Jeremiah 51

REVIEW OF CHAPTER NINETEEN

I. Facts to Master

Name of the chief god of Babylon (Jeremiah 50:2; Jeremiah 51:44).

The excuse which those who attacked Israel used to justify their cruelty (Jeremiah 50:7).

The two great lions who had devoured the flock of God (Jeremiah 50:17).

Two symbolic names for Babylon (Jeremiah 50:21).

Direction from which the conquerors of Babylon would come (Jeremiah 50:41).

Nationality of the conquerors of Babylon (Jeremiah 51:11; Jeremiah 51:27-28).

Identity of the man commissioned by Jeremiah to carry a scroll to Babylon (Jeremiah 51:59).

The date when Jeremiah sent his scroll to Babylon (Jeremiah 51:59)

That which Jeremiah commanded to be done with his scroll (Jeremiah 51:63).

II. Questions to Ponder

Why does Jeremiah devote such a large amount of space to the subject of the fall of Babylon?

How would you answer the charge that what Jeremiah says here about Babylon contradicts his earlier statements about that power?

Why does Jeremiah depict the exiles weeping as they return to Zion? What is the everlasting covenant of which they speak? Jeremiah 50:4 f.

In what way had Babylon sinned against the Lord? Jeremiah 50:14

What is the main point in the comparison of the destruction of Babylon and the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah? Jeremiah 50:40

Explain the significance of the cryptic names Leb-kamai (Jeremiah 51:1) and Sheshach (Jeremiah 51:41).

What is the relationship between the Babylon oracle recorded in Jeremiah 50:1 to Jeremiah 51:58 and the scroll which Seraiah dropped into the Euphrates river?

Why has the authenticity of the Babylon oracle been questioned by some critics?

Why did Jeremiah order his scroll to be sunk in the Euphrates river?

Why do some commentators insist that Babylon will be rebuilt? Have the Babylon prophecies been literally fulfilled?

Jeremiah 51:1-5

B. Ruthless Destruction Jeremiah 50:41 to Jeremiah 51:5

TRANSLATION

(41) Behold, a people shall come from the north, a great nation and many kings shall be stirred up from the distant parts of the earth. (42) They grasp bow and spear; they are cruel and show no mercy; the noise they make sounds like the roaring sea. They ride on horses arrayed as a man for battle against you, O daughter of Babylon. (43) The king of Babylon has heard the news and his hands grow feeble, distress takes hold of him, pangs as a woman in childbirth. (44) Behold, like a lion going up from the pride of Jordan unto the perennial pasture, so will I suddenly make them run from it. The one who is chosen I will appoint over it. For who is like Me? And who will challenge Me? And who is the shepherd who can stand before Me? (45) Therefore, Hear the counsel of the LORD which He has made against Babylon and the plans which He has formulated against the land of the Chaldeans: Surely their pasture shall be shocked over what happens to them. (46) At the sound of the taking of Babylon the earth trembles and the cry is heard among the nations. (1) Thus says the LORD: I am about to raise up against Babylon and against the inhabitants of Leb-kamai a destroying wind. (2) I will send strangers to Babylon and they will winnow her and empty her land; for they shall be against her on all sides in the day of calamity. (3) Let the archer bend his bow against the archer, and against the one who rises up in his armor. Have no mercy upon her youths! Utterly destroy all of her hosts! (4) Slain shall they fall in the land of the Chaldeans, and thrust through in her streets. (5) For Israel and Judah have not been widowed of their God, the LORD of hosts; because their land is full of guilt against the Holy One of Israel.

COMMENTS

For the third time the prophet announces the approach of the conquerors of Babylon: Behold, a people shall come from the north. No doubt the prophet is presenting here a composite picture of the several conquerors who would attack the city of Babylon beginning with the Medo-Persian armies of Cyrus and concluding with Parthian armies of Mithridates II. The enemy is described as a great nation because of the size of the host. Many kings all over the world are being stirred up to the attack against Babylon (Jeremiah 50:41). The vast host surges forward towards Babylon armed for war. The sound of their coming is likened to the roar of the sea. They are cruel and ruthless warriors who show no pity to the daughter of Babylon, (i.e., the inhabitants of the city Jeremiah 50:42). The king of Babylon is petrified at the news of the approaching host. His hands become limp; distress seizes his heart like that of a woman beginning her travail (Jeremiah 50:43). One cannot read this description of the terror of the king of Babylon without thinking of what is said of Belshazzar in the Book of Daniel when he hears the prophetic interpretation of the handwriting of doom on the walls of his palace: Then the king’s countenance was changed in him, and his thoughts troubled him; and the joints of his knees smote one against another (Daniel 5:6).

Babylon’s judgment shall be that Edom (cf. Jeremiah 49:19-21). It matters nothing to the Lord whether the nation be small and insignificant like Edom or a mighty empire like Babylon. Any nation which proudly lifts itself up against the Holy One of Israel will be punished. Babylon’s conqueror will burst upon the land like a lion from the pride (jungle) of the Jordan leaping upon a helpless and unsuspecting flock. No shepherd or leader of Babylon will be able to withstand the impact of this divinely appointed one (Jeremiah 50:44). The Lord God has taken counsel against Babylon and has laid plans for the destruction of that land. The invader will make desolate the inhabitants of that land like helpless sheep (Jeremiah 50:45). The earth trembles in astonishment at the news of Babylon’s fall. The final gasping cry of Babylon is heard throughout the nations of the earth (Jeremiah 50:46).

The description of the destroyers of Babylon continues in Jeremiah 51:1-5. God is raising up against Babylon a destroying wind (Jeremiah 50:1) and strangers (Jeremiah 50:2) by means of which He will winnow or sift the inhabitants of Babylonia as a farmer winnows the chaff from the grain. The reference in Jeremiah 50:1 to Leb-kamai (ASV) is most interesting. This term means literally the heart of those who rise up against me. By this title Babylon is designated as the very heart of opposition to the Lord. But the term Leb-kamai has another meaning too, a meaning that the English reader completely misses. Leb-kamai is another example of the use of the cipher called Atbash (cf. Jeremiah 25:26) in which the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet is replaced by the last letter, the second letter by the next to the last, the third by the third from the last, etc. When Leb-kamai is decoded it spells the word Chaldeans in Hebrew.

In Jeremiah 50:3 the attacking armies are again addressed. In spite of the fact that the Babylonians stand guard with their weapons and arrayed in their armor, yet the archers are urged to attack them from without. No one is to be spared; every Chaldean soldier is to be slain in the streets of the city (Jeremiah 50:4). The reason for the slaughter is twofold. First, by means of the destruction of Babylon the Lord will prove that Israel and Judah have not been forsaken (lit., widowed) by their God. Second, the land of Babylon is full of guilt with respect to the Holy One of Israel (Jeremiah 50:5). The word translated though in the KJV and ASV is best rendered for or because and the guilt is best regarded as that of the Chaldeans and not the Israelites.

Jeremiah 51:6-10

C. An Exhortation to Israel Jeremiah 51:6-10

TRANSLATION

(6) Flee from the midst of Babylon! Let everyone save his life! Perish not because of her guilt! For it is the time of the vengeance of the LORD; He will render to her a recompense. (7) Babylon was a golden cup in the hand of the LORD, making all the earth drunken. The nations drank from its wine; therefore, nations went mad. (8) Suddenly Babylon has fallen and been broken. Wail concerning her! Take balm for her pain; perhaps she may be cured. (9) We would have healed Babylon, but she would not be healed. Forsake her and let us go each to his own land. For her judgment reaches unto heaven, and is lifted up even unto the skies. (10) The LORD has brought forth our vindication. Come! Let us recount in Zion the work of the LORD our God.

COMMENTS

The description of the destruction of Babylon is briefly interrupted by words of exhortation directed to Israel. As God begins the judgment of Babylon the chosen remnant is exhorted to flee out of the midst of the city. The idea is that the people of God must not allow themselves to become embroiled in the defense of Babylon and possibly loose their lives in that futile effort. Babylon’s destruction is an act of divine vengeance; the city is doomed to destruction (Jeremiah 51:6). Beautiful Babylon with her achievements, wealth and power, was like a golden vessel in the hand of the Lord. Many nations drank the wine of God’s wrath from that golden vessel and became as helpless and pitiable as an intoxicated man (Jeremiah 51:7). But now Babylon has served her purpose in the plan of the Almighty; she has acted out her role upon the stage of human history. The Lord will now smash Babylon as a man smashes a vessel which is no longer useful and no longer pleases him (Jeremiah 51:7).

Turning to sympathetic bystanders the prophet calls for lamentation over the fall of Babylon. Those addressed are foreigners who, whether by choice or force, have been resident in Babylon, and who therefore have an interest in the fate of that city. These are now summoned to heal Babylon, because they are now servants of the Great King and are thus obligated to render assistance to him (Jeremiah 51:8). Those who are addressed do not refuse to render the service, but their efforts are in vain. These captives nations affirm that they have honestly done what they could to prevent the destruction of Babylon and restore her to her former glory. But since their attempts have proved vain these captives think now only of their own safety: Flee out of the midst of Babylon, and save every man his life. Perhaps there is an allusion to the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah in the phrase her judgment (or punishment) reaches unto the heavens (Jeremiah 51:9). The Jewish captives in Babylon rush home to Zion to declare there what God has done to Babylon. The Lord has brought forth our righteousness, they sing. The avenging hand of God had vindicated His people. The idolatry of Israel has been sufficiently punished and God’s people are again to be accounted as righteous (Jeremiah 51:10).

Jeremiah 51:11-26

D. Divine Destruction Jeremiah 51:11-26

TRANSLATION

(11) Polish the arrows! Fill the shields! The LORD has aroused the spirit of the king of the Medes; for His purpose is against Babylon to destroy it. For it is the vengeance of the LORD, the vengeance of His Temple. (12) Set up a standard against the walls of Babylon! Make the watch strong! Set the guard! Prepare the ambushments! For the LORD has purposed and done that which He spoke against the inhabitants of Babylon. (13) O you who dwells beside many waters, abundant in treasure, your end has come, the measure of your gain. (14) The LORD of hosts has sworn by Himself: Surely I will fill you with men as with locusts and they shall lift up a shout over you. (15) He who made the earth in His strength, and established the world in His wisdom, and in His understanding spread out the heavens, (16) when He utters His voice there is a noise of waters in the heavens, and He causes vapors to arise from the end of the earth; He creates lightenings for the rain and brings forth the wind from His storehouse. (17) Every man is stupid, without knowledge! Every refiner is put to shame because of his image, for his graven image is falsehood and there is no spirit in them. (18) They are vanity, a work of delusion! In the time of their punishment they shall perish. (19) The Portion of Jacob is not like these! For He is the former of everything including the tribe of His inheritance. The LORD of hosts is His name! (20) You were My battle axe, My weapons of war! With you I broke nations in pieces, destroyed kingdoms. (21) With you I shattered horses and their riders, chariots and their drivers. (22) With you I shattered man and woman, old man and youth, young man and maiden. (23) With you I shattered shepherd and flock, husbandman and yoke, governors and leaders. (24) But I will repay Babylon and all the inhabitants of Chaldea for all the evil that they did in Zion before your eyes (oracle of the LORD). (25) Behold, I am against you, O mountain of destruction (oracle of the LORD) who destroyed all the earth! I will stretch out My hand against you and roll you down from the rocks, and will make you a burning mountain. (26) And they Shall not take from you a stone for a corner nor a stone for a foundation; but you shall be an everlasting desolation (oracle of the LORD).

COMMENTS

In Jeremiah 51:11 the agents of the divine judgment upon Babylon are identified as the Medes. Media was a country located northwest of Persia. About the year 548 B.C. Cyrus the Great was able to unite the Medes and Persians and together they became the force that toppled the mighty Babylonian empire. The Medo-Persian army was the instrument used by the Lord to execute His vengeance upon Babylon for the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (Jeremiah 51:11). The Lord Himself directs the attack against Babylon: Set up a standard against the walls of Babylon! No doubt the standards here are certain military signals which indicated the particular area of the wall which was to be attacked, Make the watch strong! Set the watchmen! The first order of business in any siege in antiquity was to blockade the city to prevent anyone from leaving or entering with supplies. Furthermore, a guard had to be posted about the camp of the besieging army lest the soldiers within the city launch a surprise attack. Prepare the ambushes! These would be small groups of soldiers strategically hidden who would press into the city when the besieged made a rally. The Lord has planned the fall of Babylon and He will execute that plan (Jeremiah 51:12).

The greatest supports of the power of Babylonia were the waters surrounding the city and the great riches which Nebuchadnezzar had accumulated. The fruitfulness of the Babylonian territory, the produce of the fields, depended on the overflowing of the Euphrates. By an extensive system of dams and canals the Babylonians had learned in very ancient times to direct the waters of the Euphrates to every area of the otherwise barren plain region of Mesopotamia. These water-courses also served to drain off marsh areas, to avert the violent inundations for which the Euphrates was notorious, and to provide a system of navigation from one end of the land to the other. The watercourses were also of the greatest importance for the defense of the country. As for the riches of the city, one has only to think of the conquests of Nebuchadnezzar. The immense booty of Nineveh, the plunder of Jerusalem, the tributes of Syria and the Phoenician states filled his coffers. It is no wonder then that the prophet addresses Babylon as the city which dwells on many waters, abundant in treasures. The mighty walls, the great waters, the fertile lands, the enormous wealth, the multitude of inhabitants, all together are helpless before the Lord of Israel who declares to mighty Babylon, Your end has come! Babylon has played her role on the stage of human history and the curtain is about to fall upon the last act of her national existence. The covetousness of Babylon has reached full measure, Her plundering, profiteering, and exorbitant taxation will soon come to an end (Jeremiah 51:13). The Lord of hosts has bound Himself by an oath that the shout (lit., vintage song) would be raised over the fallen city. To lighten their task and express their satisfaction with the yield of the crop, those who tread the grapes to produce the wine would often sing a happy song. The fact that the conquerors of Babylon sing a vintage song over the fallen city indicates that their work of conquest is yielding abundant returns. The phrase surely I will fill you with men as with the cankerworm has been taken by some commentators to refer to the enemy swarming over Babylon like the cankerworm or locust. Others feel that the Hebrew should be translated even if I fill you with men like locust, they shall etc. In this case the meaning would be that the teeming multitudes of Babylon will in no way be able to prevent the destruction of their city.

Lest there be any doubt that the Lord who has sworn to destroy Babylon has the power to make good His oath, Jeremiah inserts at this point a passage which he had used earlier in his ministry. Jeremiah 51:15-19 are all but identical with Jeremiah 10:12-16, the only verbal difference being the omission in Jeremiah 51:19 of the word Israel before the words the rod of His inheritance. The point of the passage is chat mankind and man-made idols are helpless before the Almighty God. Israel’s God has created the earth and spread out the heavens (Jeremiah 51:15); He it is that controls the rains and brings the storms (Jeremiah 51:16). In contrast to Him, men are stupid and ignorant. The skillful craftsmen who fashion images and pass them off as gods are perpetrating a gigantic hoax. The idols are lifeless and vain. Those who fashioned them will be utterly ashamed of their creations in the day of God’s judgment (Jeremiah 51:17). The idols will be unable to protect themselves in that day let alone their worshipers. In the day of their visitation they shall perish (Jeremiah 51:18). The portion of Jacob i.e., Israel’s God, is unlike any of the idols venerated in Babylon. He is Creator of everything including the tribe of His special possession, Israel. It is the God of creation, the God of Israel, the Lord of hosts who has bound Himself by oath to destroy Babylon (Jeremiah 51:19).

After establishing that the Lord is superior to all the gods of Babylon, Jeremiah proceeds to address the conqueror of Babylon: You are my battle axe and weapons of war.[414] Just as God had used Assyria and Babylon as instruments to bring judgment upon nations and upon Israel, so now He will use the Medo-Persian armies to destroy Babylon. No nation or military force will be able to stand before God’s battle axe (Jeremiah 51:20-21). The strong as well as the weak, the old as well as the young, the exalted as well as the lowly will all be shattered by the conqueror (Jeremiah 51:22-23). One cannot read these verses without recalling the earlier prophecies of Isaiah concerning Cyrus (Isaiah 45:1). By means of this mighty and powerful army the Lord will recompense Babylon for the maltreatment of the people of God. The Jews held captive in Babylon will have the satisfaction of seeing the requital of their enemy (Jeremiah 51:24).

[414] Some commentators argue that Babylon itself is the hammer of these verses and some even argue that Israel is intended.

The second major section of the Babylon oracle concludes with the Lord declaring His hostility to Babylon: Behold, I am against you,[415] O destroying mountain. The Hebrew expression translated here destroying mountains occurs in 2 Kings 23:13 where it is used of the Mount of Olives and is translated mount of corruption. The Mount of Olives evidently received this appellation because of the idolatrous rites which were performed there. In using this expression of Babylon the prophet may have had in mind the corrupting spiritual and moral influence of that nation as well as her physical destructiveness. The picture here is of an active volcano which belches forth destruction to all the earth. The expression roll you down from the rocks probably refers to a volcanic eruption during which rocks mixed with burning lava are hurled from the crater and stream down the sides of the mountain. After the fiery outburst of divine retribution Babylon will be nothing but a burned-out crater, its power for evil completely exhausted (Jeremiah 51:25). So completely burned-out is that mountain that its stones are no longer fit for building material. Babylon will never again serve as the seat of an empire; her position as first city of the world is completely shattered; her glory is gone forever. Babylon will be forever desolate (Jeremiah 51:26).

[415] This challenge formula occurs earlier in Jeremiah 21:13, Jeremiah 23:30-32, and 60:31.

Jeremiah 51:27-33

III. THE DOOM OF BABYLON Jeremiah 51:27-58

The third section of the Babylon oracle which begins in Jeremiah 51:27 emphasizes the final doom of Babylon. The attack of the enemy is again described in vivid detail (Jeremiah 51:27-33). Israel lodges a complaint before God concerning their treatment at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar. The Lord acknowledges their complaint and assures His distressed people that Babylon will be punished for her crimes (Jeremiah 51:34-40). Babylon’s demolition will mean Israel’s liberation (Jeremiah 51:41-46); Babylon’s retribution, Israel’s return (Jeremiah 51:47-53). To all of this is added a final pronouncement against Babylon (Jeremiah 51:54-58).

A. The Attack of the Enemy Jeremiah 51:27-33

TRANSLATION

(27) Lift up a standard in the land! Blow the trumpet among the nations: Sanctify against her nations! Summon against her the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, and Ashkenaz! Appoint over her a captain! Bring up horses like hairy locusts! (28) Sanctify against her nations, the kings of Media and her governors, and leaders and all the land of their dominion. (29) Then the land shall tremble and writhe, for the purposes of the LORD against Babylon stand to make the land of Babylon a desolation without inhabitant. (30) The mighty men of Babylon have ceased to fight; they sit in the strongholds; their strength has failed; they act like women. Her dwelling places are ablaze, her bars are broken. (31) Runner shall run to meet runner, messenger to meet messenger, to declare to the king of Babylon that his city is captured from one end to the other (32) and the passages have been seized, the reeds burned, and the men of war are terrified. (33) For thus says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel: The daughter of Babylon is like a threshing floor at the time it is being trampled upon; yet a little while and the time of harvest shall have come to her.

COMMENTS

Once again in this oracle the Lord calls upon the nations to make preparations for the final onslaught against Babylon. The standard and the trumpet were means of gathering and directing the operations of great hosts of men in antiquity (cf. Jeremiah 50:2; Jeremiah 51:12). Prepare i.e., consecrate or sanctify (ASV mar) the nations against her. It was the custom in that time to begin every war with sacred rites in which the soldiers consecrated themselves to the deity. The campaign against Babylon is viewed throughout this oracle as a holy war because it has to do with a work of the Lord (Jeremiah 50:25) and the vengeance of His sanctuary (Jeremiah 50:28). Ararat, Minni and Ashkenaz, located in present-day Armenia, were the northern allies of the Medes. The word translated marshal is an Assyrian word denoting a high military officer, perhaps an enlisting or mustering officer. The cavalry which would play such an important role in the conquest of Babylon is compared to a plague of locusts (cankerworm, ASV). The meaning of the word translated rough is unknown (Jeremiah 51:27). Led by the rulers of the Medes (Jeremiah 51:28) the vast army marches southward toward Babylon causing the land to tremble and be in pain at the news of their approach. God has determined to make the land of Babylon a desolation without inhabitant and that divine purpose is about to be fulfilled (Jeremiah 51:29).

The prophet turns his gaze to what is happening among the defenders of Babylon. At the approach of the enemy host the Babylonian soldiers become panic-stricken. Cowardice makes them withdraw into the strong fortification where they helplessly watch the bars and gates battered down and the dwelling places burned (Jeremiah 51:30). From every quarter Of the city the messengers hasten to the royal palace with the news that the city has fallen to the enemy (Jeremiah 51:31). The enemy has seized the passages across the river Euphrates[416] which ran through the city thus cutting off all hope of escape. The reedy swamps around Babylon are put to the torch both to cut off escape and to burn out fugitives who might have sought refuge there[417] (Jeremiah 51:32). But how can Jeremiah speak so confidently of the demise of Babylon which in his day was at the zenith of power? Jeremiah replies, Babylon is like a threshing-floor, a piece of ground made level by trampling or treading, which the Lord the God of Israel is already preparing for the harvest. It is yet a little while and the time of harvest and subsequent threshing shall come to Babylon (Jeremiah 51:33).

[416] At right angles with the river were the main streets of Babylon. At the end of each was a gate and probably steps leading down to the river. Transportation across the river in boats was provided at each of these points. Other commentators understand the passages to be the fords across the canals around Babylon. [417] Considerable disagreement about the meaning of reeds burned with fire exists among commentators. The explanation offered here is that of John Bright, op. cit., p. 357.

Jeremiah 51:34-40

B. The Complaint of Israel and the Reply of the Lord Jeremiah 51:34-40

TRANSLATION

(34) Nebuchadnezzar has devoured us, has crushed us, has set us down like an empty vessel. Like a monster he has devoured us, filled his belly with my dainties, expelled us. (35) May the violence done to me and my flesh be upon Babylon, shall the inhabitress of Zion say. May my blood be upon the inhabitants of Chaldea, shall Jerusalem say. (36) Therefore, thus says the LORD: Behold, I am about to plead your cause and execute your vengeance and I will dry up her seas and cause her fountains to fail. (37) And Babylon shall be heaps, a habitation of jackals, an astonishment and place over which one will whistle, without inhabitant. (38) They shall roar together like young lions, growl like lion’s whelps. (39) When they become hot I will prepare a feast for them; I will make them drunken that they may rejoice and them sleep a perpetual sleep from which they shall not wake (oracle of the LORD). (40) I will bring them down like sheep to slaughter, like rams with he-goats.

COMMENTS

In Jeremiah 51:34-35 Jeremiah hears as it were the bitter complaints of the Jewish captives against the Babylonians. Nebuchadnezzar has devoured and crushed Israel; he has emptied his land and caused it to stand like an empty vessel. Like some great monster of the sea or river the king of Babylon had swallowed all in which Israel delights (his delicacies). Just what monster Jeremiah had in mind as he penned these words is uncertain. It was probably a crocodile or perhaps a large serpent. The King James translation dragon is unfortunate and misleading. Nebuchadnezzar had cast out Israel i.e., he had rejected and discarded Israel as though the people of God were something worthless or repulsive (Jeremiah 51:34). For this violence, outrage and indignity Israel would see the vengeance of the Lord upon Babylon (Jeremiah 51:35). It is as though Israel is a plaintiff standing before a judge and demanding that the guilty oppressor be punished. The reference to the flesh and blood in Jeremiah 51:35 refers back to the figure of Babylon devouring Israel in the previous verse.

In response to the appeal of oppressed Israel the Lord declares that He will take up their cause and bring vengeance upon their enemies. The sea and fountain of Babylon shall dry up (Jeremiah 51:36). Probably the reference here is to the Euphrates river and to the irrigation canals which crisscrossed the country bringing fertility to an otherwise arid land. Water in many ways was more precious than gold to the ancient Babylonians since the prosperity of the land depended upon transporting the waters of the Euphrates to the inland agricultural regions. With the destruction of this elaborate irrigation and water control system, Babylon rapidly became an uninhabited desert marked by shapeless and unsightly heaps (i.e., mounds of ruins) and occupied only by jackals.[418] Those who pass by the desolate site of Babylon will hiss or whistle in astonishment at what has befallen the once proud metropolis (Jeremiah 51:37).

[418] The King James is again misleading in rendering the Hebrew word dragons. A different Hebrew word from that used in Jeremiah 51:34 is used here and commentators are in general agreement that fie word used here means jackals.

In Jeremiah’s day the Babylonians were like lion cubs growling in exultation over the spoil which they had won from conquered nations (Jeremiah 51:38). But while the Babylonians are in the midst of their greedily enjoyment the Lord will prepare for them a banquet of His own making. He will pour them out a full cup, not of wine but of wrath. Not realizing the fatal contents of that cup the Babylonians drink, become intoxicated, and fall into the drunkard’s sleepa sleep from which they never will awake (Jeremiah 51:39). The devouring lion shall become as a lamb led to the slaughter (Jeremiah 51:40). The mention of lambs, rams and he-goats in Jeremiah 51:40 may be a way of saying that all classes of the population will go down to the slaughter.

Jeremiah 51:41-46

C. Babylon’s Demolition and Israel’s Liberation Jeremiah 51:41-46

TRANSLATION

(41) How sad that Sheshak is captured, the praise of all the earth is taken! How sad that Babylon has become an astonishment among the nations! (42) The sea has gone up against Babylon; she is covered with the tumult of its waves. (43) Her cities have become an astonishment, a dry land, a wilder. ness, a land where no man dwells and no human being passes by. (44) I will punish Bel in Babylon and make him disgorge that which he has consumed. No more shall nations flow unto him. Also the wall of Babylon shall fall. (45) Go out from her midst, O My people! Let every man flee for his life from the fierce anger of the LORD. (46) Let not your heart faint nor fear because of the report in the land; for a report shall come in one year, and after that in another year a report shall come: Violence is in the land and ruler opposes ruler.

COMMENTS

Jeremiah begins this section of his oracle with a sarcastic lamentation over the fall of Babylon. The how of Jer 51:41 is not the how of amazement. The Hebrew word belongs to the vocabulary of lamentation and perhaps can best be rendered in English by how sad it is! No doubt the word is used here sarcastically. How sad it is that Sheshach, the praise of the whole earth, is captured. Sheshach is a cryptic name for Babylon (see comments on Jeremiah 25:26). How sad it is that Babylon the mighty metropolis has become a desolation and an astonishment among the nations (Jeremiah 51:41). A sea[419] of foreign invaders sweeps over the land of Babylonia (Jeremiah 51:42) leaving in its wake a desolation, a desert, a land where no man dwells (Jeremiah 51:43). The fall of Babylon will be as much a judgment upon the gods of Babylon as upon the city itself. Bel, the chief god of Babylon, will be forced to disgorge all that he has devoured of the riches of subjugated nations. No more would Babylonian conquests bring a stream of captives to the prison house of Babylon. Indeed those massive walls themselves would fall and all prisoners within would be free to return to their native lands (Jeremiah 51:44). The gods of Babylon had had their moment of glory and seeming triumph when they destroyed Jerusalem and brought the people of God into captivity. But with the fall of Babylon from a position of world power the once famous gods of Babylon dwindled into insignificance and finally oblivion.

[419] Some prefer to interpret the word sea as referring to the annual inundations of the Euphrates which even to this day render many parts of the ruins of Babylon inaccessible.

The fall of Babylon means liberation for the people of God and the prophet returns in Jeremiah 51:45-46 to this minor theme which runs throughout the Babylon oracle. He repeats what he earlier has urged (Jeremiah 50:8) that when the captives see the fierce anger of the Lord beginning to be poured out upon Babylon they should flee from the city (Jeremiah 51:45). Meanwhile they should not be disturbed by rumors of war and internal conflict for these but foreshadow that final day of doom for Babylon. Numerous upheavals and throne changes plagued Babylon after the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 B.C. The prophet warns his brethren lest these commotions disturb them and arouse premature hopes of release. One is reminded of the similar admonition of Christ concerning the wars and rumors of war which prelude the day of the Lord (Matthew 24:6; Luke 21:28).

Jeremiah 51:47-53

D. Babylon’s Retribution and Israel’s Return Jeremiah 51:47-53

TRANSLATION

(47) Therefore, the days are coming when I will punish the images of Babylon, and all her land shall be put to shame; her slain ones shall fall in her midst. (48) Heavens, earth and all in them shall sing over Babylon, for spoilers shall come to her (oracle of the LORD). (49) As Babylon has caused the slain of Israel to fall, so at Babylon shall fall the slain of all the land. (50) O you who have escaped the sword, Go! Do not stand around! Remember from afar the LORD, and let Jerusalem come to your mind. (51) We are ashamed for we have heard reproach; shame has covered our faces for strangers have come unto the sanctuaries of the house of the LORD. (52) Therefore, behold, -days are coming (oracle of the LORD) when I will punish her graven images, and in all her land the wounded shall groan. (53) If Babylon should go up to the heavens, and if she makes her lofty fortifications inaccessible, yet from Me destroyers shall come to her (oracle of the LORD).

COMMENTS

Using a formula which he has previously used some fourteen times, Behold, the days come, Jeremiah develops anew the theme of the divine vengeance upon Babylon and the subsequent vindication of Israel. The threat against Bel in Jeremiah 51:44 is now expanded to include all the idols of Babylon (cf. also Jeremiah 50:2). Realizing that they have no higher power to whom they can turn the idolaters of Babylon are utterly confounded and ashamed. The defenders of Babylon are wounded and slain in the very midst of the city and the gods are unable to intervene on their behalf (Jeremiah 51:47). When the destroyer from the north, the Medo-Persian armies, capture Babylon the whole universe rejoices (Jeremiah 51:48). Heaven and earth rejoice because once again the Lord has demonstrated His wisdom, power and justice; once again it becomes evident that He and not Satan is the real Ruler of this universe. The sin of Babylon against Israel shall be recompensed. Just as Babylon had caused so many of Israel to fall in battle, so many from all over the land of[420] Babylonia shall be slain when Babylon fails (Jeremiah 51:49).

[420] The Hebrew word can also be translated earth. Keil thinks this verse refers to the multitudes from all over the world who might be in Babylon at the time the city falls.

The prophet next turns to those who have escaped the sword of divine vengeance against Babylon. He bids thee exiles to remember the Lord and Jerusalem and not to tarry in Babylonia (Jeremiah 51:50). But the captives are so filled with grief and remorse at what has happened to their Temple that they seem not to hear or acknowledge the joyful prophetic exhortation of Jer 51:50. We are confounded, dismayed, confused because strangers have entered into the sacred sanctuaries of the Lord’s house thus profaning them. The Babylonian victory over Jerusalem was regarded by the heathen as a sign of triumph for their gods. Those Israelites who tried to remain faithful to the Lord alone were subjected to constant reproach and ridicule by their neighbors (Jeremiah 51:51). But again the Lord reminds those captives of what He has previously stated in this oracle, that the days are coming when He will vindicate Himself by executing judgment on the gods of Babylon (Jeremiah 51:52). Though the city should raise up her defensive walls and towers even to the heavens, yet the city will not be able to withstand the assault of the destroyer sent against her by the Lord (Jeremiah 51:53).

Jeremiah 51:54-58

E. The Final Pronouncement Against Babylon Jeremiah 51:54-58

TRANSLATION

(54) Hark! A cry from Babylon, and great destruction from the land of the Chaldeans. (55) For the LORD is destroying Babylon, silencing her great noise. Her waves roar like many waters, the noise of their voice is given forth. (56) For a destroyer shall come against her, against Babylon, and her mighty men are taken, their bows shattered, for a God of recompense is the LORD; He will surely recompense. (57) And I will cause her princes, wise. men, governors, leaders and mighty men to drink and they shall sleep a perpetual sleep and never awake (oracle of the King, the LORD of hosts is His name). (58) Thus says the LORD of hosts: The wide wall of Babylon shall be utterly razed, and her high gates shall be put to the torch. Thus people labor for nothing and nations get weary only for fire.

COMMENTS

With prophetic ear Jeremiah can hear the cry at Babylon as the destruction of the city commences (Jeremiah 51:54). The foe sweeps into Babylon like a great sea, its roar drowning out the great voice (the tumult) of the city (Jeremiah 51:55). The military arm of Babylon is crushed, the defensive weapons are destroyed (Jeremiah 51:56). The leaders of Babylon will drink the cup of God’s wrath and fall into a helpless stupor that they may not be able to defend the city. Indeed they will be slain in their drunkenness and will sleep a perpetual sleep, the sleep of death (cf. Jeremiah 51:39). The Lord of hosts, the King of creation, has spoken it and it shall come to pass (Jeremiah 51:57). The broad walls of Babylon, which must have appeared impregnable to the captives there, will be overthrown and the gates of the city will be burned. Ancient testimony about the dimensions of the walls of Babylon is contradictory. Herodotus, the Greek historian, estimated these walls to have been more than 350 feet high. On the basis of excavation at the ancient site of Babylon modern scholars estimate the walls to have been about 60 or 70 feet high and about 40 feet wide.[421] Herodotus further testifies that in the circuit of the wall of Babylon were a hundred gates, all of brass, with brazen lintels and side-posts.[422] These gates will be burned i.e., attacked, destroyed and melted down. Countless thousands of workers from many nations of the world labored to make the citadel of Babylon impregnable. But when the Lord begins to pour out His wrath upon that city all of their weary labor will be proved to have been in vain; all the work of their hands will be set to the torch. It is very appropriate that Jeremiah closes the Babylon oracle with a quote from his contemporary Habakkuk: The peoples shall labor for vanity, and the nations for fire; and they shall be weary (cf. Habakkuk 2:13).

[421] Streane, op. cit., p. 342.

[422] Herodotus I. 179.

The abiding lesson in all this is succinctly stated in Jeremiah 51:56: The Lord is a God of recompense. He will surely requite. The God of the Bible is a God of judgment however much moderns may wish it otherwise. He will require, i.e., render the full payment, to any individual or nation that despises Him and mocks His word. Be not deceived, God is not mocked; whatsoever a man sows that shall he also reap (Galatians 6:7).

Jeremiah 51:59-64

IV. THE HISTORY OF THE BABYLON PROPHECY Jeremiah 51:59-64

TRANSLATION

(59) The word which Jeremiah the prophet commanded Seraiah the son of Neriah, the son of Maaseiah, when he went with Zedekiah, king of Judah, to Babylon in the fourth year of his reign. Seraiah was the chief quartermaster. (60) NOW Jeremiah had written all of the misfortune which would come upon Babylon on one scroll, all of these words which are written concerning Babylon. (61) Jeremiah said to Seraiah: When you come to Babylon see that you read aloud all these words. (62) Then you shall say: O Lord, You have spoken concerning this place that you would cut it off so that there would be no living in it, neither man nor beast, because it shall be an everlasting desolation. (63) And it shall come to pass when you have finished reading aloud this scroll you shall bind a stone to it and cast it into the midst of Euphrates (64) and say: Thus shall Babylon sink, and shall not arise because of the calamity which I am about to bring against her, and they shall be wearied. Thus far are the words of Jeremiah.

COMMENTS

In the fourth year of his reign king Zedekiah made a trip to Babylon to meet his overlord Nebuchadnezzar. The purpose of this trip is not stated and thus commentators are left to speculate as to why it was undertaken. In that same year a number of ambassadors from the neighboring countries had assembled in Jerusalem to map plans for a new rebellion against the Chaldeans hegemony (chap. 27). Hearing of this conclave, Nebuchadnezzar summoned Zedekiah to Babylon that he might reaffirm his loyalty and renew his vassal oath. Accompanying Zedekiah on the trip was Seraiah the chief chamberlain (not quiet prince as in KJV) whose job it was to prepare in advance the royal chambers. No doubt Seraiah would ride one day’s journey ahead of the royal party to make all necessary arrangements at the next halting place along the way. Seraiah was a brother of Baruch,[423] Jeremiah’s faithful scribe, and a friend of the prophet (Jeremiah 51:59).

[423] Both Baruch (Jeremiah 32:12) and Seraiah are said to be sons of Neriah.

When Jeremiah learned of the trip to Babylon he seized the opportunity to secure the help of Seraiah in carrying out a very special mission. The prophet gathered together into one book-roll all the oracles against Babylon which he had written or uttered up until the fourth year of Zedekiah. Probably the reason Jeremiah was careful to use one roll (ASV mar) is because a single roll could be handled more easily and safely than two. The phrase even all these words which are written concerning Babylon points back to the content of Chapter s 50-51. Seraiah was given the scroll and commanded to read it aloud in Babylonia (Jeremiah 51:61).

As he opens the scroll he is to summarize its contents (Jeremiah 51:62) before he begins to read. When the reading has been completed he is instructed to bind a stone about the scroll and cast it into the midst of the Euphrates (Jeremiah 51:63). As he does so he is to cry thus shall Babylon sink, and shall not rise again (Jeremiah 51:64).

The words, they shall be weary (in Hebrew, one word) are the last words of the Babylon prophecy (cf. Jeremiah 51:58) of Chapter s 50-51. The repetition of the word by Seraiah serves to join together the symbolic act and the prophecy which has just been read.

Some questions about this episode need to be answered. To whom was Seraiah to read the scroll? Probably not to the Babylonians or even to a large assembly of Jews as this would be fraught with great danger to Seraiah and possibly even to Zedekiah himself. Rather this whole action was performed before certain trustworthy witnesses who would be able to testify in later days as to what they had heard and seen. But what was the purpose of this reading? With respect to the city of Babylon it was an announcement of doom. In view of the circumstances of this journey to Babylon the announcement of judgment is even more significant. While the king of Judah was publicly casting himself in homage before the Chaldean throne, Seraiah was to cast a roll in the Euphrates on which was prophesied the destruction of Babylon and the deliverance of Israel. With respect to God the reading of the scroll was a pledge to His people that He would intervene on their behalf and bring them out of their bondage. Throughout the Years of the exile the people of God could call upon Him to make good the promises contained in this oracle. With respect to the Israelites the reading of the scroll would be a great comfort and no doubt those who heard the reading and witnessed the sinking were called upon to recite again and again the wonderful message. Still another question which needs to be answered is why was the Babylon scroll sunk in the Euphrates river? The sinking of the scroll was not an act of sympathetic magic such as was practiced among the heathen. By dramatically acting out an event pagan religious leaders believed that they magically were setting the wheels of fate in motion which would actually bring the event to pass. But Jeremiah, the man of God, would certainly not authorize such a superstitious act. The sinking of the scroll in the Euphrates was simply a symbolic act such as was common to the prophetic ministries. The act was a visual aid to the message proclaimed in the scroll; it foretold the doom of Babylon.

A final question of importance: What is the relationship between the scroll sunk in the Euphrates river and the Babylon prophecy of Jer 50:2 to Jeremiah 51:58? As already noted, some feel that the situation reflected in the Babylon oracle is not that of the fourth year of Zedekiah. They have therefore proposed that when Jeremiah rewrote the scroll which he sent to Babylon he added many similar threats against Babylon. For example, those words which suggested that the Temple has already been destroyed under this theory could be assigned to a date subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem. While this theory has much to command it the present writer does not feel that it is necessary. The impression left in Jeremiah 51:60 and in Seraiah’s repetition of the last Hebrew word of Jer 51:58 (cf. Jeremiah 51:64) is that the scroll which he read in Babylon was identical with the prophecy of Jer 50:2 to Jeremiah 51:58.

SPECIAL STUDY[424]

[**424] **The material in this special study appeared originally in The Seminary Review, XVII (Fall, 1970).

THE FALL OF BABYLON: A PROBLEM IN PROPHETIC INTERPRETATION

In comparison with their treatment of other foreign nations Isaiah and Jeremiah had a great deal to say about the fall of Babylon.1 As regards the fulfillment of these prophecies two schools of thought have arisen. One view is that ancient Babylon will be restored, become once again the center of sin, and then he destroyed finally by eschatological judgments. This view might be called the futuristic view. Another view is that Babylon was destroyed once and for all and will never be restored. This might be designated as the historical view. The purpose of this study is to answer this question: Is the fall of Babylon as prophesied by Isaiah and Jeremiah an historical event of the past, or does it await a future fulfillment?

There are far-reaching involvements in the resolution of the question about to be considered. The ultimate issue underlying this whole discussion is: How literally are Old Testament prophecies to be interpreted? Some insight into this basic hermeneutical issue can be gained by presenting the arguments for and against the futuristic and historical views of the fall of Babylon.

I. THE FUTURISTIC VIEW OF BABYLON’S FALL

The view that the destruction of Babylon is yet future is defended by Newton,2 Pember,3 Seiss,4 Newell,5 and others. Five lines of argument are offered in support of this position.

A. The Argument from Eschatology

It is the contention of the futuristic school of interpretation that in context the fall of Babylon is directly related to an eschatological setting. Certain passages relate the fall of Babylon to the Day of the Lord and to the Millennial Kingdom.

1. Babylon’s fall and the Day of the Lord

The futuristic interpreters insist that Isaiah 13:6; Isaiah 13:9; Isaiah 13:13 definitely establish the setting for the fall of Babylon as the Day of the Lord. To these interpreters the Day of the Lord is always an eschatological event. Since in Isaiah 13:2-16 the terminology Day of the Lord appears these verses must have a future fulfillment. But if these verses have a future fulfillment then it would seem to be impossible to interpret Jeremiah 51:17 through 20 which describe the overthrow of Babylon as having been fulfilled in the past.6 The conclusion is therefore offered that since the fall of Babylon as prophesied in Scripture is to take place in the setting of the Day of the Lord; and since the Day of the Lord is yet future, then it follows that the destruction of Babylon yet awaits fulfillment.

2. Babylon’s fall and the Millennial Kingdom

The futuristic interpreters point out that the prophecy of Babylon’s fall not only relates to the Day of the Lord but also to the events which mark the beginning of the Millennium. The passage which most clearly supports this contention is Isaiah 14:1 to Isaiah 7:7 James Gray argues that there are at least three things in these verses concerning Israel’s history which have not come to pass: (1) God has not yet set them in their own land (Jeremiah 14:1); (2) Israel does not yet possess the peoples of the earth for servants and handmaids (Jeremiah 14:2); (3) Israel has not yet taken them captive whose captives they were, nor ruled over their oppressors (Jeremiah 14:2).8 It is asserted that those who regard the fall of Babylon as historically complete must spiritualize these verses or pass them over completely. The futuristic interpreters categorically reject the suggestion that these promises of peace, prosperity and power have been fulfilled in the history of Israel.9

Thus Scripture makes Babylon’s fall contemporaneous with two concurrent eventsthe forgiveness of Israel and the coming Day of the Lord. Even if it could be shown that the desolation of Babylon and its land had reached a point which adequately answers to predictions of Scripture respecting it, a revival of Babylon would still be necessary in order for Scripture to be accomplished. Newton summarizes the argument when he writes: Babylon can only be finally destroyed at the time and under the circumstances specified in the Scripture.10

B. The Argument from History

A second line of argument used to support the futuristic view of Babylon’s fall is the argument from history. It is affirmed that the record of history and the prediction of Scripture are at variance with one another if the fall of Babylon is an event of the past. Scriptural prophecy is alleged to contradict the historical record on at least two points: (1) the suddenness of Babylon’s fall; and (2) the catastrophic nature of Babylon’s fall.

1. The suddenness of Babylon’s fall

The futuristic interpreters argue that the Scripture indicate a sudden destruction of Babylon whereas history records no such sudden destruction by which that city became a desolation. Isaiah 47, for example, indicates that the mistress of kingdoms would suffer loss of children and widowhood in one day. Both the loss of commercial relationships with other nations and depopulation would come upon Babylon suddenly and completely (in their full measure). But the continuous history of Babylon can be traced through many centuries subsequent to the capture of that city of Cyrus. This fact seems to contradict the prophetic picture of Babylon’s fall as given by Isaiah 47. Furthermore, Babylon will be destroyed as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah (Jeremiah 13:19).11 The destruction of these cities was not protracted through many centuries but was the result of a supernatural stroke. So Babylon’s destruction is to be brought about suddenly and the weapons of judgment are to be largely elemental. The heavens and earth will become disordered and water will swallow Up the site upon which the city stands (Isaiah 13:13; Jeremiah 51:42).12 Because Babylon did not suddenly become a desolation, the futuristic interpreters argue that the prophecies concerning the fall of this city must await fulfillment in the future.

2. The catastrophic nature of Babylon’s fall

The catastrophic nature of Babylon’s fall is indicated in the following verses:

Every one that is found shall be thrust through; and every one that is taken shall fall by the sword. Their infants also shall be dashed in pieces before their eyes; their houses shall be rifled, and their wives ravished (Isaiah 13:15-16).

The language of these two verses is the most descriptive that could be employed to picture the total, pitiless and barbaric slaughter of the inhabitants of Babylon. The argument is advanced that nowhere in the history of Babylon’s downfall did a destruction of human life occur in any degree comparable to that which is pictured by these verses.13

A second passage indicates the catastrophic nature of the destruction of the city itself.

Come against her from the utmost border; open her store-houses; cast her up as heaps, and destroy her utterly; let nothing of her be left (Jeremiah 50:26).

This verse probably means that all the property found in Babylon would be collected and then burned with the city. But such a catastrophic destruction has not been literally fulfilled by any of Babylon’s conquerors.14

From the futuristic view point the prophecies of a sudden and yet complete destruction and desolation of Babylon have not been fulfilled. History reveals that Babylon never was the object of such a judgment but on the contrary has persisted as a commercial center and political community even to the present.15 In view of this argument from history Newell concludes it appears impossible that the great prophecies concerning Babylon’s final overthrow. have been finally fulfilled.16

C. The Argument from the Present

The third line of evidence advanced to support the futurity of Babylon’s fall is the argument from the present. It is affirmed that many passages which refer to Babylon’s desolation present a picture which seems to contradict the existing condition of the city. The following excerpts from the Babylon prophecies make clear what the existing state of Babylon should be if the prophecies have been fulfilled.

It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation: neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall shepherds make their flocks to lie down there. For out of the north there cometh a nation against her, which shall make her land desolate, and none shall dwell therein: they are fled, they are gone, both man and beast. And they shall not take of you a stone for foundations; but thou shalt be desolate for ever, saith the Lord (Isaiah 13:20; Jeremiah 50:3; Jeremiah 51:26).

The futuristic interpreters do not feel that the present condition of the site of ancient Babylon corresponds to this prophetic picture of desolation. To be sure Babylon has experienced widespread ruin and damage and these interpreters do not wish to undervalue or hide the extent of the ruin. But thus far only premonitory blows have fallen against Babylon.17 Seiss maintains that Babylon, in all the deep calamities and desolations which have come upon her, never yet experienced all that has been thus prophesied.18

In contradiction to the prophecies of the perpetual desolation of Babylon flourishing villages exist today on the site of that metropolis. One city of more than ten thousand population probably lies within the walls of the ancient city.19 Larkin argues that it has never been true that neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there (Isaiah 13:20). Nor can it be said and they shall not take of you a stone for a corner, nor a stone for foundations (Jeremiah 51:26) for many towns and cities have been built from the ruins of Babylon. Hillah was entirely constructed from debris of the city, and even in the houses of Bagdad Babylonian-stamped brick may be frequently noticed.20 Newton emphasizes the fact that the LAND of Babylon has never yet experienced the desolation predicted and he cites numerous travelers who attest to the fertility of the LAND of Babylon.21

The futuristic interpreters feel that the prophecies concerning the destruction of Babylon have not yet passed into history. This being the case, they argue, three alternatives are left to the interpreter: (1) he can deny the inspiration of the prophets themselves; (2) he can boldly deny the facts and argue against realities; (3) he can speak the truth and say that Babylon has not yet received its final blow.22 Whether or not this exhausts the possible alternatives must be decided after the case for the historical view of Babylon’s fall is heard.

D. The Argument from Revelation 17-18

A more positive argument supporting the futuristic interpretation is found in Revelation 17-18. It is important to note that most of those who hold that Babylon is yet to be destroyed expound this view in exegeting Revelation 17-18.23 The argument is that two Babylons are described in the Book of Revelationmystical Babylon and literal Babylon. Literal Babylon will be restored at the end of time and then destroyed by eschatological judgments.

1. The two Babylons of Revelation

The key point in the argument from the Book of Revelation is that John is describing two Babylons. In Revelation 17 John speaks of a woman called Mystery, Babylon the Great, the Mother of Harlots and Abominations of the Earth. In chapter 18 John speaks of a city called Babylon the Great. Pember argues that the woman and the city cannot symbolize the same thing because what is said of the one does not apply to the other. The woman is destroyed by the ten kings, (Jeremiah 17:16) while the kings of the earth in the next chapter bewail and lament (Jeremiah 18:9) the destruction of the city. The city is not destroyed by the kings but by a sudden visitation by God in the form of a fire and earthquake. Furthermore, the first verse of chapter 18 (after these things) indicates that it is after the destruction of the woman that the destruction of the city occurs.24 Newell adds the following distinction: The particular sin of Babylon in chapter 17 is spiritual fornication; of Babylon in chapter 18, evil commercialism.25 By such lines of argumentation the conclusion is reached that the woman and the city are not one and the same. Pember states that whatever may be intended by the Babylon of the seventeenth chapter, it is, at least, something altogether distinct from that of the eighteenth.26 These interpreters make a distinction between Mystic Babylon and Literal Babylon (Newell); Ecclesiastical Babylon and Eshatological Babylon (Bloomfield); Mystical Babylon and Commercial Babylon (Larkin). Mystical Babylon is the Devil’s church through the ages; commercial Babylon is the ancient city on the Euphrates restored.

2. The restoration of literal Babylon

According to the futuristic school, Revelation 18 describes the reconstructed Babylon of the last days. In chapter 17 John dealt chiefly with symbols and an angel added an explanation. According to this view, no symbols are used in chapter 18 and no explanation is therefore needed. Govett insists that this means the chapter must be taken literally.27 Larkin contends that since symbolical Babylon was destroyed in chapter 17 the city of chapter 18 must be literal Babylon. Since no such city exists today, the city of Babylon must be rebuilt at some point in the future.28 The last world monarchy, with Antichrist at its head will make the restored city the seat of its government and the center of a federation of the God-defying nations of the earth.29

3. The final destruction of Babylon

According to the futuristic interpreters, Revelation 18 also describes the overthrow of the future metropolis of restored Babylon. The chapter begins with the angelic announcement of doom: Fallen, Fallen is Babylon the Great: God’s people (in this case, godly Jews) are warned to flee out of Babylon.30 The direct and catastrophic nature of Babylon’s final fall is indicated. Babylon’s destruction will come in one hour (Jeremiah 51:10) and in that one hour the city shall be made desolate (Jeremiah 51:19). The city will be destroyed by fire (Jeremiah 51:8-9; Jeremiah 51:18) which harmonizes with Isaiah 13:19 As when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. The awful, perpetual curse of desolation that will follow the execution of the judgment (Jeremiah 51:2; Jeremiah 51:22-23). The kings and merchants of the earth mourn over the destruction of the great commercial metropolis (Jeremiah 51:9-11; Jeremiah 15-19).

Little harmony exists among the interpreters as to who will destroy eschatological Babylon. Seiss believes that the final judgment upon great Babylon is so miraculous and direct from heaven that earthly agents have but little to do with it, if anything.31 Govett believes the judgment will be executed by Israel just before the nation is swallowed up by God.32 Bloomfield, on the other hand, feels that the city will be destroyed by the soldiers of Antichrist probably by means of an atomic bomb.33

Such then is the argument from the Book of Revelation. After the fall of ecclesiastical Babylon, literal Babylon will be rebuilt, will become a great commercial center, and will be destroyed by echatological judgments.

E. The Argument from Zechariah’s Vision

Another line of positive testimony which is brought forth in support of the futuristic interpretation is Zechariah’s vision of the woman in an ephah (Jeremiah 5:5-11). The prophet sees a woman called wickedness sitting in an ephah (symbol of commerce) carried to the land of Shinar by two winged women. According to Bloomfield the woman symbolizes a wicked, universal system or Satan’s church.34 This prophecy was delivered subsequent to Babylon’s captivity and at least half a lifetime after Babylon had been conquered by the Medes and Persians. Newell supposes this vision to portray the final concentration of wickedness in the reconstructed Babylon in the land of Shinar.35 This passage is regarded as confirmatory proof that the ancient city of Babylon is to be rebuilt and become the commercial center of the world.36

The strength or weakness of these five lines of argument offered by the futuristic school of interpreters must be evaluated in the light of the case put forward by the historical school of interpretation.

II. THE HISTORICAL VIEW OF BABYLON’S FALL

In contrast to the futuristic view of Babylon’s fall the historical school holds that the Old Testament prophecies relating to the fall of Babylon have already been fulfilled. Among the advocates of this view are Alexander37 Franz Delitzach,38 Ironsides,39 and George Adam Smith.40 In order to appreciate this view it will first be necessary to set forth concisely the hermeneutical framework within which these scholars interpret the Babylon prophecies.

A. Hermeneutical Perspective of the Historical School

This historical view of Babylon’s fall is set forth within a very different hermeneutical framework from that of the futuristic view. Three important principles govern the interpretation of the Babylon prophecies by those who hold the historical view.

1. The principle of generic prophecy

One principle which is employed by the historical school is that predictive prophecy is sometimes generic. Alexander speaks of the difficulty of harmonizing all the details of the Babylon prophecies with the capture of that city by Cyrus. He then adds:

The true solution of this difficulty is that the prediction is generic, not specific; that it is not a detailed account of one event exclusively, but a prophetic picture of the fall of Babylon considered as a whole, some of the traits being taken from the first, and some from the last stage of the fatal process, while others are indefinite or common to all.41

On this principle of an ideal event the historical school feels itself under no obligation to demonstrate a complete coincidence of prophecy and history in regard to the fall of Babylon.

2. Principle of perspective shortening

A second rule of interpretation employed by the historical school is the principle of perspective shortening. According to this principle events which are widely separated in time are sometimes blended as though they were continuous. Naegelsbach believes that the Babylon prophecies are an example of that prophetic gaze which, as it were, sees in one plain that which in reality is extended through many successive stages of time.42 The prophet brings together in one paragraph, and sometimes one verse, the conquest, destruction, and desolation of Babylon whereas in reality these were accomplished in the course of centuries.43 Because of this principle the historical school does not feel compelled to find the fulfillment of every detail of the prophecies of Babylon’s fall in the capture of Cyrus or anyone particular calamity which befell the city.

3. Principle of poetic license

A third principle which undergirds the historical interpretation of Babylon’s fall is this: Allowance must be made for imagery, hyperbolic expression, and poetic diction in predictive prophecy. This must be the case, for instance, in such passages as Isaiah 13:10For the stars of heaven and the constellations thereof shall not give their light; the sun shall be darkened in its going forth, and the moon shall not cause its light to shine. This must be understood as metaphorical because the revolutions and destructions of nations are often represented in the Scriptures under this image.44 It is therefore considered to be unfair for anyone to argue that the prophecy of Babylon’s fall is unfulfilled because there was no celestial disruption when that city fell to the Medo-Persian armies. Hyperbolic elements might be also found in the prophecies that Babylon will become an uninhabited desolation; that not a stone from the city will be used in building; that the fall of the city will be accompanied by a slaughter of man, women and children.

B. Rebuttal to the Futuristic Arguments

It is necessary now to ask this question: What rebuttal does the historical school of interpretation have to offer to the five lines of argument advanced by the futuristic school?

1. The eschatological argument

The futuristic school holds that since the fall of Babylon is prophesied in connection with the Day of the Lord and the Millennial Kingdom it must be a future event. The historical school argues in reply that the Day of the Lord as described in Isaiah 13:2-16 is not an eschatological event. The prophet is relating the burden of Babylon (Jeremiah 13:1) in these verses. Hence the logical inference from context is that the language Day of the Lord as here used refers to the calamity of Babylon’s fall. As for the Millennium the historical interpreters would simply insist that such passages as Isaiah 14:1-7 refer to the return from Babylonian captivity and not to any eschatological restoration of Israel.

2. The argument from history

The historical school of interpretation contends that the prophecies regarding Babylon’s fall do not relate to one specific historical situation but to an ideal fall of the city. These interpreters feel that when the principles of generic prophecy, perspective shortening, and hyperbolic utterance are applied to the Babylon prophecies it is evident that they have been fulfilled as much as they shall ever be. The definite historical beginning of the ideal fall of Babylon is indicated in the prophecies of the coming of the Medes (Isaiah 13:17; Isaiah 21:2-3; Jeremiah 51:11; Jeremiah 51:28). Cyrus is named as the leader in the expedition against Babylon (Isaiah 44:28; Isaiah 45:1). Because of these definite historical allusions the historical school of interpreters cannot see how the fall of Babylon could be an eschatological event.45

3. Argument from the present

The futuristic school argues that the existing condition of the site of ancient Babylon does not completely fulfill the picture of utter desolation described by the prophets. The historical school grants that there are some predictions against Babylon which have not been literally fulfilled but this they consider unnecessary. Cheyne contends that the veracity of prophecy is not dependent upon circumstantial fulfillment.46 The following statement of Orelli reflects the general attitude of the historical school toward the town of Hillah which is located on or near the site of Babylon.

In sight of the ruined plains of Babylon it would be petty dogmatism to point to the present settlements there which are only important through their contrast to the former greatness and splendor of the imperial capital.47

Even more straightforward is the contention of Newman, a nineteenth-century visitor to the site of Babylon.

In no sense is the Moslem town of Hillah, with its ten thousand inhabitants, the restoration of the ancient city. The walls, the temples, the palaces, the dwellings of Babylon, have not been rebuilt. The Once proud city is a desolation without an inhabitant.48

4. Babylon in the Book of Revelation

While the futuristic interpreters distinguish between the Babylon of Revelation 17 and that of chapter 18 the historical interpreters, as a rule, do not. Whatever interpretation is given to the harlot of Revelation 17 is also given to the metropolis of chapter 18. Among the interpreters who reject any reference to literal Babylon in Revelation, three views prevail. Some hold that John’s Babylon is the figurative application of that name to a totally different city, viz., Rome.49 Others hold that the New Testament Babylon is the apostate church.50 A third group holds that the term Babylon in Revelation applies to a system or civilization rather than to any specific geographical center.51

However diverse their explanations of John’s Babylon may be, these interpreters are convinced that no reference to literal Babylon is intended by the Patmos Seer. They feel that the notion that literal Babylon is to be rebuilt is in conflict with the Old Testament prophecies which indicate Babylon is to be destroyed and never again inhabited.52 Furthermore, John’s Babylon is contrasted with that of the Chaldees in that the latter was built upon a plain while the former is characterized by the seven mountains on which it sits.53 For these reasons the literalistic interpretation is rejected and a symbolical application for the name Babylon in the Book of Revelation is suggested.

5. Zechariah’s vision

The futuristic interpreters understand the vision of the woman in an ephah to indicate that the land of Shinar will become a great center of evil commercialism. The historical interpreters regard this vision as simply an illustration that iniquity is now removed from the Holy Land and taken to Babylonia. Shinar in this passage is a symbol of the secular world which wars against the truth, viz., Satan’s kingdom of wickedness.54

III. THE HISTORICAL DECLINE OF BABYLON

Because of considerations of space only a brief outline of the stages in the decline of Babylon can be given here.

A. The Persian Period

1. The capture of Babylon by Cyrus (539 B.C.). The armies of Babylon were crushed at Opis on the Tigris. The seizure of Babylon itself was relatively peaceful. The city remained a great metropolis.
2. The capture of Babylon by Darius (522-521 B.C.) Herodotus (III. 151-159) reports a siege of almost two years. Darius destroyed one of the three broad walls which guarded the city and tore down the hundred gates of which Babylon was so proud.
3. The capture of Babylon by Xerxes (482 B.C.). The temple E-sagila was torn down. Quarters of the city that had been pillaged remained uninhabited and fell into ruins. Commerce dwindled; industry flagged. So thoroughly did Xerxes ravage Babylon that barely a half-dozen tablets have survived from the remainder of his reign over that city. Babylonia lost its identity through incorporation with Assyria and was henceforth ferociously taxed.55

At. Under the later Persian kings Babylon experienced a brief revival but was not completely restored.

B. The Greek Period

1. Alexander the Great attempted to restore Babylon in 331 B.C. With the death of that great king the project was abandoned.

2. In the twenty-five years after the death of Alexander Babylon was sacked and put to the torch at least seven times.56

3. The founding of Seleucia sometime between 307 and 300 B.C. by Seleucus Nicator I (312-281 B.C.). The new city, some ninety miles away from Babylon, was populated with colonists from Babylon.

4. Between 160 and 140 B.C. the city was taken by rival armies at least four times.57 With the capture of the city by the Parthian king Mithridates I, the period of Greek dominance in Babylonia came to an end.

C. The Parthian Period

1. Nine years after the Parthians gained control of Babylonia the city fell once again, this time into the hands of Antiochus VII Sidetes (130 B.C.).
2. In 127-126 B.C. Babylon was conquered by Hyspaosines, the fifth conquest of the city since July 141 B.C.
3. Between 126 and 123 B.C. Himeros, a Parthian, dealt a death blow to the ancient city. He burned the marketplace of Babylon and some of the temples and completely destroyed the better part of the city. Many of the inhabitants were sent to Media as slaves.
4. In 122 B.C. Mithridates II recaptured the city. The preceding survey has indicated that subsequent to the fall of Babylon in 539 B.C. that city suffered innumerable sieges, captures and calamities. No fewer than eighteen times did Babylon fall to an enemy. With few exceptions each successive conqueror treated the mighty metropolis with more severity than did his predecessor. At 10 B.C. all primary information about the city of Babylon disappears. From this time on classical historians, geographers, naturalists, travelers and commentators must supply the information concerning the city of Babylon. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus in the first century B.C. relates that only a small part of ancient Babylon was inhabited in his day (II. 9.9). Strabo the Greek geographer (63 B.C.-19 A.D.) describes Babylon as being in great part deserted (XVI. 1.5). Pausanias, the Greek traveler and geographer of the second Christian century, declares that nothing remained of Babylon except the temple of Belus and the walls of the city (VIII. 33.3). Lucian (ca. 129-180 A.D.) the Greek sophist and satirist says that Babylon will soon have to be searched for like Nineveh of which not a trace remained in his day.58

Among the Latin writers the testimony concerning the condition of Babylon is similar. Pliny (23-79 A.D.), the Roman polymath, states that while the temple of Bel is still standing in all other respects the place has gone back to a desert.59 The Roman historian Dio Cassius describes Trajan’s visit to Babylon in which he found only mounds and stones and ruins.60

Jewish sources confirm the picture of the desolate state of Babylon in the first centuries B.C. and A.D. Josephus describes how the Jews at Babylon were subjected to persecution by the native people and abandoned the city in the middle of the first Christian century (Ant. XV. 9.8, 9). The Talmud prescribed certain benedictions which one was to utter when he saw the ruins of Babylon (Berakoth 57b).61

In Christian literature Babylon is mentioned in 1 Peter 5:13. This passage has been used to prove that Babylon in the first century was a thriving city with a Jewish population sufficiently large enough to demand the ministry of the apostle Peter. For a number of reasons62 it is best to reject the literal interpretation of Babylon in this passage and to regard Babylon here as a cryptogram for Rome.

The only Christian reference to Mesopotamian Babylon is found in Jerome’s commentary on Isaiah 63 He makes reference to the fact that Babylon in his day had been made a game preserve by one of the Parthian kings.

IV. CONCLUSION

Upon the basis of the evidence heretofore presented the conclusion is reached that the fall of Babylon as prophesied by Isaiah and Jeremiah has already taken place. The conclusion that Babylon has fallen once and for all time has much in its favor:

1. The view that Babylon has fallen in fulfillment of prophecy is based upon sound principles of prophetic interpretation. The entire problem of whether the fall of Babylon is past or future is a hermeneutical one in which the factor of literally is a major issue. In the final analysis each individual must decide how literally he is going to understand these Babylon prophecies. But examples of prophetic interpretation by inspired New Testament writers seems to indicate that the principles of generic prophecy, perspective shortening, and poetic imagery must be taken into account in properly understanding predictive prophecy.

2. The opinion that Babylon has once and for all time fallen avoids a slavish but inconsistent literalism. The futuristic interpreters while insisting on a literalistic interpretation for such phrases as none shall dwell therein, shall not be inhabited, they shall not take of thee a stone for a corner do not so interpret other passages in the prophecies. They do not, for example, insist that the eschatological conquerors of Babylon must be Medes, ride on horses, and attack the city with the bow and spear. In fact they talk of Babylon being destroyed in the future by an atomic bomb or by a supernatural stroke from heaven. This is entirely foreign to the picture of besieging armies presented in the Old Testament prophecies. The view that the destruction of Babylon has taken place recognizes all the numerous points where the prophecy was literally fulfilled but at the same time does not insist that every detail must have had circumstantial fulfillment before the prophecy against Babylon can be viewed as accomplished.

3. The view that the prophecies of Babylon’s fall have been fulfilled is justified in the light of the historical evidence. It is difficult to understand how anyone acquainted with the history of Babylon between the years 538 and 10 B.C. could say that the things prophesied against Babylon have never come to pass. The city changed hands again and again and with each new conquest suffered un told damage. Certainly it was literally true that many kings (Jeremiah 50:42) took part in accomplishing God’s will against Babylon.

4. The opinion that Babylon has fallen is consistent with the testimony of the ancient writers. A careful study of the Greek and Roman writers in regard to the condition of Babylon subsequent to the first century B.C. reveals that they unconsciously employ the language of the prophets in describing the desolate condition of Babylon in their day. Diodorus Siculus described the city as in ruins. Strabo calls it a great desert. Pausanias says that it has been reduced to nothing. Pliny says the place has gone back to a desert. In the light of these statements it is difficult to see how it could be affirmed that what has already befallen Babylon is but a premonitory blow.

5. The theory that Babylon has been destroyed in accord with prophecy is most consistent with the long silence of history respecting Babylon. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, Babylon and Nineveh were only names. People read about them in the Bible, but no visible trace remained. Some were even skeptical that such places only existed in the imagination of ancient scribes.64 Robert Lowth could write in 1778

Upon the whole, Babylon is so utterly annihilated that even the place where this wonder of the world stood, cannot now be determined with any certainty.65

Babylon was for centuries a desolate heap of ruins. Hillah is not Babylon. Even if it were built upon the site of the ancient city, Hillah would not be Babylon. Babylon, the city ceased to exist in the first century A.D. or shortly thereafter. The Babylon passages, if already fulfilled, have a definite apologetic value. The believer can direct the attention of the skeptic to these prophecies as a concrete example of fulfilled predictive prophecy. The amazing detail in which these Babylon prophecies were fulfilled centuries after they were recorded can be explained only on the hypothesis that holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Spirit.

FOOTNOTES

Isaiah 13-14; Isaiah 21:1-10; chaps. 40-48; Jeremiah 25:12-14; Jeremiah 25:26; Jeremiah 27:7; chaps. 50-51.

Benjamin Wills Newton, Babylon: Its Future History and Doom (third edition; 1890), pp. 1-144.

G. H. Pember, The Antichrist, Babylon, and the Coming of the Kingdom, (second edition, 1888), pp. 67-124.

J. A. Seiss, The Apocalypse (eighth edition, 1901), III, 107-212.

William R. Newell, The Book of Revelation (1935), pp. 263-281.

Harry Goehring, The Fall of BabylonHistorical or Future? Grace Journal, II (Winter, 1961), 29.

Other passages alleged to support this relationship are Isaiah 48:14; Isaiah 48:20; Jeremiah 50:3-5; Jeremiah 18-20; Habakkuk 2:14; Habakkuk 2:20.

James M. Gray, Prophecy and the Lord’s Return (1917), p. 114.

Goehring, op. cit., p. 30.

Newton, op. cit., p. 29.

Pember (op. cit., pp. 87-88) argues that the reference here is to the act of destruction, not to its permanent effects.

Herbert Mackenzie, The Destruction of Babylon, Bibliotheca Sacra, XCII (1935), p. 228.

Goehring, op. cit., pp. 25-26.

Ibid., p. 27.

Clarence Larkin, The Book of Revelation (1919), p. 157; and Pember, op. cit., p. 94. Cf. Goehring (op. cit., p. 27) who grants that Babylon did come to an end about 1100 A.D. but feels that this gradual decline is not in accord with the prophecies of the fall of the city.

Newell, op. cit., p. 265.

Newton, op. cit., p. 11.

Seiss, op. cit., III, 141.

Goehring, op. cit., p. 28.

Larkin op. cit., pp. 157-58.

Newton, op. cit., p. 53. Cf. Jeremiah 50:1; Jeremiah 51:2; Jeremiah 51:29; Jeremiah 51:43.

Newton, op. cit., p. 29.

Cf. A. C. Gaebelein, The Revelation (1915), pp. 97-8. Gaebelein denies that Babylon described in Revelation is literal Babylon but still holds that ancient Babylon will be rebuilt because the Old Testament prophecies have not yet been literally fulfilled.

Pember, op. cit., pp. 71-74.

Newell, op. cit., pp. 263-64.

Pember, op. cit., p. 97.

Robert Govett, The Apocalypse Expounded by Scripture (1920), p. 466; Cf. Seiss, op. cit., III, 147; there is no intimation whatever that this city of Babylon does not mean the city of Babylon.

Larkin, op. cit., p. 155.

Gray, op. cit., pp. 111-119.

Newell (op. cit., p. 267) argues that Jeremiah must have been speaking of this final destruction when he warned his people to flee out of the midst of Babylon (Jeremiah 51:45-46; Jeremiah 51:50) for when Cyrus took the city the Jews did not flee.

Seiss, op. cit., III 172.

Govett, op. cit., p. 474.

Arthur E. Bloomfield, All Things New (1959), p. 231. Ac cording to Bloomfield the angel in Jeremiah 51:21 acts out the scene as he drops a bomb from the sky. The torment which the kings are afraid of (Jeremiah 51:9-10) may be fall out.

Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 229. He also believes the two carrying women to represent a church. Babylon will be rebuilt by a church.

Newell, op. cit., p. 268.

Larkin, op. cit., p. 161; cf. Newton, op. cit., pp. 62-80.

Joseph Addison Alexander, Commentary on the prophecies of Isaiah. Two volumes in one. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1953. A reprint from 1847.

Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah. Trans. James Martin. Two vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950.

H. A. Ironsides, Expository Notes on the Prophet Isaiah. New York: Loizeaux, 1952.

George Adam Smith, The Book of Isaiah, The Expositor’s Bible. Two vols. London: Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.

Alexander, op. cit., I, 267.

C. Edward Naegelsbach, Isaiah, Lange’s Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, p. 181.

C. von Orelli, The Prophecies of Isaiah (1895)., p. 376.

43.Albert Barnes, Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah (1950), I, 252, Cf. Isaiah 34:4; Ezekiel 32:7-8; Amos 8:9.

Cf. William Richard Foster, The Eschatological Significance of the Assyrian, (unpublished Doctor’s Thesis, Grace Theological Seminary, Winona Lake, Indiana, 1956), pp. 164-65. Foster maintains that the Medo-Persian empire represents in prophecy the Messianic kingdom which overthrows the kingdom of antichrist and allows the remnant of God’s people to return in restoration of their national economy. Goehring (op. cit., pp. 30-31) goes so far as to say that the term Mede cannot refer to the historical Medes under Cyrus.

Cheyne, Isaiah, op. tit., I, 550.

Orelli, Isaiah, op. cit., p. 377.

John P. Newman, The Thrones and Palaces of Babylon and Nineveh (1876), p. 175. It should be noted however that Newman places Hillah in the very center of the. ancient site of Babylon (p. 163) and admits that this town was built from the ancient ruins of Babylon (p. 148).

R. H. Charles, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John (1920). II 54; Friedrich Dusterdieck, Critical and Exegetical Handbook to the Revelation of John (1887). p. 428; Henry Barclay Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John (1954). p. 226; Edward A. McDowell, The Meaning and Message of the Book of Revelation (1951). pp. 166-174; Charles M. Layman, The Book of Revelation (1960), pp. 113-123.

The Papal Rome interpretation. J. G. Encell, The Exiled Prophet (1898), p. 215; B. W. Johnson, A Vision of the Ages (fifth edition; 1915), p. 282; H. C. William, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (1917), pp. 289-97. The apostate church in abstracto: A. Plummer, Revelation, Pulpit Commentary, p. 413; William A. Spurgeon, The Conquering Christ (1936), pp. 240-41; J. L. Martin, The Voice of the Seven Thunders (1870), p. 250.

Philip Mauro, The Patmos Vision (1926), pp. 243-44; Merrill C. Tenney, Interpreting Revelation (1957), pp. 82-83; C. H. Little, Explanation of the Book of Revelation (1950), pp. 170-190; W. Hendriksen, More Than Conquerors (1961), pp. 199-220; M. R. DeHaan, Revelation (1946), pp. 214-231.

C. I. Scofield, The Scofield Reference Bible, Comments on Revelation 18; Cf. Tenny, op. cit., p. 86.

William Kelly, An Exposition of the Book of Isaiah (fourth edition; 1947), pp. 164ff.

E. B. Pusey, The Minor Prophets (1885), II, 368-69; Cf. Theodore Laetsch, Bible Commentary: The Minor Prophets (1956), p. 434; C. F. Keil, Biblical Commentary on the Twelve Minor Prophets (1951), II, p. 285; and Charles H. H. Wright, Zechariah and His Prophecies (1874), pp. 111-120.

A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire (1948), pp. 236-37.

S. A. Pallis, The Antiquity of Iraq (1956), pp. 26-29.

Ibid., pp. 32-35.

Charon or Inspectors, p. 443 of Vol. II of Lucian’s works in the Loeb Classical Library.

Natural History, VI. 30.

History of Rome, LXVIII. 30.

Certain passages in the Talmud which seem to picture Babylon as a thriving city are best regarded as referring to Sura which was in the neighborhood of the old Babylon.

That Babylon in 1 Peter 5:13 is the famous Mesopotamian city is unlikely for the following reasons (1) Peter is, nowhere else associated with this region; (2) the Eastern Church did not until a late period claim any association with Peter in its church origins; (3) the area itself was very sparsely populated, especially in the period subsequent to the migration in A D. 41 and the resultant massacre of large numbers of Jews at Seleucia; (4) Mark who is present with Peter in Babylon is connected with Rome in Paul’s letters and with Peter in Rome by early Christian tradition. (5) Widespread tradition exists that Peter worked in Rome, (6) the term Babylon was used as a mystical designation for Rome by the Jews before it was inherited by the Christians, (7) until the time of Calvin no writer suggested that Babylon in 1 Peter 5:13 referred to the city on the Euphrates.

Commentary on Isaiah, XIII. 20-22, XIV. 22-23. In Vol XXIV of J. P. Migne, Patrologia Latina.

David Masters, The Romance of Excavation (1923), p. 119.

Lowth, op. cit, p. 220.