l.c. p. 241); ("H. G." ed. Venice, 8c), Ocymum basilicum, Linn., basil; , pine-nuts (ib. ed. Hildesheimer, 57, 8; ed. Venice, 7d; "Eshkol," i. 67); ("H. G." 57, end; Hai, in "Responsa der Geonim, Ḳehillat Shelomoh," ed. Wertheimer, No. 9; Harkavy, "Responsen der Geonim," p. 28; Löw, l.c. p. 286); , the Arabic equivalent of , lily ("H. G." 70; end); (ib. 546, 10). A number of Arabic names of plants may be found in the marginal glosses of the Vatican manuscript of the "Halakot Gedolot," as "ḥasak," thorn, gloss on (ib. 160, No. 36); (read ), violet, on (ib. 70, No. 102; "Eshkol," i. 68; RaDBaZ, i. 44 = , "Keneset ha-Gedolah," Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 204; , responsa, "Debar Shemuel," No. 2; , Lebush, Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 216, 8); , equivalent to the Arabic "sil," on ("H. G." 92, No. 29; Harkavy, l.c. p. 209).

The Geonim, especially Hai Gaon (see Hai ben Sherira), prefer to give their explanations in Arabic. In the responsa the Harkavy edition, for example, has "abnus," "shauḥaṭ," "sasam" (p. 135; Krauss, "Lehnwörter," ii. 46), "abhul" (p. 23; "Responsa der Geonim," ed. Cassel, p. 42a), "anjudan" (p. 23), "babunaj" (ib. p. 209), "sunbul al-nardin" (p. 29), and "kurnub" (ib. p. 208). In his commentary on the Mishnah (Ṭoharot) Hai Gaon gives, as a rule, the Arabic names of the plants side by side with the Aramaic terms, as, for example: "isfunj," "asal," "thayyil" (Harkavy, l.c. p. 22), "jauz buwa," "juliban," "ḥarshaf," "ḥulbah" (ib. p. 23), "ḥiltith," "ḥalfa," "khiyar," "khayzuran," "dar ṣini," "rajlah," "rumman," "za'faran," "sadhab," "safarjal," "silḳ," "shuniz," "shayṭaraj," "fuṭr," "ḳitha' al-ḥimar," "ḳirṭim," "ḳar'ah," "ḳaṣab albardi," "kummathra," "maḥruth" "na'na'."

The Arabic names of plants in the "'Aruk" are drawn almost without exception from geonic sources. The list is as follows (in the order of the Arabic alphabet):

Ajam, (this and 'uyun al-baḳar, s.v. ).

.

Aḳaḳiya, .

Unbub al-ra'a, 'aṣa al-ra'a, .

Baḳs, .

Baḳlah, (iii. 395a).

Baḳḳam, .

Ballut, .

Bunduk,

Jiilauz, .

Jummaiz, .

Julban, .

Ḥabb al-muluk, .

Ḥarmal, .

Ḥulbah, .

Ḥalfa, .

Ḥimmiṣ, .

Ḥandaḳuḳ, .

Ḥanẓal, .

Khirwa', .

Khashkhash, .

Dar ṣini, (iii, 161b, 428b).

Dar kisah, .

Rajlah, (ii. 241b).

ẓaghab al-khiyar, .

Zarghun, .

Za'rur, .

Zawan, .

Safarjal, .

Silḳ, (i, 79b).

Summaḳ, (also s.v. , No. 2 in Paris MS.).

Simsim, .

Shajar maryam, .

Shuḥ, .

ṣaghir al-adhnab, .

ṣanaubar, .

'Afṣ, .

'Uẓruban, .

Ghubaira', .

Fuji, .

Farfaḥin, .

Fustaḳ, (s.v. ).

Fuḳḳa', (s.v. ).

Faijan, .

Fuwwah, .

Ḳaḳullah, (ii. 241b).

Ḳarnabiṭ, .

Ḳaranful, .

Ḳuṭniyya, .

Ḳulḳas, (not )

Kabar (kifar), (viii. 248).

Karrath, .

Karafs, .

Kuzburah, .

Kushut, .

Kamah, .

Labsan, .

Na'na', .

Nil, .

Hindaba, .

Hai Gaon.

For a proper understanding of the Talmudic writings constant reference must be made to the traditions of the Babylonian schools, preserved in the decisions, commentaries, and compendiums of the Geonim and their pupils. Most Jewish statements about plants likewise rest on such traditions, of which the greatest number is preserved in the writings of Hai Gaon. He has also kept a number of old Aramaic words in his explanations, such as , radish; , camomile; [?]; Löw, l.c. pp. 140, 309, 326; Harkavy, l.c. p. 209).

Hananeel b. Hushiel.

R. Hananeel ben Ḥushiel preserved a considerable amount of botanical information from geonic sources, and this was made more generally known by the "'Aruk." For example, he strikingly describes sago as "a substance like meal, found between the fibers of the palm" (Kohut, "Aruch Completum," vi. 65a); coconuts as coming from India(ib. vi. 10a); arum () as a plant whose roots are eaten as a vegetable with meat, and which bas leaves measuring two spans in length and two in breadth (ib. v. 29a); and reeds as growing after their tops have been cut off (ib. iii. 420b). Mention is made of a prickly food for camels (ib. ii. 130b), as well as of castor-oil and its use (ib. vii.19b). Lupines and a certain other pulse, he declares, do not grow in Babylon(ib. vi. 229b). He is unable to describe Peganum Harmala, Linn., accurately, but says it is one of the plants used for medicinal purposes, while its small, blackish seed, which has a strong and unpleasant smell, is very hot (ib. viii. 19b), in the technical sense of the Greek medical writers; it is mentioned here for the first time in rabbinical literature (Meyer, "Gesch. der Botanik," ii. 192; comp. Galen, xii. 82; "It is hot in the third degree"). According to Sherira Gaon, all seeds are hot, and therefore the seed-bearing onion stalk also is hot (Kohut, l.c. v. 330a; these are the first traces of Greek medicine in rabbinical literature).

Saadia.

Cedar-wood becomes moist in water, but fig-wood remains dry ("Da'at Zeḳenim, Ḥuḳḳat," beginning), according to Saadia Gaon, whose translation of the Bible is the chief source of many identifications of Biblical plants, since, where definite traditions were lacking, he introduced definite Arabic terms to make his translation readable (Bacher, "Die Bibelexegese," p. 6).

In conclusion, a few more botanical details from the writings of the Geonim may be mentioned: the accurate differentiation of capers, their buds, blossoms, fruit, and parts; the correct explanation of "asparagus" as the tender roots of cabbage, not asparagus (Harkavy, l.c. p. 196); and an accurate definition of (ib. p. 179). Hai Gaon clearly describes the Cuscuta (ib. p. 215; Löw, l.c. p. 231) and the heads of camomile, and gives a brief account of the = Arabic "ghubaira'" (Harkavy, l.c. p. 28; "Ḳehillat Shelomoh," ed. Wertheimer, No.9). The artichoke is also well characterized by Sherira and Hai when they say that the spines are taken off, and the inside of the plant is eaten (Abu al-Walid, Dictionary, 115, 17; 392, 4 [ed. Bacher]; D. Ḳimḥi, "Miklol," s.v. ). One geonic writer, probably Hai, identifies with the eggplant, but for historical reasons this can not be accepted.

Eldad ha-Dani.

In the geonic period Eldad ben Mahli ha-Dani invented his "darmush" for pepper, and also declared that neither thorns nor thistles grow in the lands of the Lost Ten Tribes (D. H. Müller, "Die Recensionen und Versionen des Eldad ha-Dani," pp. 18, 68, Vienna, 1892), which devote themselves to the cultivation of flax (ib. p. 1). To the same period belongs the medical work of Asaph ben Berechiah, which is based upon the Syriac translation of Dioscorides, and has thus preserved many Syriac names of plants. Shortly after Asaph came Shabbethai Donnolo (946), who was primarily a writer on medicine. In the "Sefer ha-Yaḳar," ch. iii.-iv., however, he enumerates the plants that improve or injure the quality of honey.

The list of thirty varieties of fruit given by pseudo-Ben Sira is noteworthy, even though it is borrowed from Greek sources. The passage is discussed by Löw (l.c. pp. 2 et seq.) with reference to Mas'udi (ib. p. 4; see also Brüll, "Jahrb." i. 205). Even before Löw, Nöldeke had suggested that there were Arabic recensions of the passage (Löw, l.c. p. 417); and their existence is evident not only from Ms'udi but also from Ṭabari ("R. E. J." xxix. 201). According to Steinschneider ("Hebr. Bibl." 1882, p. 55), the thirty varieties of fruit are mentioned as Palestinian also by Ḥayyim Vital in Natan Spira'a "Sha'are Yerushalayim," vi. 6, end.

—In the Post-Geonic Period:

Information concerning the knowledge of plants in the post-geonic period must be sought in the translations of the Bible, the commentaries on the Bible and Talmud, and the lexicons. Here it will be sufficient to mention some of the statements of R. Gershom, the 'Aruk, Rashi, and a few other writers.

R. Gershom.

In the commentaries which are probably correctly ascribed to him R. Gershom ben Judah has the oldest foreign Words (Königsberger, "FremdsprachlicheGlossen, I.—R. Gerschom b. Jehuda," 1896; Brandin, "Les Loazim de R. Gershom," in "Publ. Ecole Nationale des Chartes," pp. 15 et seq., Toulouse, 1898; "R. E. J." Nos. 83, 84, 85. Brandin consulted the manuscripts also; but, strangely enough, he has not the gloss , B. B. 2b, and this is also lacking in Löw's alphabetical list of Gershom's foreign words). Brandin transcribes the following foreign plant-names: "aveine," wild barley; "bayes," fruits of the laurel; "boso" (Italian), "bois," boxwood; "cro," "crocu orientel," saffron; "homlon," hop; "kmel" ("chmiel," Slavonic); "kos," "kost," costmary; "lasre' (Italian, "lasero"), laserwort; "lesche," sedge; "lor," laurel; "molse," moss; "ortyes," nettles; "pores," leek; "sape," fir-tree; "sigle," rye; "spicu," ear of corn, spikenard; "tel," linden-tree; "ternure," ternage; "tora," torus (Menahem b. Solomon, ); "waranẓe," madder-root; and (on , Tamid 29b).

The linden is mentioned here for the first time in Jewish literature. Later, is translated "linden" in Germany (Grünbaum, l.c. p. 27), and Baruch Lindau (1788) renders by "linden." The only linden that Post (l.c. p. 8) knows in Palestine is the Tilia argentea, Desf., the Oriental silver linden, which grows in the region of the Amana. No linden is mentioned as coming from Egypt (Ascherson and Schweinfurth, "Flore d'Egypte," p. 53). Nor did the Syrians know how to translate φιλύρα, the name of silver linden; the Arabic rendering by Berggren (in a manuscript belonging to the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft) is "zihr al-maḥlab." The word "thore," mentioned above, also is of interest, a R. Gershom ben Judah is the oldest source for the word.

According to Güstav Schlessinger, Rashi has the following French names of plants:

French Name.	English Name.
Aloès (aloine)	Aloes.
Aloisne, aluisne	Wormwood.
Amandelier.
Amerfollie.
Aneth	Dill.
Apje	Smallage.
Aristoloche (?)	Birthwort.
Arnica (?)	Arnica.
Asperelle	Horsetail, shave-grass.
Asperge	Asparagus.
Avenu	Oats.
Bale	Berry.
Balsme	Balsam.
Blet	Wild blite.
Bolet	Boletus.
Broce	Shrubs.
Bais	Boxwood.
Câprier	Caper-bush.
Cep	Vine-stock.
Cerfuel, cerfoil	Chervil.
Cerise	Cherry.
Cerque	Oak.
Chardon	Thistle.
Chastaigne, chastaignier.	Chestnut.
Chesne	Oak.
Chiche	Chickpea.
Cipoule, ciboule.	hallot, cibol.
Coinz	Quince.
Coldre	Hazelnut.
Concombre	Cucumber.
Corme, cormier.	Sorb, servicetree.
Coton	Cotton.
Cresson	Cress.
Croc, groc.
Eglantier	Eglantine.
Eliandre	Oleander.
Erbe felchière	Fern.
Erbe sabonaire	Soapwort.
Erugue.
Espeltre	Spelt. [nard.
Espic, spic	Nard, spike-
Espine	Thorn.
Fasele, faseole	Kidney-bean.
Fenocle, fenoil	Fennel.
Fenugree, fenegre.	Fenugreek.
Galle	Oak-apple.
Galvan	Galbanum.
Geneivre, genievre.	Juniperberry.
Girofie	Clove.
Gland	Acorn.
Grespignolo, crespigno (?).
Guesde, waisde.	Woad.
Homlon.
Ierre, ere, edre	Ivy.
Jote, jotte	Beet.
June, jonc	Rush.
Laitugue	Lettuce.
Lanbruis	Wild vine.
Lasre	Laserwort.
Lesche	Sedge.
Lor	Laurel.
Lupine	Lupine.
Maro	Poppy.
Malve	Mallow.
Marrubje	Hoarhound.
Melon	Melon.
Mente	Mint.
Meurier, mourier.	Mulberrytree.
Mil	Millet.
Molse	Moss.
Nesple, nêple	Medlar.
Niele	Rose-campion, mullein-pink.
Olme	Elm.
Ortie	Nettle.
Oseille	Sorrel.
Osre, osier	Osier.
Pallie, poile foarre (?).	Straw.
Panis, peniz	Panic-grass.
Pastèque	Watermelon.
Perseche, preseche.	Peach.
Peuplier, pouplier.	Poplar.
Pin	Pine-tree.
Plançon (?)	Sapling.
Pomel.
Porchaille, porchilague.	Pursiane.
Poré, porele	Pore.
Poulieul, pouliol, poliol.
Provain	Slip.
Prune, prunier	Plum-tree.
Pulpiet, pourpier.	Purslane.
Pyrèthre	Spanish camomile, feverfew.
Rafne	Radish.
Ronce	Black berrybush.
Rose	Rose.
Rosell, roseau	Reed.
Rude	Rue.
Sadree.
Salce	Willow.
Salvee, selvie.
Sambuc.
Sap.
Seigle	Rye.
Sevel	Hedge.
Sorbier, cormier.	Service-tree, sorb.
Souche	Stump.
Tan	Tan.
Thore	Crowfoot.
Til, teil, tel	Linden-hari.
Treille	Vine-arbor.
Tremble	Aspen.
Troche	Cluster of flowers or fruit.
Tudel, pecce	Halm.
Vedille	Tendril.
Verance, varance.
Verdure	Verdure.
Vice, vece.	Vetch.
Viole, violé	Violet.
Zinzibre	Ginger.

Most of the "loazim" of the Maḥzor Vitry, admirably discussed by Gustav Schlessinger, come from Rashi. Among the names of plants are:

Amerfoilie

Apje

Aspic

Cerfeuil

Chanve

Chardon

Cresson

Crispigno

Croc

Cumin

Eliandre (for coriandre)

Erbe Felchière

Erbe sabonaire

Erugue

Glanz

Gome

Homlon

Jonc

Laitungue

Marrubje

Mire (myrrhe)

Niele

Peis (pois)

Poré

Poulpfet

Prun

Rafne

Résine

Rude (rue)

Safran

The 'Aruk.

The Arabic names of plants found in the "'Aruk" of R. Nathan b. Jehiel have already been given, since they are derived for the most part, though not exclusively, from geonic sources. His vernacular glosses, in part taken from Gershom, are better preserved than Rashi's foreign words, of which twelve are lacking in Kohut's Italian index.

[In the following list the references, unless otherwise stated, are to Kohut, "Aruch Completum."]

Albatro (vi. 185a).

Aloe (i. 259b).

Aneto (viii. 24a).

Appio (iv. 341a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 241).

Armoraccio (vii. 28b).

Asparago (iv. 158a).

Assafetida (error for "lasero").

Atrepice (v. 49b).

Aveliana (ii. 42a); nocella (vi. 367b; Menahem b. Solomon, "Sekel Ṭob," p. xii.).

Avena (see segale).

Balsamo (vii. 84b).

Bambagia (vii. 25b).

Bassilico (iv. 234b).

Bieta, bliti (i. 79b, 138b; Siponto [hereafter cited as Sip.] on Kil. i. 3; not "bietola").

Bosso, busso (i. 314a, vi. 328a).

Brasile (vii. 277b; Sip. on Kil. ii. 5).

Canapa (vii. 131a; Sip. on Kil. v. 8; "R. E. J." xxvii. 246).

Canella (iii. 161b).

Cappero (v. 374b, vi. 421a, vii. 21a; Sip. on Dem. i. 1; Ma'as. iv. 6).

Cardi domestici (vi. 90b; Sip. on Sheb. ix. 5; comp. cardatore, vi. 144).

Cardo (vi. 196a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 248).

Caretto, not corteccia (iii. 408a).

Cerasa (iii. 5b).

Cicerchia, cicercla (iii. 431b, vi. 301a, b; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).

Ciceri (i. 220a; Sip. on Kil. iii. 2; Peah iii. 3).

Cinnamomo (iii. 305a).

Colocasia (v. 29a).

Coriandro, culiandro (ii. 239a, 241b. iv. 272a; Menahem, "Sekel Ṭob." p. xii.; Sip. on Kil. i. 2; Sheb. ix. 1; "R. E. J." xxvii. 245, note).

Corme (French) salvatico (iv. 333a).

Costo (vii. 64a, 223b; Sip. on Kil, i. 8).

Cotogna (iii. 343a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 248; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).

Crespino (vi. 210a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 246; Menahem, l.c. p. xi.).

Croco orientale (vi. 320b, vii. 310b).

Dattile, gloss (vi. 32b).

Eliotropio (vi. 252b).

Eliera, édera (iii. 472a, vii. 148b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 247; Sip. on kil. v. 8).

Erbaglaucio (ii. 290b).

Fagiuolo, fasolo (vi. 301b; Sip. on Kil. i. 2).

Fava, faba, faba blanca (vi. 301b; Sip, on Kil. i. 1).

Ferula (viii. 19b).

Finocchio, Fenuclo (iv. 158a, viii. 61a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 245; Sip. on Sheb. ix. 1).

Forraggio (i. 190a).

Fungo (iii. 14b, vi. 318b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 248).

Galla (iii. 431b).

Garofano, giroflo (iv. 301b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 242).

Gelso (ii. 129b; on ; Sip. on Sheb. vii. 5; , Ma'as. i. 2).

Glande (v. 36a, 393a; vi. 104b).

Gomma (ii. 378b, vii. 122a).

Indaco, indicum (i. 172a; Sip. on Kil. ii. 5).

Indivia (error for "senazione").

Isopo (vi. 2b; Sip. on sheb. viii. 1).

Lambrusco (ii. 339b).

Lasero puzzolento or purulento (Menahem, l.c., ), not laserpitium (iii. 421a).

Lattuga (iii. 364b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 243. , Menahem, l.c.; Sip. on Kil. i. 2).

Laudano (error for "ladano") (v. 18b).

Lauro (vi. 256b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 243).

Legume (vii. 83a; Sip. on Ḥal. i. 4).

*Lisca (vi. 75a).

Lupino (false reading, ii. 362a, iv. 333a).

Malva (iii, 246b, 404b; vi. 391a; Sip. on Kil. i. 8).

Marrobbio (v. 53b, viii. 245a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 244; Menahem, l.c.).

Menta (i. 131a; v. 181a, 349b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 243).

Mora (viii. 291a).

*Nervolo (?. vi. 30b; , Sip. on Kil. i. 1; , Caleb Afendopolo, Kil. 16b; Kohut, "Aruch Completum," ervolo [?].

Nigella (vii. 175b, iii. 306b; not gioglio, loglio, but nigelia, corn-campion, confused with dranel).

Nocella (see avellana).

Origano (vi. 2b; Sip. on Sheb. viii. 1).

Orzo (vii. 256b).

Papavero (vi. 410).

Pastinaca (v. 346b),

Pera (i. 25a; Sip. on Kil. i. 4).

Persica (i. 242a).

Pigna (vi. 239b).

Pilatro (iii. 243b, 441b).

Pisi (pisello; vi. 301b; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).

Polio (iii. 248b; vi. 315b, 2b; Sip. on Sheb. viii. 1).

Porri (iv. 342b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 245; Sip. on Sheb. vii. 1; Kil. i. 2).

Procacchia, porcacchia (iii. 395a, iv. 263a, vii. 253a; Sip. on Sheb. ix. 1).

Prugua (iii. 155a, iv. 351b, vi. 294a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 248); (vi. 412a; Mussafla, jujubes, according to Buxtorf),, (viii. 281a; Ben Sira, " Pflanzennamen," 3; Caleb Afendopolo, twice with "r." Kohut, l.c. iv. 263a, is incorrect).

Radice (v. 364b; Sip. on Kil. i. 5).

Ramolaccio (see armoraecio).

Robbia (vii. 175b; Sip. on Sheb. v. 4, ).

(vi. 196a; neither ramuccio nor rusco).

Rosmarino (iii. 410a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 246).

(iii. 262a).

Ruchetta oruga (i. 305a, iv. 345a ("Ruca di Petro"; Sip. on Sheb. i. 1).

Ruta (vi. 291b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 246; Sip. on Kil. i. 8; Sheb. ix. 1).

Salvatico, selvatico (vi. 355b).

Sanguine (iii. 241b).

Satureia (iii. 511a; v. 349b; vi. 2b, 173a).

Segale (, Sip. on Kil. i. 1), variant reading, avena (viii. 13b; , Menahem, l.c.).

Senazione (iii. 222a; Caleb Afendopolo, Kil. 17a, ), domestiche and forestiche (vi. 210a), not sonco (comp. "R. E. J." xxvii. 241).

Sesamo (viii. 109b).

Sisimbrio (i. 297a, vi. 2b; Sip. on Sheb. viii. 1).

Sorbo (vi. 185a; see "albatro," "R. E. J." xxvii. 248; Sip. on Dem. i. 1).

Sorgo (viii. 144a).

Spelda, espelta (iii. 168a; , Menahem, l.c.; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).

Spicanardi (v. 334b, viii. 13a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 242).

Tartufo, tartufolo (vi. 318b; "R. E. J." xxvii. 248).

Veccia (iii. 221b, iv. 343b, vi. 301b; Sip. on Kil. i. 1).

Zenzero (iii. 305a; "R. E. J." xxvii. 247; , Sip. on Orlah ii. 10).

Zenzevero, Zenziberi (ii. 316b).

Zizzania (ii. 233) is wrong, even if the word were Italian; it is Aramaic, however.

Zizziba (?) (iii. 321b).

Zucchero (iii. 473a) is , and is not Italian.

R. Isaac Siponto.

In the twelfth century R. Isaac ben Melchizedek of Siponto took over from the "'Aruk" forty-one Italian names of plants and a few Arabic ones, while the Greek terms, such as θῆλις and ξυλοκήρατα, and the following Italian words occur for the first time in his work:

Aglio

Amandola

Carruba

Carvi

Cicero limpidi

Cicorea

Cipolla

Cocco

Costola di cavolo

Cucumberi

Endivia

Espica vulpi

Espino

Fenugreco

Lupino

Meli porcaroli

Miglio

Mirtilli

Riso

Rosa

Salvia

Senape

Sicomori

Timo

A large number of his plant-names still await identification. Asparagus proper, which has erroneously been supposed to be mentioned in the Talmud (Krauss, "Lehnwörter," ii. 93), seems to occur first in Isaac's commentary on Sheb. ix. 1 as , "sparagio" (cited in "Kaftor wa-Feraḥ," 107b, Berlin; , corresponding to the Arabic "hilyaun" = "asparagus"; see Aldabi, "Shebilc Emunah," p. 75a; Tobias Cohen, 151a: or is wild asparagus; , the cultivated kind). Isaac is also the first post-Talmudic author to mention the cornel or dogwood (corniolo; κρανήα), in the passages Peah i. 5, Ma'as. i. 2, where he rejects the view that it is identical with , sumac.

Maimonides.

Maimonides gives the names of plants exclusively in Arabic in his commentary on the Mishnah; and these terms have been discussed by Löw in his "Aramäische Pflanzennamen," on the basis of the Berlin manuscripts of this gloss. In his medical writings likewise Maimonides follows the Arabic pharmacology; for instance, ninety-one vegetable remedies are mentioned in his "Dietetics"; but these belong rather to the history of medicine. From his "Morch" mention may be made of the story of the Nabatæan cultivation of the mạndrake and althea ("Moreh," French transl. by Munk, iii. 235), the reference to indigo (ib. i. 392), and the expression "like a locust-bean," meaning "practically worthless" (ib. i. 157). Maimonides has won a lasting name in the history of botany. Even after Sprengel ("Gesch. der Botanik," i. 178) had tried to identify the plants mentioned in the mishnaic tractate Kilayim, basing his investigation on the Latin translation of the commentary of Maimonides in the edition of the Mishnah by Surenhuis, Mayer ("Gesch. der Botanik," iii. 220), alluding to the plants mentioned in "'Uḳẓin," declared that Maimonides had given his interpretations with discrimination and had displayed an unmistakable knowledge of botany; but that, though he had a wide acquaintance with plants, his explanations were drawn chiefly from school traditions, and were not the result of independent investigation. Proceeding on the anthropocentric theory of the universe, Maimonides declares in his introduction to the Mishnah that trees and plants were created for the nourishment or healing of man, even though in some cases he fails to recognize this, or has never known it; and although the uses of all the plants on the earth may not yet be understood, each successive generation will become acquainted with new herbs and fruits which will prove of great advantage to it.

Estori Farḥi.

Of the later halakic writers the only one to be mentioned here is Estori Farḥi (flourished in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries), who made a careful geographical and scientific exploration of Palestine. His remarks on plants in his "Kaftor wa-Feraḥ" may readily be seen in the third index of Luncz's edition of that work, for which Löw arranged the data in their proper order. The comments in Wiesner's Hungarian biography of Farḥi (p. 31, Budapest, 1896) on certain botanical notes of the halakist are very inadequate. Farḥi's statements regarding shallots and onions in Syria are noteworthy, as are also his identification of Cordia Myxa, his accounts of Musa and Badingan, and the colloquial Arabic name for Pyrus Syriaca (Boiss.), equivalent to , which explains the Syriac (Löw, l.c. p. 208).

Menahem b. Solomon.

According to Buber ("Sekel Ṭob," Introduction, p. xi.), Menahem b. Solomon (1139) has the following names of plants in addition to the list already quoted from the "'Aruk": on on on (probably denoting R. Gershom's "thora"); on ; its resin , chicory (see Isaac Siponto above); on on .

Caleb Afendopolo.

In order to define the heterogeneous plants more accurately, the Karaite Caleb Afendopolo of Adrianople (end of the 15th cent.) arranged an alphabetical list of about sixty plant-names, and, following Maimonides in the main, tried to identify the plants and explained them in Arabic, Turkish, modern Greek, and Rumanian. Of this list, which appeared in the appendix to "Adderet Eliyahu," the following may be mentioned as of botanical importance: he regards as medlars, called also (Löw, l.c. p. 114; "R. E. J." xviii. 112, on "nespole"; Joseph Perles, "Beiträge zur Gesch. der Hebräischen und Aramäischen Studien," pp. 135 et seq.), because they have five seeds. He relates that the banana, was described by Japheth ha-Levi (953) as a cross between the datepalm and the colocasia; while he (Afendopolo) learned from the Karaite Joseph ha-Kohen that it was a cross between the date-palm and the sugarcane. Joseph told him also that the colocasia had a rootstock as large as an ox-head, and that it was the daily food in Egypt, where one head often brought as much as 900 dirhems. He describes the cucumber (Cucumis Chate, Linn.), which was widely cultivated in Egypt, as very long and as thick as the finger (ib. vii. 17b). The "nabḳ" (Zizyphus spina-Christi, Linn.), Christ's-thorn, he describes as sweet, and as large as a hazelnut (see Post, l.c. p. 201), while its shell was half red and half green, and its kernel was like that of an olive or common jujube. In his time, as at present, the tree was very common in Egypt (Ascherson and Schweinfurth, l.c. p. 59). Why Afendopolo ("Adderct Eliyahu," Appendix, p. 16c) uses the Hebrew or Aramaic (Löw, l.c. p. 225) for "parsley" is not clear.

David Al-Fasi and Ali b. Sulaiman.

In connection with Afendopolo two older Karaite lexicographers may be mentioned, David b. Abraham (Al-Fasi) and Ali b. Sulaiman, in whose works, according to Pinsker's extracts ("Liḳḳuṭe Ḳadmoniyyot," pp. 206 et seq.), the following names of plants are mentioned: "ṣandal," , sandalwood; "ma'atar" or "za'atar," ; "sasam" or "abnus," , ebony; "kama," , fungus; "kazbarah," , coriander; "saj," ; "khaṭmiyah," ; "za'arur" or "'anṣal," ; "wars" or "nilufar," ; "sa'atar" (= "za'atar"), ; "dulb," ; "ḥanẓal," ; "ḳarfah" or "ḳisṭ", ; "ḳarnafal," ; "ḳazaḥ," "shuniz," (Pinsker, erroneously, ); "salikhab," ; "sanṭ," ; "jummaiz," ; "sharbin," "abhal," "saj," or "shimashar," . "Henna" in Pinsker, l.c. p. 212, note 2, is an error.

Bibliography:

George E. Post, Flora of Syia Palestine, and Sinai from the Taurus to Ras Muhammad, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Syrian Desert, Beirut, 1896;

J. Bornmüller, 'Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Flora von Syrien und Palästina (in Verhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 1898);

Leopold Fonck, Streifzilge Durch die Biblische Flora, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1900, with a complete bibliography, pp. xi. et seq.

Identifying plants mentioned in the Bible has always been difficult. This is partly because people often think that plants like elm, sycamore, lily, rose, and vine in the Bible are the same as modern plants with these names. Also, people sometimes assume that all plants growing in the Holy Land today were there in biblical times. Or, people sometimes assume that all plants mentioned in the Bible can still be found there today.

Unfortunately, many plants that are common in the Holy Land today did not exist there during biblical times. On the other hand, many plants that once grew abundantly in that area are now extinct. Some plants disappeared because foreign species invaded their habitat. Others have been eliminated or nearly eliminated because of too much farming, the cutting down of forests, and the resulting changes in climate and other environmental conditions.

At one time, the region was full of palm trees. The date palm was as common and typical there as it was in Egypt. Today, the date palm is much less common in the region. Similarly, in ancient times, tall cedar trees covered the slopes of Lebanon and other mountain ranges. Now, the few remaining cedar trees must be carefully fenced in to protect them from being trampled and eaten by goats.

Specific types of plants are listed below. Click on a plant listed below to access the full-length article.

Types of Plants

• Acacia: A thorny tree or bush that grows in hot, dry areas, especially in the deserts of the Sinai Peninsula and the Jordan River Valley.

• Acanthus: A flowering plant with large, spiny leaves that was used as a design pattern in ancient Greek and Roman architecture.

• Algum: A rare, valuable wood from trees that King Solomon imported for building the temple in Jerusalem.

• Almond: A tree that produces edible nuts and is one of the first trees to bloom in spring in the Middle East.

• Almug: A precious wood imported by Solomon, likely sandalwood, used for making pillars and musical instruments.

• Aloe: A desert plant with thick, spiky leaves that produces a healing gel used for medicine and perfumes in biblical times.

• Apple: A round fruit with crisp flesh that grows on trees throughout the Mediterranean region.

• Apricot: A small, orange fruit with a large seed that is similar to a peach.

• Aromatic Cane: A species of fragrant reed used by the Israelites as a perfume.

• Ash: A type of tree that grows in many parts of the world, including the Middle East.

• Aspen: A tree with heart-shaped leaves that tremble in the slightest breeze.

• Balm: A fragrant resin from trees in Gilead that was used for healing wounds and as a valuable trade item.

• Barley: A grain crop that ripens earlier than wheat and was a staple food for common people in biblical times.

• Bdellium: A yellowish, fragrant resin that resembles wax and was compared to the appearance of manna in the Bible.

• Bean: A nutritious vegetable that grows in pods and was commonly eaten in ancient Israel.

• Bitter Herbs: Edible plants with a sharp, unpleasant taste that were eaten during Passover to remember the bitterness of slavery in Egypt.

• Boxthorn: A thorny shrub with small red berries that grows in dry regions of the Middle East.

• Box Tree: An evergreen tree with dense wood that was used for fine carvings and musical instruments.

• Bramble: A thorny, wild shrub that produces berries and appears in Jotham's fable about choosing a king.

• Broom: A desert shrub with small leaves and white flowers that provides shade.

• Buckthorn: A thorny shrub or small tree with berries that grows in the Mediterranean region.

• Bush: A general term for a low-growing, woody plant with multiple stems.

• Buttercup: A small, bright yellow flower that grows in fields throughout the Middle East.

• Calamus: A sweet-smelling cane plant used as an ingredient in the sacred anointing oil described in Exodus.

• Cane, Sweet Cane: A tall grass plant grown for its sweet sap.

• Caper Plant: A small shrub that grows from rocky cracks, producing edible flower buds used for seasoning.

• Carob Tree: A large evergreen tree that produces long, edible pods.

• Cassia: A cinnamon-like spice used in the holy anointing oil and as a fragrant perfume in biblical times.

• Castor Oil Plant: A plant with large leaves and seeds that produce oil.

• Cedar: A tall, fragrant evergreen tree from Lebanon that was highly prized for building temples and palaces.

• Chicory: A blue-flowering plant with a root that can be roasted and used as a coffee substitute.

• Cinnamon: An aromatic spice made from tree bark that was used in the holy anointing oil and as a perfume.

• Citron Tree: An evergreen tree that produces large, lemon-like fruits.

• Coriander: An herb with seeds that were compared to manna in the Bible and used as a spice in cooking.

• Cotton: A plant that produces soft fibers used for making cloth.

• Cucumber: A vegetable that grows on vines and was one of the foods the Israelites remembered eating in Egypt.

• Cummin: A small plant with aromatic seeds used as a spice and mentioned by Jesus when speaking of tithing.

• Cypress: A tall, cone-shaped evergreen tree valued for its durable, aromatic wood used in shipbuilding and construction.

• Dandelion: A common plant with yellow flowers and puffy seed heads that grows throughout the Middle East.

• Darnel Grass: A weed that closely resembles wheat until it matures.

• Dill: A fragrant herb used for flavoring food and mentioned by Jesus in his teachings about tithing.

• Ebony: A dark, heavy wood imported from Africa or India that was highly valued for decorative purposes.

• Endive: A leafy vegetable with a slightly bitter taste that may have been among the bitter herbs eaten at Passover.

• Fig, Fig Tree: A tree that produces sweet fruits and appears frequently in the Bible as a symbol of peace and prosperity.

• Fir Tree: An evergreen tree whose wood was used alongside cedar in building Solomon's temple.

• Flax: A plant with blue flowers whose stems provide fibers for making linen cloth and whose seeds produce linseed oil.

• Frankincense: A valuable, fragrant resin burned as incense in worship and brought as a gift to baby Jesus.

• Galbanum: A strong-smelling gum resin used as an ingredient in the sacred incense of the tabernacle.

• Gall: A bitter, poisonous plant used in the Bible to symbolize poison, suffering, or God’s judgment.

• Garlic: A bulb with a strong smell and flavor that the Israelites remembered eating in Egypt.

• Hedge: A fence made of living plants used to protect fields and vineyards.

• Henna: A plant whose leaves yield a reddish-orange dye used for coloring hair, skin, and fabric.

• Hyacinth: A spring-flowering bulb plant with clusters of fragrant flowers.

• Hyssop: A small bush used for sprinkling blood or water in purification rituals.

• Juniper: An evergreen shrub or small tree whose shade protected Elijah as he fled from Jezebel.

• Leek: A vegetable with a mild onion flavor that the Israelites remembered eating in Egypt.

• Lentil: A small, round seed from a plant in the bean family.

• Lettuce: A leafy vegetable that may have been among the bitter herbs eaten at Passover.

• Lily: A beautiful flowering plant known for their bright colors and pleasant smell.

• Lotus Bush, Lotus Tree: A thorny desert shrub that provided food and shade in wilderness areas.

• Mallow, Saltwort: A plant with edible leaves that was gathered by the poor for food during times of famine.

• Mandrake: A plant with roots resembling human figures that was believed to help with fertility.

• Melon: A sweet, juicy fruit with a hard outer skin and many seeds inside.

• Millet: A small-seeded grain used to make bread, especially during times of scarcity.

• Mint: A fragrant herb used for flavoring food and mentioned by Jesus in his teachings about tithing.

• Mulberry: A tree that produces dark, blue-purple berries that people can eat.

• Mustard: A plant that grows from a tiny seed into a large bush.

• Myrrh: A valuable, fragrant resin used in perfumes, medicines, and burial preparations.

• Myrtle: An evergreen shrub with fragrant leaves and white flowers.

• Narcissus: A bulb plant with fragrant, trumpet-shaped flowers that blooms in the spring.

• Nard, Spikenard: An expensive perfume made from the roots of a Himalayan plant.

• Nettle: A plant covered with stinging hairs that grows in neglected areas.

• Nutmeg Flower: A plant whose black seeds were used as a spice and possibly mixed with bread dough.

• Oak: A large, long-lived tree that often served as a landmark and meeting place in biblical times.

• Oil Tree, Oleaster: A small tree similar to an olive but with smaller, less valuable fruit, used for making oil.

• Oleander: A poisonous flowering shrub that grows near wadis (dry stream beds) in the Middle East.

• Olive, Olive Tree: A tree that produces oil-rich fruits central to the diet, economy, and religious life of biblical Israel.

• Onion: A bulb vegetable with a strong flavor that the Israelites remembered eating in Egypt.

• Palm, Date Palm: A tall tree with a crown of large leaves that provided food, shade, and building materials in biblical times.

• Papyrus: A tall water plant whose stems were used to make writing material, boats, and the basket that carried baby Moses.

• Pine Tree: An evergreen tree whose resinous wood was used in construction.

• Pistachio Tree: A large tree that produces edible nuts. It is closely related to the Terebinth.

• Plane Tree: A large shade tree with mottled bark that sheds in patches, mentioned in Ezekiel's riddle.

• Pomegranate: A fruit with many seeds that decorated Solomon's temple and symbolized fertility and abundance.

• Poplar: A tall tree with trembling leaves that Jacob used in his breeding of livestock.

• Prickly Alhagi: A small shrub that grows in dry, rocky places that produces a sweet from its leaves and stems.

• Quince: A yellow, aromatic fruit similar to an apple that may have been the "apple" mentioned in some Bible passages.

• Reed: A tall grass growing near water that was used for making pens, measuring rods, and musical instruments.

• Rue: A strong-smelling herb used for medicinal purposes and mentioned by Jesus in his teachings about tithing.

• Rush: A water plant similar to a reed, used for making baskets, mats, and the ark that carried baby Moses.

• Saffron: A valuable spice made from crocus flower stigmas, mentioned in the Song of Solomon as a fragrant plant.

• Sage: An aromatic herb used for flavoring food and for medicinal purposes.

• Spelt: A grain similar to wheat but with a tougher husk, used for making bread in ancient times.

• Storax Tree, Sweet Storax: A tree that produces a sweet-smelling resin used in perfumes and possibly as an ingredient in holy incense.

• Sweet Bay Tree, Bay Laurel: An aromatic evergreen tree whose leaves were used for flavoring food and making victory wreaths.

• Sycamore: A tree that produces fig-like fruits and has wood used for building.

• Tamarisk: A small, fast-growing tree or shrub with strong, durable wood.

• Terebinth: A large tree with thick branches. It is closely related to the Pistachio Tree.

• Thistle, Thorn: Prickly plants used in the Bible as symbols of the curse on the ground and of worthless people or teachings.

• Tulip: A spring-flowering bulb plant with cup-shaped flowers.

• Tumbleweed: A plant that breaks off at the root when mature and is blown by the wind.

• Vegetable: Any edible plant part grown in gardens.

• Vine, Wild Vine: A vine is any plant with a flexible stem that climbs, twines, or spreads along a surface or support.

• Walnut: A tree that produces nutritious nuts enclosed in a hard shell.

• Water Lily: A flowering plant that grows in ponds and slow streams throughout the Middle East.

• Wheat: A grain crop harvested after barley and used to make bread.

• Willow: A tree or shrub with long, narrow leaves and flexible branches.

• Wild Gourd: A climbing plant with bitter fruits.

• Wormwood: A bitter plant used as a symbol of sorrow and divine judgment in the Bible.

Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.

Plants are an important aspect of God's creation, and a major source of food and materials. Scripture refers to many plants, with their various uses.

Plants as a source of food

GEN 1:29–1:30 See also GEN 1:11–1:12, GEN 3:17–3:19, GEN 9:3; PSA 104:14

Growth of plants dependent upon soil, sun and irrigation

DEU 32:2 See also GEN 2:4–2:5; 2KI 19:26 parallel ISA 37:27; JOB 8:16–8:19; ISA 61:11; ZEC 10:1; MAT 13:3–13:8 parallels MRK 4:3–4:8, LUK 8:5–8:8; JAS 1:11

Individual plants

Aloes

NUM 24:5–24:6 See also PSA 45:8; PRO 7:17; SNG 4:13–4:14

Calamus

JER 6:20 See also SNG 4:12–4:14; ISA 43:24; EZK 27:19

Crocus

ISA 35:1–35:2

Hyssop

1KI 4:33 See also EXO 12:22; PSA 51:7; JHN 19:29

Lily

LUK 12:27 parallel MAT 6:28–6:29 See also SNG 2:1–2:2; HOS 14:5

Lotus

JOB 40:21–40:22

Mandrake

SNG 7:13 See also GEN 30:14–30:16

Mustard

MAT 13:31–13:32 parallels MRK 4:30–4:32, LUK 13:18–13:19

Myrtle

ISA 55:13 See also ISA 41:18–41:20; ZEC 1:8–1:10

Reed

EXO 2:3 See also JOB 8:11; ISA 19:6–19:7

Rose

SNG 2:1

Rush

ISA 19:6–19:7

Dictionary of Bible Themes © 1999 Martin H. Manser. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.