Ezekiel 1
OGCBIBLE STUDY TEXTBOOK SERIES EZEKIEL
By James E. Smith
College Press, Joplin, Missouri · Copyright 1979 College Press
Artwork, unless otherwise indicated, is by Robert E. Huffman TO RACHEL SMITH
the wife of my youth and the delight of my eyes
PREFACE
The Book of Ezekiel stands in the English Bible fourth among the Major Prophets. It ranks second in actual word count among the prophetic books (39,407 words as compared to Jeremiah’s 42,659), and stands third in size in the entire Bible (behind Psalms and Jeremiah). In spite of its size, this book may well be the most neglected of the prophets. Previous surveys have convinced the average Bible student that he cannot possibly understand this material. Ezekiel is regarded as one portion of Scripture with little spiritual value and even less contemporary relevance. Those who do attempt a more serious study of the book often fail to make it past the intricate visionary details of the first chapter. This is most unfortunate. Ezekiel has a vital message for God’s people, a message not duplicated elsewhere in the sacred canon.
While Ezekiel virtually has been neglected by the church at large, it has come to be the happy hunting ground of cultists, critics and curiosity mongers. The modern negative critics regard Ezekiel as pivotal in their topsy turvy reconstruction of Old Testament history which views the tripartite priesthood as a scribal concoction from Babylon rather than a divine revelation from Sinai. Ezekiel is cited by self-styled students of prophecy as proof that God’s plan for the future includes the modern Zionist movement (Jews returning to Palestine in unbelief), an imminent Russian invasion of Israel, and the reinstitution of the Old Testament animal sacrificial system in a Temple shortly to be constructed in Jerusalem. Science fiction buffs have scoured the Book of Ezekiel in search of spaceships and extra-terrestrial beings who pawned themselves off as God. Mormons regard Ezekiel 37:15-23 as the prophetic allusion to the Book of Mormon (stick of Ephraim) being added to the Bible (stick of Judah). If for no other reason, the Book of Ezekiel merits careful study so that the man of God may be able to silence these modern day empty talkers and deceivers who are upsetting so many families today (Titus 1:10-11). The best defense against a thousand and one errors is the truth.
There is something more positive to be said in favor of diligent study of Ezekiel. The book is full of profound theology, not the least of which is the doctrine of individual responsibility. God’s sovereign grace, His absolute holiness and justice, and His universality are presented here as clearly as in any other portion of Scripture. In spite of difficult details, the theme of ultimate victory for God’s people is forcefully developed in this prophecy. These mother lode truths, plus priceless nuggets of revelation too numerous to mention will make the serious student of this book spiritually wealthy. Let those who would prospect for this treasure not be discouraged by the exegetical bogs which here and there challenge the resolve as well as the intellect. Ezekiel invites investigation not only because of what he said, but also because of how he said it. The book is fascinating, replete with visions, allegories, and action parables. Not without reason has Ezekiel been dubbed the audio-visual aids prophet. If a picture is worth a thousand words, then Ezekiel must be regarded as artfully verbose. His prophecy is a gallery of word pictures interspersed with mini-stages upon which the prophet performed divinely inspired monodrama. His delightful antics should draw students to his book in these days even as they attracted observers to his door in his day. The format of this study guide has followed that of the author’s earlier commentaries on Jeremiah-Lamentation (1972) and I & II Kings (1975) in the Bible Textbook Series. Each major section of the book is introduced by a paragraph designed to give an overview of the entire section. This is followed by the author’s own translation, at least up to chapter 40. For the tedious blueprint Chapter s 40-48 the American Standard Version of 1901 has been followed with only minor adaptation. Verse by verse comments follow the translation of the individual units of the text. The material here treated is divided into nineteen Chapter s. A review section has been included at the end of each chapter so that the student may gauge his comprehension of the major points of emphasis. In preparing this study the author is particularly indebted to the excellent words of Fisch, Blackwood and Plumptre. To condense footnotes as much as possible, a system of abbreviations has been employed. The abbreviations are listed in alphabetical order together with relevant bibliographical information at the end of this volume.
Central Florida Bible College
James E. Smith
August 30, 1978
Chapter One
THE PROPHET AND HIS PROPHECY
The study of a prophetic book is rewarding, but not easy. The serious student must be willing to take time to immerse himself in the historical context which gave birth to the book. He must attempt to walk awhile in the sandals of the prophet who wrote the book to understand his motives and manners, his actions and attitudes. He must come to grips not only with what the book says to and about men, but also with what men have said about the book. All of this takes years of study. But, as the wise one has said, the journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. This first chapter contains an historical, biographical, and literary introduction to the Book of Ezekiel.
I. STEPPING INTO EZEKIEL’S WORLD
Do men make the times, or do the times make the men? That is the age-old question. History is replete with examples of ordinary men catapulted into prominence by circumstances over which they had no control. So it was with Ezekiel. For him the crucial moment came on March 16, 597 B.C. On that day King Jehoiachin opened the gates of Jerusalem to the mighty Nebuchadnezzar. The king and some ten thousand of his subjects including Ezekiel were carried away to Babylon. But for that event and the subsequent prophetic call that came to this priest-in-exile, history probably would not have accorded to Ezekiel so much as a footnote. Therefore, to evaluate the historical context of this man of God, one must look backward and then forward from the crucial date March 16, 597 B.C.
A. Judah Prior to the Deportation of Ezekiel
Ezekiel was born in the eighteenth year of Josiah, 621 B.C. Those were bright and promising days for the tiny Jewish state. The shock of seeing their sister kingdom to the north carried away into the far corners of the Assyrian empire a century earlier had now largely disappeared. Young King Josiah had successfully thrown off the oppressive yoke of those same Assyrians. A vigorous religious reformation led by the prophets Zephaniah and Jeremiah, the priest Hilkiah, and the king himself seemed to be correcting the basic moral and religious flaws of the nation. Visible signs of idolatry had been purged from the land, but, as it turned out, not from the hearts of the people. The heroic efforts of that mighty coalition of crown, priest and prophets proved to be in vain. The reformation came to an abrupt halt and religious retrogression set in when Josiah met his untimely death as a result of the wounds received in the unfortunate and ill-advised battle of Megiddo in 609 B.C. Josiah’s second son Shallum was elevated to the throne by the people of the land. He assumed the throne name of Jehoahaz. At the end of three months Jehoahaz was deposed by Pharaoh Necho who was still encamped at Riblah about two hundred miles from Jerusalem.
Necho placed Eliakim, an older son of Josiah, on the throne of Judah as his vassal. Eliakim ruled under the throne name Jehoiakim. When Necho was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish on the Euphrates (Jeremiah 46:1), Jehoiakim shortly thereafter shifted his allegiance to the Babylonian sovereign. Daniel and several other prominent hostages were sent to Babylon at this time (Daniel 1:1). Jehoiakim served Nebuchadnezzar for three years (2 Kings 24:1), probably the years 604-601 B.C. When the Babylonian king received a setback on the borders of Egypt, Jehoiakim withheld tribute and declared himself to be independent.
To punish the infidelity of his Judaean vassal, Nebuchadnezzar marched against Jerusalem, Jehoiakim died a natural death or was assassinated before the arrival of the Chaldean troops. His son, the eighteen-year-old Jehoiachin, had to face the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar’s army. After three months or so of siege, Jehoiachin surrendered himself and his capital. The king and ten thousand of his chief people, Ezekiel among them, were carried away to far-off Babylon.
Nebuchadnezzar installed Mattaniah, another son of Josiah and uncle of the most recently deposed king, on the throne of Judah. His name was changed to Zedekiah (2 Kings 24:10-17).
B. Judah After the Deportation of Ezekiel
One would think that the stroke which fell against Jerusalem in 597 B.C. would have cured the country of its vice and immorality. But such was not the case. The inhabitants of Judah continued to be a rebellious and impudent people (Ezekiel 2:4; Ezekiel 3:7). They refused to walk in the statutes of God (Ezekiel 5:6-7). They had defiled the sanctuary of the Lord with idolatrous paraphernalia (Ezekiel 5:11) and practices (chap. 8). Pagan high places, altars and images were conspicuous upon every high hill, and under every green tree (Ezekiel 6:13). In chapter 22 of Ezekiel the Lord recites against Judah a catalogue of abominations that would make a pagan people blush idolatry, lewdness, oppression, sacrilege and murder permeated all ranks of society. Perhaps Ezekiel 9:9 best summarizes the complete corruption of Jerusalem in its last decade:
The iniquity of the house of Israel and Judah is exceeding great and the land is full of blood, and the city full of perverse ness For they say, The Lord has forsaken the earth, and the Lord does not see.
That Ezekiel in no way exaggerated the corruption back in his native land painfully is attested by Jeremiah who lived through those dark days. In a vision the subjects of King Zedekiah were represented to the mind of this prophet as a basket of rotten figs (Jeremiah 24:8). By intellectual madness and spiritual sophistry the inhabitants of Judah had convinced themselves that they were special favorites of heaven to whom the land of Palestine had been given for a possession (Jeremiah 11:15); that their city was impregnable (Jeremiah 11:3). These delusions were stoked by false prophets. In Zedekiah’s fourth year, exactly one year before Ezekiel began his ministry, one of these false prophets dramatically announced in the Temple that God would shatter the yoke of the Babylon within two years (Jeremiah 28:1-4). In vain Jeremiah warned of the imminent overthrow of Jerusalem and the final deportation of its population (Jeremiah 21:7; Jeremiah 24:8-10; Jeremiah 32:3-5; Jeremiah 34:2-3).
Encouraged by the optimistic predictions of his favorite prophets, Zedekiah got involved in a treasonous coalition against Nebuchadnezzar. An embassy from the Kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre and Sidon assembled in Jerusalem (Jeremiah 27:3). Unfortunately for Zedekiah, the plot was reported to the great king in Babylon. Zedekiah was required to make a trip to Babylon to set things straight with his overlord (Jeremiah 51:59) and renew his vassal pledge. Five years later Zedekiah reneged on his vassal pledge and openly broke with Babylon (2 Kings 24:20). In this revolt Zedekiah was joined by Tyre and Ammon, and was supported by promises of aid from Pharaoh Hophra (Jeremiah 27:15).
Nebuchadnezzar was swift to move his army into Palestine to punish Zedekiah and the other rebellious vassals. The siege of Jerusalem was a gruesome ordeal which, with one brief interruption, lasted for eighteen months. On August 25, 587 B.C. the supposed impregnable fortress fell. Zedekiah was captured as he attempted to flee the city. He was taken in chains to Riblah where he watched his sons executed. He was then cruelly blinded, bound in chains, and carried off to Babylon (cf. Jeremiah 32:4 and Ezekiel 12:13). Nebuchadnezzar showed no more pity on the citizens of Jerusalem. A pitiless massacre of Jerusalem’s inhabitants followed the successful capture of the city. A month later the great king had the city walls and palaces razed and burned. Those who escaped the slaughter were herded off to join the captives on the river Chebar in Babylon. Only a handful of the poorest sort were left on their native soil (2 Kings 25; 2 Chronicles 36, Jeremiah 39, 40, 52).
C. The Situation on the Chebar
Reactions among the Jews taken captive in 597 B.C. were mixed. Some of the more pious may have realized that their removal from their homeland was a divine stroke against an apostate nation. They sat down by the rivers of Babylon and wept as they remembered the sacred precincts of Jerusalem (Psalms 137:1). Others continued in the old idolatrous ways of their fathers (Ezekiel 20:30). While they pretended to be interested in the revelation of God’s prophet, they were setting up idols in their hearts (Ezekiel 14:4). They enjoyed his preaching (Ezekiel 33:32), and pondered his parables (Ezekiel 20:49), but they never intended to do as he directed them.
On one point virtually all members of the exilic community agreed. The stay in Babylon would be a short one. God would not abandon His chosen city and people to the Babylonians. This delusion was promoted by a bevy of false prophets who predicted peace for Jerusalem (Ezekiel 13:16), and thus caused the people to trust their lies (Ezekiel 13:19).
From distant Jerusalem Jeremiah did what he could to combat these pretenders. A letter from his pen was carried by royal ambassadors to Babylon. The prophet wisely counseled the exiles to settle down quietly in their new home and try to make the most of their situation. He categorically denied that there would be any speedy deliverance. Only after seventy years had expired would God intervene on behalf of His people (Jeremiah 29:5-14).
The delusions of speedy deliverance and the inviolability of Jerusalem were not easily dislodged. One prophet by the name of Shemaiah fired back a letter to the high priest in Jerusalem suggesting that Jeremiah was mad and should be taken into custody (Jeremiah 29:24-29). But the letter of that venerable old prophet may have been one external stimulus which caused a young priest named Ezekiel to step forth as a prophet of the Lord. At any rate, Ezekiel waged valiant battle against the delusion of speedy deliverance, during that decade before the Babylonian capture and destruction of Jerusalem.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE EXILIC PERIOD
Biblical Events
Babylonian Events
Nebuchadnezzar marches triumphantly through the Haiti land, takes hostages Daniel and others (Daniel 13)
604
602
Daniel made ruler over the province of Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar
Jehoiachin rebells against Nebuchadnezzar bands of guerrillas are sent against Jerusalem (2 Kings 24:2)
601
December 9, Jehoiachin dies He is succeeded by his son Jehoiachin
598
March 20, Jehoiachin surrenders lo Nebuchadnezzar 10,000 Jews go captive
597
Jeremiah sends a letter to the captives in Babylon
596
Zedekiah attempts revolt, is summoned to Babylon (Jeremiah 27:3 ff, Jer. 51-59)
593
Ezekiel begins to prophesy
January 15, Nebuchadnezzar begins the final siege of Jerusalem
588
August 25-28 Jerusalem destroyed, third deportation to Babylon
587
Still more Jews are deported to Babylon
582
573
April 28, last dated event in the Book of Ezekiel (40-1)
568
Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egypt
562
Nebuchadnezzar succeeded by his son Amel-marduk, King Jehoiachin released from prison
560
Neriglissar comes to power
556
Nabomdus comes to power
Daniel’s vision of four beasts, a little horn, and the Son of Man (Daniel 7)
549
Belshazzar begins to share the authority with his father Nabonidus
Daniel’s vision of the ram, the he-goat and a little horn (Daniel 8)
547
539
October 12, Belshazzar’s feast, the fall of Babylon to Darius the Mede, an agent of Cyrus the Great, Daniel made one of three presidents
Daniel’s revelation of the seventy weeks (Daniel 9)
538
Cyrus-’ decree allowing the Jews to return home
Daniel’s vision of the intertestamental period (Daniel 10-12)
536
II. GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH EZEKIEL
The only source of information concerning the life of Ezekiel is the book which bears his name. outside of his own book, he is mentioned only by Josephus[1] and Ben Sira,[2] neither of whom add any significant detail to the prophet’s biography.
[1] Antiquities x. 5.1; 6.3; 7.2, 8.2
[2] Sir. 49:8
A. The Name Ezekiel
The fourth book of the Major Prophets, like two of its predecessors, takes its name from its principal prophetic figure and author. The Hebrew form of his name (Yechezqe-’ 1)means God strengthens, or perhaps God is strong. In the Greek Old Testament the name appears as Iezikiel, and in the Latin Vulgate Ezechiel from which the English spelling is derived. Ezekiel is not mentioned by name by any other writer of Scripture and his name is used only twice in the book which he wrote. Another Ezekiel a priestly dignitary of David’s day is mentioned in 1 Chronicles 24:16. It is possible, though not likely, that the prophet Ezekiel was named for the earlier namesake.
It cannot be determined whether the name Ezekiel was the prophet’s birth-name conferred on him by his parents, or an official title assumed by himself when he commenced his prophetic vocation. In either case the name is appropriate to the character and calling of this man of God. Ezekiel was to preach to a people who were stiff-hearted (yichizqe-lebh) and of a hard forehead (chizqe-metsach). But the Lord gave assurance that He had made the prophet’s face hard (chazaqim) against their faces, and his forehead hard against their forehead (Ezekiel 2:5; Ezekiel 3:7-8).
B. Ezekiel’s Family and Station
Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel was a priest before he was a prophet. Nothing is known of his father Buzi.[3] Circumstantial evidence in the book would suggest that Ezekiel was of the Zadokite line of the priesthood.[4] This line of priests was descended from Zadok the great priest of Solomon’s day (1 Kings 2:35), and ultimately from Eleazer the son of Aaron. The Zadokites came to prominence during the reformation of Josiah (621 B.C.) and they were no doubt considered part of the Jerusalem aristocracy. This accounts for the fact that Ezekiel was carried off to Babylon in 597 B.C.
[3] One Jewish tradition understands the name Buzi, (the despised one, to refer to Jeremiah. However, Jeremiah never married and fathered children.
[4] Ezekiel 40:66; Ezekiel 43:19; Ezekiel 44:15-16.
Did Ezekiel have a ministry in Jerusalem prior to being carried away to Babylon? No certain answer to this question can be given. It has been suggested that Ezekiel became a Temple priest or at least a priestly trainee during the reign of King Jehoiakim (609-598 B.C.). However, positive evidence that Ezekiel performed priestly functions before his deportation is lacking. The Rabbinic tradition[5] that Ezekiel had already commenced his prophetic activity in Palestine likewise finds no support in the Biblical materials.
[5] Mekhilta Bo lb; Targum Ezekiel 1:3
Unlike Jeremiah who was under divine directive not to marry, Ezekiel had a wife whom he tenderly cherished as the desire of his eyes. It is not clear whether he was married at the time of his deportation; but the likelihood is that he married in Babylon. He may have chosen a wife in response to Jeremiah’s letter to the exiles instructing them to settle down and marry. In the ninth year of his captivity, four years after he had begun his prophetic ministry, Ezekiel’s wife died (chap. 24). There is no indication that any children were born to this union.
C. The Shaping of Ezekiel
At this distance in time it is impossible to ascertain all the factors which made Ezekiel the man he was. However, it is clear from his writings that this prophet was deeply influenced by four circumstances in his early life. First, Ezekiel must have been deeply stirred by the heroic reform efforts of good King Josiah. This reformation began in the eighth year of the young king’s reign, intensified in his twelfth year, and climaxed in his eighteenth year (621 B.C.). In this latter year Hilkiah the high priest found a lost lawbook in the Temple, and that lawbook became the basis for the most thorough-going reform movement ever launched in Judah. Ezekiel’s childhood (up to about age thirteen) coincided with this vigorous governmental effort to bring tiny Judah back to the paths of spiritual fidelity. It is also rather obvious that Ezekiel was deeply impressed by the elaborate Temple services in Jerusalem. Like the young Samuel, Ezekiel may have spent many of his boyhood hours assisting the priests in their Temple duties. At any rate, large blocks of his book betray his interest in priestly ritual. During his youth Ezekiel would have been exposed to the energetic ministry of the prophet Jeremiah. It would not be going too far to suggest that Jeremiah, the priestly prophet from the Jerusalem suburb of Anathoth, was the teacher of Ezekiel. The two men lived in close proximity to one another for a quarter of a century. The stamp of Jeremiah can be seen in the form of words, phrases, sentences and even complete paragraphs in the Book of Ezekiel.
In assessing the influence that shaped the prophet Ezekiel one cannot overstate the importance of the prophet’s deportation to Babylon. In 597 B.C. Ezekiel, along with King Jehoiachin and ten thousand skilled craftsmen, was carried off to the distant land of the Chaldeans. Ezekiel does not appear to have suffered much physically in foreign exile. He, like the other captives, was treated humanely and even kindly. Ezekiel was among those captives who settled in the city of Tel-Abib (Ezekiel 3:15) in the midst of a fertile district near the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:3). Unlike his fellow exiles, Ezekiel did not view the exile as a temporary and inconsequential setback for Judah. He had been indoctrinated by Jeremiah too thoroughly to accept that superficial view of the situation. He knew the exile and servitude to Babylon would last seventy years (Jeremiah 25:11). He knew that the deportation of 597 B.C. was the first stage of a process which climaxed in the overthrow of the Judaean state and the destruction of Jerusalem. For five years Ezekiel kept silent in Babylon. He listened to others who claimed to be prophets Ahab, Zedekiah, Shemaiah proclaim speedy deliverance (Jeremiah 29). He surely must have read the letter written by Jeremiah to Babylon rebuking these deceivers and pronouncing God’s judgment upon them for presuming to speak in the name of the Lord when they had received no message from God (Jeremiah 29). His confidence in the truthfulness of Jeremiah’s message must have been strengthened when two of that trio of false prophets were seized by Nebuchadnezzar and roasted in a fire. The point is that Ezekiel had five years in Babylon to pray and meditate, to sift and sort, to ponder and evaluate and to seek to comprehend the full theological significance of what had already happened in 597 B.C. and what was about to happen in 587 B.C.
D. The Ministry of Ezekiel
Ezekiel appears to have been thirty when he received his call to the prophetic ministry (Ezekiel 1:1). With few interruptions, he continued to carry out his assigned mission until his fifty-second year. How long after that he lived cannot be determined. Did he live to see King Jehoiachin released from prison in 562? (2 Kings 25:27 ff.; Jeremiah 52:31). There is no way to tell. A Jewish legend and it is nothing more than that has Ezekiel executed by a Jewish prince on account of his prophecies. According to this legend he was then buried in the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad.
Ezekiel was a contemporary of Jeremiah, and yet he never mentions the name of his co-laborer. He does mention Daniel three times (Ezekiel 14:14; Ezekiel 14:20; Ezekiel 28:3), The early sixth century before Christ saw a flowering of the prophetic institution the likes of which had not been seen since the mid-eighth century when Hosea, Amos, Isaiah and Micah were all flourishing. If the mid-eighth century has been called the golden age of Hebrew prophecy, the early sixth century could just as well be dubbed the silver age of the prophetic movement.
- The tone of his ministry. Ezekiel understood his mission as being primarily, if not exclusively, to the Judaean exiles in Babylon. His preaching was meant for their ears, and he worked among them as their prophet. The fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. was the pivotal event in the prophet’s career, and that disaster served to divide Ezekiel’s ministry into two distinct phases.
In phase one of his ministry (593-587 B.C.) Ezekiel was a prophet of doom. In various ways both by deed and word he announced that Jerusalem must fall. His threat seems unconditional. The exiles had to be freed from their dependence on the existence of Jerusalem and the Temple by destroying their confidence in the inviolability of the Holy City. Again and again he dashed to pieces the desperate hope of the exiles swiftly to be returned to their homeland. Ezekiel’s basic thesis during these years was that sin had severed the union of Yahweh and Jerusalem For the exiles to have faith meant to free themselves from their dependence on the Temple city, to understand the judgment upon it, and to accept that judgment as being the will and purpose of God. Following the destruction of Jerusalem, the tone of Ezekiel’s ministry changed. His audience was no longer overconfident and overbearing. They were crushed, despondent and spiritually shaken. The primary tenet of their man-made theology had been demonstrated to be false. Their faith was shattered Ezekiel sought to comfort those who had lost hope by raising their vision to see the glorious future which God had in store for His people. He sought to guide those who wished to return to the Lord into proper channels. Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel followed the path from a demand for repentance to a promise of deliverance. 2. The preaching of Ezekiel. As with most prophets, preaching played the primary role in the ministry of Ezekiel. Prophets were not writers in the study, but rather impassioned speakers in the market-places.[6] Twice Ezekiel was told to write something the name of the day (Ezekiel 24:2), names on two sticks (Ezekiel 37:15-16) but in so doing he was only underscoring or illustrating the spoken word. Once he was told to draw (Ezekiel 21:18-23), but the sketch which he made in the sand only served as a visual aid to his preaching. However, dozens of times in the book Ezekiel is instructed by God to verbalize the divine message; Prophesy. say (Ezekiel 6:2-3; Ezekiel 13:2; Ezekiel 34:2; Ezekiel 36:1); Speak. say) (Ezekiel 14:4; Ezekiel 20:3; Ezekiel 33:2); Propound a riddle. speak an allegory. say (Ezekiel 17:2-3); Take up a lamentation. say (Ezekiel 19:1-2). Like Jeremiah, Ezekiel probably had a scribe to date and record the various oracles which he delivered.
[6] Weavers, NCB, p. 11
An oracle is a type of prophetic speech in which the prophet becomes the mouthpiece for God. In an oracle Yahweh speaks in the first person. By way of contrast, in a sermon the prophet would speak about God in the third person. An oracle is normally introduced by the formula Thus says Yahweh (the LORD). In Ezekiel the oracles usually conclude with one of three formulas: (1) oracle of Yahweh, the standard oracular conclusion; (2) the affirmation formula, I, Yahweh have spoken; (3) the recognition formula, And you/they shall know that I am Yahweh. The book of Ezekiel is rich in the variety of the prophetic oracles which it contains.
VARIETIES OF PROPHETIC ORACLES IN EZEKIEL
TYPE OF ORACLE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
Judgment Oracle
Commonly begins with a formula declaring divine hostility
Restoration Oracle
Begins with declaration of God’s positive feelings or actions
Commands
Usually serve to introduce a more lengthy oracle Prophet is commanded to set his face against something and prophesy
Demonstration Oracle
Begins with Because clause and ends with Therefore statement which gives the reason for the judgment Very common in Ezekiel
Prophetic Invective
A statement of condemnation by itself An oblique declaration of judgment
Woe Oracle
Introduced by Woe to and usually involves some particular class in society
Recital Oracle
Recounts past judgments of God. Hortatory in character.
Situation Oracle
An oracle growing out of a specific situation.
Disputation Oracle
A popular proverb is first stated and then refuted.
Chap. 18
Prophetic Lament
The victim of divine judgment is addressed in the second person.
Chap. 19 Chap. 27
Mashal Oracle
An allegory or extended simile.
Chap. 15 Chap. 16 Chap. 17
- The symbolic actions of the prophet. More than any other prophet, Ezekiel communicated his message through symbolic actions. The purpose of such actions was twofold: (1) they were designed to illustrate or render the oral word more concrete; and (2) they were sufficiently bizarre to arouse interest on the Part of the audience. AS a rule the prophet appended to his symbolic action an interpretative oracle which expanded upon the meaning of what he had done. The symbolic act was considered to be the word of the LORD as much as any oral discourse which the prophet delivered. Each of the mini-dramas is introduced by the expression The word of the LORD came to me. These actions are not to be attributed to the creative genius of Ezekiel. The prophet himself bears testimony to the fact that God directed him in the execution of these acts. All these dramatic prophetic actions in Ezekiel concern future events.
SYMBOLIC ACTS IN EZEKIEL
REFERENCE
SIGNIFICANCE
DESCRIPTION
The Siege of Jerusalem
Ezekiel sketches a diagram of Jerusalem and the siege against that city on a soft clay tablet. An iron pan was used to represent the wall of the city.
The Sin of God’s People
Ezekiel lies on his right side 390 days and on his left side 40 days to symbolize the years of Israel’s and Judah’s sin.
The Famine in Jerusalem
Ezekiel to eat scant measure of bread made of inferior grains and baked over a fire kindled with dung.
The Fate of Jerusalem’s Population
Ezekiel shaves the hair and beard Some of the hair is burned, some chopped with the razor, scattered lo the wind, and a few are bound in the prophet’s skin
The Imminent Fall of Jerusalem
Ezekiel digs a hole through the wall of his house and in the evening stealthly slips through that hole with his meager belongings
The Anxiety of Jerusalem
Ezekiel eats and drinks with quivering and anxiety
The Military Decision of Nebuchadnezzar
Ezekiel made a drawing of a road with two branches and a signpost pointing the way to Jerusalem and Rabbah Ammon
The Shock over Jerusalem’s Fall
Ezekiel restrained himself from customary mourning when his wife suddenly died
The Reunion of Israel and Judah
Ezekiel inscribed the names of Judah and Ephraim on two sticks and then held both sucks end to end so that they appeared to be one stick
- The visions of the prophet. Visionary experiences were also a prominent part of the ministry of Ezekiel. Each vision in the book is introduced by the technical phrase the hand of the LORD was upon me. There is no hint that Ezekiel experienced any traumatic physiological reaction to these visions as did Isaiah (chap. 21), Habakkuk (Habakkuk 3:16), and Daniel (Daniel 10:7-8). Each vision account contains relevant interpretative oracles which are intended to convey some divine message to the prophet and/or his audience. Dialogue between God and the prophet in the visionary experience is common. While the vision itself was an individual experience, the telling of it was a prophetic revelation (cf. Ezekiel 11:25). Presumably Ezekiel related to the captives all of the visions which he received from God.
The prophetic vision was similar to but not identical with a dream experience. Categories of time and space become meaningless. Ezekiel could be physically in Babylon, but then suddenly in Jerusalem or on a high mountain (Ezekiel 40:2), or in the midst of a valley (Ezekiel 37:1). Scenes change rapidly and illogically. Time is compressed. The measuring of the New Temple would have taken considerable time, but in vision this is compressed into but a moment. Unlike a dream, the vision did not occur while sleeping (Ezekiel 8:1). The prophet was conscious of entrance into and departure from the visionary state (cf. Ezekiel 8:1 with Ezekiel 11:24 b).
Ezekiel’s visions occur in four sections of the book. The book opens (Ezekiel 1:1 to Ezekiel 3:15) with the vision of the magnificent throne-chariot of God. This was Ezekiel’s inaugural vision, the basis for his prophetic ministry. Chapter s 8-11 contain the prophet’s visions of the terrible abominations being practiced back in the Jerusalem Temple. The most famous vision in the book is undoubtedly that of the valley of dry bones (chap. 37). This vision sets forth in the most bold symbolism the resurrection of the nation Israel following the Babylonian exile. The Book of Ezekiel closes with a lengthy vision of a future Temple in a new era (chaps. 40-48). Ezekiel devotes more space to recording his visionary experiences than any other prophet in the Old Testament.
E. The Character of Ezekiel
Ezekiel was endowed with high intellectual capacity, clear perception, lively imagination, and eloquent speech. He certainly was acquainted with the sacred books, institutions and customs of his own people as well as the learning and culture of the world in which he lived. So accurate is his knowledge of Egypt and Tyre that one wonders if perhaps he had travelled to these places in his youth. Ezekiel possessed boundless energy, firm resolution, and amazing self-control (Ezekiel 3:15; Ezekiel 3:24; Ezekiel 3:26; Ezekiel 24:18). He evidently was a man of deep personal humility as is indicated by the title applied to him some ninety-three times in the book, son of man. This title as used in Ezekiel sets forth man’s finite dependence and lowliness in the presence of God’s infinite power and glory.
Ezekiel was a man of intense moral earnestness (chaps. 22, 23). He was a powerful orator (Ezekiel 33:32) and a poet of the first rank (Ezekiel 15:1-5; Ezekiel 19:14-14; Ezekiel 21:14-21). Though perhaps not as intense as Jeremiah, Ezekiel nonetheless was a warm and sympathetic soul (Ezekiel 9:8; Ezekiel 19:1; Ezekiel 19:14). A deep undertone of pity for the fallen nation of Judah is discernible throughout the third main division in the book. While earlier prophets focus on the people taken collectively, Ezekiel was concerned for individual souls.
Wellhausen referred to Ezekiel as a priest in a prophet’s mantle, and so he was. From the moment he was told to eat the scroll containing God’s Word this man was endowed with the spirit and message of the Lord. From that point on he became the very embodiment of the word which Yahweh would have the exiles hear. His overt actions were fully as significant as the words he spoke. Ezekiel immersed himself in his prophetic duties for some twenty-two years. Like his two illustrious contemporaries Jeremiah and Daniel, Ezekiel possessed an invincible fortitude which kept him faithful through long years of rejection and dejection.
Ezekiel had a propensity for visions, dramatized signs and trance-states. His visions are on occasion couched in stories of angel translation and include somewhat bizarre symbolism. Some of his actions his dumbness (Ezekiel 3:22 ff.) and symbolic lying on his side (Ezekiel 4:4-8) have been interpreted as symptoms of a more or less profound mental disturbance. Albright, for example, states that Ezekiel became one of the greatest spiritual figures of all time in spite of his tendency to psychic abnormality.[7] Others see evidence of schizophrenia or catalepsy[8] in his personality. It is ridiculous in the extreme to attempt amateur psychoanalysis on a person of another culture and age who has been dead for twenty-five hundred years. One is on safer ground to speak of Ezekiel as a highly developed mystic who was able to utilize channels of communication not normally available to others.[9] The fallacy of suggesting that Ezekiel was in some sense deranged can be easily demonstrated from a study of his words. His thought processes are normal, his ideas are completely comprehensible, his sentences are coherent and the sequence of ideas yield a meaningful continuity.
[7] Albright, FSAC, p. 325.
[8] Catalepsy is a pathological condition akin to autohypnosis. The afflicted person manifests a tonic rigidity of the limbs to the point where they can be placed and maintained in various positions for long periods of time. [9] Harrison, IOT, p. 851.
In closing this assessment of the personality and character of Ezekiel it might be of interest to note the three paradoxes which Fohrer[10] has observed: (1) burning passion on the one hand, pedantic casuistry on the other; (2) bold hopes for the future, but also a sober sense of reality; (3) on occasion he speaks coldly and bluntly, while on other occasions he feels full sympathy for the devout and the wicked.
[10] Fohrer, IOT, p. 415
F. The Message of Ezekiel
The fall of Jerusalem and captivity were necessary measures for God to employ if He was to correct His disobedient people and draw them back from complete and permanent apostasy. It was Ezekiel’s prophetic duty to explain that Judah the theocracy in its outward form must come to an end because of sin, But that would not be the end of the story. God would one day regather a repentant remnant of His chastened people and bring them back to their homeland where they would share in a glorious latter-day theocracy. Thus the basic message of Ezekiel is that God is faithful to His eternal purpose. The sinful nation must be destroyed, yet God will not forsake His own. Ezekiel has been called the father of Judaism because of the influence he is said to have exerted on the later worship of Israel. At first his messages were not well received (Ezekiel 14:1; Ezekiel 14:3; Ezekiel 18:19; Ezekiel 18:25). But in time his prophecies brought about a fundamental change in the idolatrous tendencies of the nation.
Ezekiel was a priest as well as a prophet. In many passages the interest of a man of priestly origin is apparent. His concern with the cult, priesthood and sanctuary doubtlessly influenced the attitude of the post-exilic Jews toward the Temple. But Ezekiel was not a priestly ritualist whose only concern was with the minutiae of liturgy and worship. He makes important contributions to Biblical theology. Perhaps in no other book of the Old Testament do the theological views of the author shine out with greater clearness. 1. Ezekiel’s doctrine of God. In Isaiah the focus is on the salvation of the Lord; in Jeremiah, the judgment of the Lord; in Daniel, the kingdom of the Lord; and in Ezekiel the focus is on the glory of the Lord.[11] To Ezekiel God was the supreme, self-existent, almighty (Ezekiel 1:24) and omniscient (Ezekiel 1:18) One.[12] The God of Israel was no mere local or national divinity. He was infinitely exalted above the earth, clothed with honor and majesty. Yahweh was the ruler of the celestial hierarchies and all that dwell on earth. Men and nations yield to His sovereign decisions. Egypt, Babylon and all heathen peoples were bound to obey Him. The mighty Nebuchadnezzar was but a tool in His hand.
[11] Feinberg, PE, p. 12.
[12] Whitelaw, PC, p. xxix. The theological summary which follows is adapted from Whitelaw,
To Ezekiel God was the Holy One (Ezekiel 39:7) whose name was holy (Ezekiel 36:21-22; Ezekiel 39:25). He was a God who could make no compromise with sin, who could by no means overlook the guilty whether individual or national. Because of the sin of His people He withdrew His glory from Jerusalem and the Temple (Ezekiel 10:18; Ezekiel 11:23). This holy God placed terrible denunciations against the wickedness of Israel and Judah in the mouth of His prophet. In fact Ezekiel’s denunciation of the spiritual waywardness of Judah is more severe than that of his contemporary Jeremiah.
On the other hand, the God of Ezekiel was a God of boundless grace who had no pleasure in the death of the wicked (Ezekiel 18:23; Ezekiel 18:32; Ezekiel 33:11). Amidst the threats of judgment, He woos them to repentance (Ezekiel 14:22; Ezekiel 16:63; Ezekiel 20:11), Though His people were undeserving of His mercy (Ezekiel 36:32), yet He promised to them a glorious future.
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Ezekiel’s doctrine of the Messiah. The Messiah is not so prominent in Jeremiah and Ezekiel as in Isaiah. Nonetheless there is some striking teaching about the promised one in this book. The Messiah is represented as a tender twig taken from the highest branch of the cedar of Judah’s royalty, planted upon a high mountain (Ezekiel 17:22-24). He is the one to whom the diadem of Israel’s sovereignty rightfully belonged and to whom it would be given after it had been removed from the head of the wicked Zedekiah (Ezekiel 21:27). The Messianic David will be a faithful prince among God’s restored people. He will perform all the functions of a true and faithful Shepherd (Ezekiel 34:23-24), ruling over them as king (Ezekiel 37:24). This Prince will eat and drink before the Lord in His capacity of special representative of God’s people (Ezekiel 44:3).
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Ezekiel’s doctrine of man. Ezekiel viewed man as God’s creature and property (Ezekiel 18:4). He shows awareness of the Biblical teaching of the original innocence of man (Ezekiel 28:15; Ezekiel 28:17). But man had fallen; man is sinful (Ezekiel 18:21-30). His heart needs to be softened and renewed (Ezekiel 18:31). For his wickedness he is and will be held individually accountable (Ezekiel 18:4; Ezekiel 18:13; Ezekiel 18:18). He is a free moral agent and is therefore responsible for his own reformation of life and purification of heart.[13] (Ezekiel 33:11; Ezekiel 43:9). To those willing to receive it God would give a new heart (Ezekiel 11:19; Ezekiel 36:26; Ezekiel 37:23). Among the Old Testament prophets Ezekiel has earned the title the champion of individualism.
[13] Ezekiel is expanding on a theme proclaimed by Jeremiah (Jeremiah 31:34).
- Ezekiel’s doctrine of the kingdom of God. Though the book never uses the terminology kingdom of God, the book certainly points to the concept of God’s reign over the hearts of redeemed men. Ezekiel stressed one point which was considered rank heresy by his countrymen, viz., that the kingdom of God was not inseparably connected with the political existence of Judah. He saw an inner spiritual kernel of the nation existing in the lands of the dispersion (Ezekiel 12:17). This nucleus was constantly growing as penitent men were added to it (Ezekiel 34:11-19). Eventually Ezekiel saw a new Israel with Messiah as its prince (Ezekiel 34:23-24; Ezekiel 37:24), That new Israel would walk in the law of the Lord (Ezekiel 11:20; Ezekiel 16:61; Ezekiel 20:43; Ezekiel 36:27) and dwell in the land of Canaan (Ezekiel 36:33; Ezekiel 37:25). God would enter into a new covenant with that people[14] (Ezekiel 37:26-28), and He would walk in close fellowship with them (Ezekiel 39:29; Ezekiel 46:9). Upon them He would pour out His Holy Spirit (Ezekiel 36:27; Ezekiel 39:27).
[14] The classic Old Testament promise of a new covenant is Jeremiah 31:31 ff.
G. The Mission of the Prophet
Ezekiel’s special task was to act as a watchman to the house of Israel (Ezekiel 3:17; Ezekiel 33:7). He was to warn the wicked of the danger of persisting in wickedness, and the righteous of the peril of turning from the path of fidelity. To be more specific, Ezekiel’s task can be seen as having a four-fold thrust.
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He was to demolish delusions to refute the shallow theology which undergirded the nation that Jerusalem could not be destroyed; to defuse the potentially dangerous deception that the exile would soon end with the overthrow of Babylon. Ezekiel had a clear and accurate assessment of the moral and religious situation both in Judah and in Babylon.
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He was to expose apostasy, and thereby present God’s rationale for the judgments which had already befallen Judah, and those more terrible judgments which were about to fall. He was to interpret for Israel in exile the stern logic of her past history.[15]
[15] Whitelaw, PC, p. x.
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He was to awaken repentance, and thereby raise up from the ruins of the old Israel a new people who might inherit the promises which had been given to the old.
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He was to stimulate hope for a better tomorrow with the promise of restoration after the seventy years of Babylonian supremacy had ended.
Ezekiel’s mission was in stark contrast to that of Daniel, his illustrious contemporary and fellow captive. Daniel was God’s messenger to the mighty monarchs of Babylon and Persia. He rubbed elbows with royalty and never, so far as is known, mingled with and preached to his fellow exiles. Ezekiel, on the other hand, conducted most of his ministry from his home. He apparently never undertook journeys to distant colonies of exiles but restricted his prophetic utterances to those who sought him out at his dwelling (Ezekiel 8:1; Ezekiel 14:1; Ezekiel 20:1; Ezekiel 24:19). However, some of his sermons may have been delivered before larger audiences[16] Most of his utterances were first spoken before being written. His foreign nation oracles (chaps. 25-32) and his elaborate description of the Messianic Temple (chaps. 40-48) were probably never spoken orally.
[16] Sermons on Judah’s sins (chaps 6:7, 13, 16) sermons on repentance (Chaps 33, 36); and sermons on the justice of God (chaps 18, 33).
Like most of the prophets, Ezekiel was commissioned by God to deliver a series of oracles against foreign nations. The messages were intended to sound a note of warning to the nations who had harassed Israel and were exulting in her overthrow. Ezekiel argued that the destruction of Israel was nothing over which the nations should gloat because Israel’s destruction was a pledge of their own doom. These foreign nation oracles also served the purpose of beginning the consolation which Ezekiel had for his own people. Israel should derive comfort from the thought that God was preparing for their recovery by pouring out His wrath upon their foes.
III. THE BOOK OF EZEKIEL
Before undertaking an exegesis of the prophecies of Ezekiel some introductory and critical matters pertaining to the book must first be treated.
A. The Authorship of the Book
The view that Ezekiel the son of Buzi, the sixth century exile, authored the entire book which bears his name has good evidence in its support. First, and most important, this book throughout claims to be by this Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1:1; Ezekiel 8:1; Ezekiel 33:1; Ezekiel 40:1-4). A unity of theme is observable throughout the forty-eight Chapter s God’s vengeance in Israel’s destruction and God’s vindication in Israel’s restoration. Thirteen prophecies are dated and localized in such a way as to point to the life and times of Ezekiel. Similarity of thought, style, phrasing and arrangement make it clear that the entire book is the work of one mind. The evidence for the authenticity and unity of Ezekiel is so convincing that some scholars who otherwise take a critical view toward the Old Testament have written in support of the essential Ezekielian authorship (e. g., Cornill, and Driver). The work as a whole bears the decided imprint of a single personality.
The traditional view of Ezekielian authorship is clouded by two curious statements which are found in Jewish literature regarding the Book of Ezekiel. The first is in the Talmud (fifth century A.D.) where it is said that the men of the Great Synagogue wrote Ezekiel and the Twelve.[17] A second curious statement is found in Josephus (first century A. D.) But not only did he [Jeremiah] predict to the people [the destruction of Jerusalem, but also the prophet Ezekiel who first wrote two books about these things and left them [for posterity.]
[18] The Talmud statement probably means nothing more than that the men of the Great Synagogue in the days of Ezra edited and copied the original writing of Ezekiel, The two books referred to by Josephus probably is a reference to two major divisions of the present Book of Ezekiel. Young[19] suggests that Chapter s 1-32 may have constituted the first book and Chapter s 33-48 the second.
[17] Baba Bathra 15a.
[18] Josephus Antiquities X 5.1.
[19] Young IOT p. 256.
In spite of the positive evidence supporting the traditional view of authorship some modern critics have questioned the authenticity of the book. Bentzen, for example, contends that the book as it now stands is no authentic work of the prophet Ezekiel.[20] The grounds upon which such a statement is made are two. First, some critics dogmatically assert that a prophet cannot hold forth both doom and promise. They imagine that the historic Ezekiel must have been a preacher of darkness and doom who afforded the nation no ray of hope. Unfortunately for the critics, nearly all Old Testament prophets who speak of doom also hold out some hope of restoration and glory for God’s people. The mixture of gloom and discouragement on the one hand, and hope and optimism on the other can be observed in the discourses of any great preacher of the word.
[20] Bentzen, IOT, 11, 125.
In the second place, the critics contend that the Book of Ezekiel betrays a Palestinian rather than a Babylonian viewpoint. The descriptions of events back in Palestine the idolatries of the Temple worshipers (chap. 8); the sudden death of Pelatiah (Ezekiel 11:13); Zedekiah’s attempted flight from Jerusalem (Ezekiel 12:3-12); Nebuchadnezzar’s encampment outside Jerusalem (Ezekiel 24:2) are so vivid that they must have been composed by an eyewitness living in Palestine. But in some cases (e.g., chap. 8) a supernatural vision must have been given to the prophet. In other cases tidings from Jerusalem may have reached the prophet in Babylonia before he penned the passage.
Jeremiah preached for twenty-three years before he was instructed by God to record his messages for future generations. It is impossible to say at what point Ezekiel penned his messages. Fohrer[21] conjectures that Ezekiel probably wrote down his sayings and reports rather than relying on oral tradition. Sometimes Ezekiel seems to have written down his inspirations at once and proclaimed them later or even kept them to himself, so that they became known only much later (e.g., Ezekiel 3:16b-21).
[21] Fohrer, IOT, pp. 410-11.
Modern critics generally postulate a complicated editorial process with expansions, enrichments, and exegetical contributions which have more or less overgrown the words of Ezekiel.[22] The sayings of Ezekiel were passed on by his disciples during an indeterminate oral stage.[23] These sayings were not considered immutable holy givens but relevant messages which were often modified by explanatory phrases and new sayings amplifying, changing or correcting the original[24] Rival collections of the prophet’s utterances gradually grew up. These were eventually put in writing as an aid to memory[25] These critics would not allow that Ezekiel was responsible for the arrangement and assembling of the utterances and reports. Others must have done this work. The critics disagree among themselves as to whether this rather extensive editorializing was a long process (Freedman), a single editor (May) or a particular circle of disciples (Zimmerli). In any case the critics believe that the evolution of the book continued even after the editors put it together. Later literary accretions by scribes who copied the work are postulated by the critics.[26]
[22] Fohrer, IOT, p. 411.
[23] Wevers, NCB, p. 22
[24] Weavers NCB p. 22.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid.
It would seem, then, that Ezekiel himself compiled the book on the basis of notes of his prophetic oracles that he had accumulated over a period of time. Subsequently he edited and augmented the first edition of his work. The view that the duplicate sections were the work of copyists is weak in that it tends to disrupt the acknowledged unity of character exhibited by the book
B. The Canonicity of the Book
The Book of Ezekiel was one of five antilegomena books spoken against in the Hebrew canon. Certain Rabbis were convinced that the teaching of this book was not in harmony with Mosaic law. The Torah (Law), for example, prescribed that two bullocks and seven lambs and one ram be offered at new moon celebrations (Numbers 28:11) whereas Ezekiel speaks of only one unblemished bullock, six lambs and one ram (Ezekiel 46:6). Rabbai Hananiah vigorously defended the book before those who argued that it should be removed from the canon. Legend has it that he burned the midnight oil 300 jars of it in harmonizing Ezekiel with the Pentateuch.[27] Hananiah’s effort at harmonization must not have satisfied all Jewish scholars. The Talmud (Menach. 45a) states that when Elijah comes (cf. Malachi 4:5) the discrepancies between Ezekiel and the Pentateuch would be explained. Modern scholars are not concerned about the differences between the worship system described in Ezekiel and that set forth by Moses. Ezekiel was describing the worship of a new age and a new covenant.
[27] Shabbath 14b; Hagiga 13a, Menachoth 45a.
The Book of Ezekiel certainly belongs in the Old Testament canon. It apparently was found in Nehemiah’s collection of the acts of the kings, and the prophets, and of David, and the epistles of the kings concerning holy gifts (2Ma 2:13). Ezekiel was included in the Septuagint translation which was initiated about 280 B.C. Josephus the famous Jewish historian numbered this book among the books held sacred by the Jews in his day.[28] The majority of the Rabbis defended the book against the disparagement of those who were concerned about the discrepancies with the Pentateuch. The Book of Ezekiel was listed in the Talmud (Baba Bathra 14b) as belonging to the canon. Among early Christian scholars the book was acknowledged by Melito (A,D. 172) and Origen (A.D. 250). In Christian circles the canonicity of Ezekiel has never been seriously questioned.
[28] Against Apion I:8, Reference has already been made to the curious statement of Josephus that Ezekiel wrote two books (Ant. x. Ezekiel 5:1).
C. Ezekiel in Modern Criticism
Modern criticism of the Book of Ezekiel goes back to the Dutch Jewish philosopher Spinoza in the seventeenth century. From that time to the present the attacks on the book have taken four forms. 1. Attacks on the unify of the book. In the eighteenth century questioning the unity of ancient documents came in vogue. The unity of nearly every Old Testament prophetic book became suspect at this time. G. L. Oeder suggested that Chapter s 40-48 were added to the Book of Ezekiel long after the prophet was dead.
- Attacks upon the authenticity of the whole book. In the nineteenth century some critics began to argue that the entire Book of Ezekiel was a literary fraud. One group of critics dated the book to the Persian (Zunz, Geiger) and some even as late as the Maccabean age (Seinecke). C. C. Torrey with his characteristic propensity for out radicalizing the radicals proposed in his book Pseudo-Ezekiel (1930) that the whole book was a pseudepigraphic work composed centuries after the time of Ezekiel.[29] Another critic, James Smith (no relation to the present writer), argued that the book was actually written in the time of King Manasseh early in the seventh century a century earlier than Ezekiel. In response to these conjectures the opinion of another respected critic needs to be heard. Fohrer sees Ezekiel active in the period defined by the dates given in his utterances. There is no evidence in favor of a date different from that suggested in the book of Ezekiel.[30
] [29] Torrey dated the book about 230 B.C. Browne dated the book to the time of Alexander the Great, and van den Born to the days of Ezra-Nehemiah.
[30] Fohrer, IOT, p. 406.
- Attacks upon the integrity of the text. Most critics will allow that the sixth century Ezekiel wrote some part of the present book; but they attribute to him only a bare minimum of the total verses in the book. This trend began with Jahn (1905) who proposed that scribal notes from the margin of ancient manuscripts had been later inserted into the text of the Book of Ezekiel. Hoelscher (1942) wielded the knife of literary criticism mercilessly, arguing that only 170 verses of the 1273 in the book actually belonged to Ezekiel,[31] William A. Irwin (1943) did a little better for the prophet, giving him 251 verses of the book. H. G. May in the Interpreter’s Bible generously assigns about half the book to Ezekiel.
[31] Harrison (IOT, p. 824) refers to Hoelscher’s work as one of the most radical treatments to which the book of Ezekiel has ever been subjected.
On what basis do these critics deny these large chunks of material to Ezekiel? Hoelscher and Irwin take the distinction between poetry and prose as the criterion of genuineness. They deny Ezekiel’s authorship of everything that cannot be fitted into a pre-determined poetic style. Fohrer takes to task other critics for denying large sections of the book to Ezekiel. He then asserts: Nevertheless, the material preserved under the name of Ezekiel contains a series of later passages deriving from various authors and various periods.[32] Fohrer himself denies about 111 verses to Ezekiel. Each critic seems to have his own criteria for deciding what is genuine and what is not. The subjectivity of this approach is manifest. Harrison raises an appropriate question: How is it possible to establish canons of genuineness, and what in fact constitutes an oracle thus defined?[33]
[32] Fohrer, IOT, p. 410.
[33] Harrison, IOT, p. 840,
- Attacks upon the setting of the book. In 1932 Herntrich introduced the suggestion that Ezekiel actually lived and ministered in Palestine rather than in Babylon as the book plainly states. Later editors were responsible for the literary framework of the book which makes it appear that Ezekiel lived in Babylon. Other critics have suggested that the locale shifted during Ezekiel’s ministry. Ezekiel is said to have returned to Palestine from Babylon (May) in 591 B.C. or to have commenced his ministry in Palestine and subsequently to have gone to Babylon (Bertholet). Some complicate the matter further by postulating a double shift in Ezekiel’s ministry. Pfeiffer would have Ezekiel first in Babylon, then back in Jerusalem, and finally back among the exiles in Babylon.[34]
[34] Bentzen (IOT, 11, 128) suggests that Ezekiel was a Babylonian secret agent who was allowed to return to Palestine a few years before the fall of Jerusalem.
Five arguments have been advanced in support of the view that Ezekiel spent part of his time ministering in Palestine. a) Many of the oracles in Chapter s 1-24 are relevant to Jerusalem and Judah rather than to the exiles. Answer: Very little is known about the religious attitudes of the exiles apart from the Book of Ezekiel. How then can one be so sure that what Ezekiel says was not appropriate to the situation in Babylonia? The exiles apparently considered themselves still a part of Jerusalem society. They optimistically expected to return to the homeland shortly. Therefore invectives against Jerusalem society are far from meaningless to the exilic audience. Furthermore, some of Ezekiel’s utterances may actually have been carried back to Jerusalem by travelers. b) In chapter 16 Ezekiel is told to make known to Jerusalem her abominations. Answer: A message to a society does not demand the physical presence of the prophet. Numerous examples can be cited of prophets who resided in Jerusalem and yet addressed oracles to foreign nations they had never seen or visited. Therefore, the fact that one or two prophecies are directed to Jerusalem and Judah is no evidence that Ezekiel must have been in Palestine at that particular moment.
c) Prophecies are directed to the house of Israel, the rebellious house which might refer to the inhabitants of Palestine. Answer: The exiles considered themselves a part of the house of Israel. The concept of national solidarity made the exiles corporately part of the rebellious house.
d) Ezekiel betrays an intimate acquaintance with what is going on in the Temple in Chapter s 8-11. Answer: Ezekiel’s priestly background would have provided him with vivid recollection of the Temple structure and worship. Furthermore, Jeremiah 29 proves that contacts between Jerusalem and Babylon were greater than one might think. News of recent developments in Jerusalem could have reached the prophet’s ears by means of those who travelled between the two places. Finally, Ezekiel may have received his knowledge of the Temple idolatries through Divine revelation.
e) Chapter 11 would demand clairvoyant powers on the part of Ezekiel if he were living in Babylonia. How could he have known that Pelatiah had died immediately in response to the oracle which he had just given? Answer: It may be that the statement in Ezekiel 11:13 that Pelatiah died immediately in response to the oracle is itself a part of the vision. If so, no problem exists. On the other hand, through Divine revelation Ezekiel may have known immediately that Pelatiah died in accordance with the prophetic word.
The theory of a Palestinian ministry for Ezekiel creates more problems than it solves. Far-reaching textual alterations are necessary in order to support the theory. Whole sections of the book must be pronounced spurious. Fohrer, himself a radical critic, has stated: Nothing suggests Jerusalem as one or the only location of Ezekiel’s ministry; on the contrary, everything points to Babylonia.[35] Of the utterances of Jeremiah, he is familiar essentially with those from the period before 597 B.C. Not one shred of evidence can be produced to suggest that Ezekiel spent the crucial years under Zedekiah in Jerusalem and experienced the bitter siege of that city. Besides, no one has ever successfully explained what an editor possibly could have gained by transferring the ministry of a Palestinian prophet to Babylon.
[35] Fohrer, IOT, p. 407. Even among critical scholars the trend is to support an exclusively Babylonian ministry for Ezekiel as can be seen in the works of Howie (1950), Cooke (1960) and in West’s Introduction (1971).
The critical studies of the Book of Ezekiel over the past fifty years or so have largely cancelled each other out. The situation now is much the same as it was prior to 1924 (the work of Hoelscher) when the unity and integrity of the book were generally accepted by the critics.[36] H. H. Rowley (1953) defended the essential unity of the book and took issue with those who would transfer the prophet from Babylon to Palestine or from the sixth century to some other time-frame.[37]
[36] Ellison, NBD, p. 407.
[37] Rowley’s work The Book of Ezekiel in Modern Study is an excellent introduction to modern criticism of Ezekiel.
D. Literary Characteristics
Most modern critics give Ezekiel low marks on literary style. Driver referred to him as the most uniformly prosaic of the earlier prophets. However, it is wrong to analyze the book on the naive assumption that the author was essentially a poet as some critics have done (e. g., Hoelscher and Irwin). It is true that the book is characterized by a certain amount of prolixity. The sentences are often long and involved. But Ezekiel’s style is enriched by uncommon comparisons. The straight forward and embellished narration is at times punctuated by passages sublime in both thought and expression. If at times Ezekiel smothers his readers with comparatively dry and uninteresting details (e. g., Ezekiel 40:6-49), at other times he overwhelms them with a barrage of scintillating images (e. g., chap. 27). At times he halts and staggers (chap. 17); at other times he emotionally plunges forward. To be specific, the Book of Ezekiel is marked by at least five stylistic characteristics.
- The book is permeated with the supernatural. It is impossible to reduce Ezekiel to an ordinary or even an extraordinary man of genius. The book is not the result of the subjective meditations of Ezekiel about the condition of his people. Ezekiel insists that every vision, every symbol, every oracle be understood as Divine communication of which he was merely the intermediary. 2. The book is marked by highly idealistic coloring. Challenging visions, allegories, parables and the like are found through out. God no doubt chose to communicate His Word in forms suitable to the poetic temperament of this prophet. This type of imaginative discourse is eminently suited for capturing the attention of reluctant listeners and impressing vividly upon their minds the truths of God. Scholars differ among themselves as to the source of Ezekiel’s imaginary. Was he influenced by the art of Babylonia? Many sculptured shapes found in that area present points of analogy to Ezekiel’s cherubim. However Keil has argued that all the symbolism in the book is derived from the Israelite sanctuary and is the logical outcome of Old Testament ideas and views. 3. Ezekiel makes extensive use of earlier Scriptures. He displays an intimate knowledge of the works of the eighth century prophets Hosea, Amos and Isaiah as well as those of his own century Jeremiah and Zephaniah.[38] Most certainly Ezekiel was acquainted with the Pentateuch.[39]
[38] See Whitelaw, PC, p. xxv for a list of passages reflecting the writings of Jeremiah.
[39] .An extensive list of passages indicating widespread acquaintance with the Pentateuch can be found in Whitelaw-’, PC, pp. xxv-xxvi.
- The book reflects a cosmopolitan outlook. Ezekiel exhibits a remarkable acquaintance, with several foreign lands. Some critics have even suggested that he may have visited these lands in his youth. 5. Ezekiel employed cultured diction. He was an aristocrat, and there is something aristocratic about his style.[40]
[40] Ibid.
- The book is marked by originality. Ezekiel freely reproduced the sentiments of the earlier writers with the stamp of his own individuality upon it.[41] Among the expressions and thoughts original in the book are the following: son of man; rebellious house; hand of Yahweh was on me; the word of Yahweh came unto me; set your face against; they shall know that I am Yahweh; they shall know that a prophet is in their midst; thus says Yahweh Elohim (God). A long list of Hebrew verbs and nouns peculiar to Ezekiel could also be produced.
[41] Ibid.
- The book is full of repetition and deliberate redundancy. If his visions are obscure and mystical, Ezekiel’s sermons are simple. He believed in the technique of emphasis by repetition. He wanted to make it impossible for his hearers to misunderstand his prose discourses.
E. The Interpretation of Ezekiel
Such obscurity as does exist in Ezekiel is found in the main in the first ten and in the last nine Chapter s of the book. Ezekiel was the great mystic among the prophets. It is probably because of the difficulty of interpreting his visionary and symbolic prophecies, that Ezekiel is the most neglected of all the prophets.[42] Hall has put his finger on the reason for the difficulties in Ezekiel. He regards the book as
[42] Feinberg PE, p. 13.
a transition from regular prophetic literature with its annunciations and denunciations to the highly figurative apocalyptic literature of works such as Daniel and Revelation.[43]
[43] Hall, WBC, p. 369.
Ezekiel is a mixture of prosaic and poetic, historical and prophetical, literal and symbolic, realistic and idealistic discourse. Each type of literature must be interpreted according to its own hermeneutical principles. Ordinarily it is not too difficult to identify clearly these various types of literature. Obviously, the visions and symbols are the most difficult. Ezekiel’s visions seem to have been based on actual scenic representations that were present to his mind’s eye during the moments of ecstasy. But what of his symbolic acts? Were they actual occurrences or merely carried out mentally by the prophet and reported to the captives? Were they external (Plumptre) or merely internal occurrences (Keil; Hengstenberg)? There is no reason to doubt that Ezekiel did physically perform some of his symbolic acts, e. g., carrying stuff from his house (Ezekiel 11:7); sighing bitterly before the eyes of the people (Ezekiel 21:6). In other instances the question is not so easily answered. This much is clear If Ezekiel did not actually perform the actions before his auditors in his own house, it at least seemed to him while in the ecstatic state that he did.[44]
[44] Whitelaw, PC p. xxix.
F. The Text of Ezekiel
Harrison describes the Hebrew text of Ezekiel as poorly preserved.[45] He attributes the difficulties in the Hebrew text to the obscurities and technical expressions and hapax legomena which led subsequent copyists into frequent error. It is interesting, however, that the fragments that could be detached from the Ezekiel scroll found in Cave 11 at Qumran show that the Hebrew text was fixed in a form similar to the standard Masoretic Text by the middle of the first century B.C. at the latest. The Septuagint (Greek) text of Ezekiel was translated by a fairly literal translator, although he occasionally paraphrases when the text is difficult. At times he gave such a literal rendering of the Hebrew that his translation makes for impossible Greek. He often omitted repetitious words and phrases so as to make for a simpler form of the text. Sometimes he appears to intentionally change the text in accordance with a different point of view.
[45] Harrison, IOT, p. 854.
G. Structure and Arrangement
The Book of Ezekiel has been carefully constructed, and it is to Ezekiel himself that the credit for this arrangement belongs. The fall of Jerusalem was the mid-point in the ministry of the prophet and also in the book. Chapter s 1-24 come from the period prior to the fall of Jerusalem; the last twenty-four Chapter s in the main are post-fall.[46] In terms of subject matter the book breaks down into three divisions oracles against Israel (1-24), oracles against foreign nations (25-32); and a second section pertaining to Israel (33-48).[47]
[46] Because of the importance of the destruction of the Temple some would divide the book at Ezekiel 33:21.
[47] The structure OF Ezekiel is similar to that of Isaiah in the Hebrew Bible and Jeremiah in the Greek Bible where the oracles against foreign nations are grouped in the middle of the book.
THE STRUCTURE OF EZEKIEL
Oracles Concerning Israel
Oracles Concerning Foreign Nations
Oracles Concerning Israel
Chapter s 1-24
Chapter s 25-32
Chapter s 33-48
Prior to the Fall of Jerusalem of Jerusalem
During the siege of Jerusalem
After the Fall
Condemnation and Catastrophe
Consolation and Comfort
Whatever interruption of strict chronological sequence which the book displays is best accounted for as the work of Ezekiel himself not some perplexed editor. The prophet at times desired to group his prophecies by the subjects to which they related rather than by the dates on which they were spoken.
The Book of Ezekiel displays a chronological system unparalleled in any prophetic book save Haggai. Sixteen dates are given in fourteen passages. In two cases (Ezekiel 1:1-2; Ezekiel 40:1) a double dating is employed utilizing two different counting systems. In the following chart the chronological references are tabulated and converted into the modern calendrical system.
REFERENCE
YEAR/MONTH/DAY
CONVERSION
5/4/5
July 31, 593 B.C.
6/6/5
September 17, 592 B.C.
7/5/10
August 14, 591 B.C.
9/10/10
January 15, 588 B.C.
10/10/12
January 7, 587 B.C.
11/1/7
April 30, 594 B.C.
11/3/1
June 21, 587 B.C.
12/12/1
March 4, 585 B.C.
12/?/15
*March 18, 585 B.C.
12/10/5
January 8, 585 B.C.
25/1/10
April 28, 573 B.C.
11/?/1
*August 19, 587 B.C.
- Since the month is not given in the Hebrew text, the date is conjectured. See discussion at the relevant passage. The conversion column is based on the assumption that Ezekiel used the Spring calendar which was common in Babylon rather than the Autumn calendar which at various times was employed in Palestine.
The dating in the Book of Ezekiel is based on the years of the deportation of King Jehoiachin. This eighteen year old king who went captive in 597 B.C. was apparently considered by many of that time the legal ruler of Judah vis-a-vis Zedekiah who was looked upon as a mere regent of Nebuchadnezzar.[48]
[48] Even after his deportation to Babylon, Jehoiachin appears to have possessed land in Palestine. A seal of his steward dating after 597 B.C. has been found in Palestine, See W. F. Albright, The Seal of Eliakim and the Latest Pre-Exilic History of Judah, with Some Observations on Ezekiel, JBL, LI (1932) 77-106.
Harrison[49] follows Brownlee in suggesting that the Book of Ezekiel is a literary bifid, i.e., the book reveals a two part arrangement. Harrison puts a great deal of emphasis on the statement of Josephus (Ant. X. 5.1) that Ezekiel left behind two books. These books, originally separate productions of the prophet, have been combined in the present book of Ezekiel. Harrison thinks that Chapter s 1-23 constitute Book One and Chapter s 24-48 Book Two. The following chart indicates parallels between the two books of Ezekiel.
[49] Harrison, IOT, pp. 848-49.
BOOK ONE Chapter S 1-23
BOOK TWO Chapter S 24-48
The Vengeance of the Lord against His People
The Vindication of the Lord through His People
The name Ezekiel appears once (Ezekiel 1:3)
The name Ezekiel appears once (Ezekiel 24:24)[50]
[50] Such renewed claim to authorship is made by Thucydides in his History (V, 26), the probable beginning of the second roll of his work.
A commissioning of the prophet (Ezekiel 3:16-21)
A commissioning of the prophet (Ezekiel 33:1-9)
Commission followed by dumbness Ezekiel 3:25-27
Commission followed by release from dumbness Ezekiel 33:21 f.
Divine glory forsakes the Temple (chaps. 8-11)
Divine glory returns to sanctify the land Ezekiel 43:1-5
REVIEW QUESTIONS
True and False
Ezekiel began his prophetic career prior to being deported to Babylon.
Ezekiel was deported to Babylon after Jerusalem was de stroyed in 587 B.C.
Jehoiachin was the last king of Judah.
Ezekiel was born during the reformation led by King Josiah.
Chronologically it is possible that Ezekiel knew Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Daniel.
Jeremiah was taken captive with Ezekiel to Babylon.
The exiles in Babylon initially believed that their stay there would be brief.
Ezekiel is mentioned by name in the Bible three times out side his book.
Ezekiel’s name means Yahweh is Lord.
No other person by the name Ezekiel appears in the Bible.
Ezekiel’s father Amoz was thought in Jewish tradition to be a prophet.
Unlike Jeremiah, Ezekiel had a wife.
Ezekiel lived five years in Babylon before God called him to be a prophet.
Ezekiel was only a youth of eighteen when God called him.
Ezekiel initially was a prophet of doom.
Son of Man is the most frequent title given to Ezekiel in the book.
Ezekiel was a priest as well as a prophet.
The Messiah is not as prominent in Ezekiel as in Isaiah.
The term kingdom of God is one of the most characteristic expressions in Ezekiel.
Unlike Isaiah and Jeremiah, the Book of Ezekiel contains no prophecies concerning foreign nations.
Josephus refers to two books of Ezekiel.
The canonicity of the book of Ezekiel has never been seriously questioned in the Christian Church.
Only the poetic verses in the book actually go back to Ezekiel himself.
The trend among modern critics currently is to support the unity and integrity of Ezekiel.
Events in Ezekiel are dated according to the years of the captivity of King Jehoiachin.
ARAB
ASV
American Standard Version (1901)
BBC
BC
BCOT
BPE
CB
EB
J. F. C. Fuller, Tyre, Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th ed., XXII, 652-53.
EBP
EE
Patrick Fairbairn, Exposition of Ezekiel (Grand Rapids: Sovereign Grace, 1971 reprint).
EMM
EPH
FEE
FSAC
HBC
HI
IB
ICC
IDB
A. S. Kapelrud, Tyre, The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, R-Z, 721-723.
IOT
Aage Bentzen, Introduction to the Old Testament (fifth ed.; Copenhagen: Gad, 1959). George Fohrer, Introduction to the Old Testament, trans. David Green (Nashville: Abingdon, 1968). R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969). Robert Pfeiffer Introduction to the Old Testament, (New York: Harper, 1948). Edward J. Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1960).
KJV
King James Version (1611)
NASB
NBD
NCB
OTC
PC
PE
Charles Lee Feinberg, The Prophecy of Ezekiel (Chicago: Moody, 1969).
RA
RI
Yehezkel Kaufman, The Religion of Israel (Chicago: University Press, 1960).
RSV
Revised Standard Version (1952).
SBB
SOTI
Gleason Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction (Chicago: Moody, 1964).
TOTC
WBC
REVIEW QUESTIONS
What is the relationship between Ezekiel 1:1 and Ezekiel 1:2-3 of the book?
What does the name Ezekiel mean?
What is known of Ezekiel’s father?
What distinction can be made between the roles of prophet and priest in the Old Testament?
How long did Ezekiel’s ministry last? How does his ministry relate chronologically to that of Jeremiah?
What various interpretations for the thirtieth year (Ezekiel 1:2) have been proposed? What view is correct?
Why are dates in Ezekiel given in terms of the captivity of King Jehoiachin?
Compare the ministries of Daniel and Ezekiel in Babylon.
What symbolism is connected with the vision of the throne-chariot of God?
How do the cherubim seen by Ezekiel differ from those seen by John in the Book of Revelation?
What theological truths are conveyed in the symbolism of the wheels of the throne-chariot?
What consolation would the call-vision have afforded Ezekiel personally? the captives?
How would you respond to those who argue that Ezekiel saw a spaceship in the opening chapter of the book?
Ezekiel 1:1-3
Chapter Two
EZEKIEL’S INAUGURAL VISION 1:1-28
Before a prophet could speak to others, God had to speak to him. A special call vision catapulted the apprentice priest Ezekiel into the prophetic ministry. The vision of the divine chariot the Merkabah as it is known in Jewish literature is a fitting introduction to his career. Jewish mystics have always been fascinated with this material. More recently science fiction writers have subjected the Merkabah to the most detailed scrutiny in search of evidence that spaceships from other worlds have landed on this planet, Much has been written on this chapter of Scripture. Often the discussion has centered on the mechanics of the Merkabah rather than the message which God is trying to communicate through this vision.
In chapter 1 of his book Ezekiel discusses (1) the setting (Ezekiel 1:1-3) and (2) the substance (Ezekiel 1:4-28) of his inaugural vision. -s-'
- THE SETTING OF THE VISION 1:1-3
TRANSLATION
(1) NOW it came to pass in the thirtieth year, the fourth month, the fifth day of the month that I was in the midst of the captives beside the river Chebar. The heavens were opened and I saw visions of God. (2) In the fifth day of the month (it was the fifth year of the captivity of King Jehoiachin) (3) the word of the LORD came most assuredly to Ezekiel son of Buzi, the priest, in the land of the Chaldeans beside the river Chebar; and the hand of the LORD came upon him there.
COMMENTS
The first three verses are in the nature of a preface to the Book of Ezekiel. Two distinct statements can be identified here. Ezekiel 1:1 is in the first person and Ezekiel 1:2-3 are in the third person.[51] Some critics think two distinct superscriptions are used here, superscriptions which at one time headed separate collections of Ezekiel’s writings. It is better, however, to regard Ezekiel 1:2-3 as a parenthetical insertion by Ezekiel himself designed to explain the puzzling, indefinite expressions in Ezekiel 1:1. That Ezekiel 1:2-3 are an integral part of this book can be seen in the fact that they provide, in addition to the date for the book, the customary information about the author. The following chart sets forth the differences between the autobiographical and parenthetical superscriptions to the book.
[51] Ezekiel 1:3 is the only verse in the book in which Ezekiel’s personal experiences are described in the third person.
THE SUPERSCRIPTION TO THE BOOK
FORM
First Person
Third Person
DATE
Thirtieth Year
Fifth Year of Jehoiachin’s Captivity
Fourth month Fifth day
Fifth day
PLACE
In the midst of the captives by the river Chebar
In the land of the Chaldeans by the river Chebar
EXPERIENCE
Heavens were opened, 1 saw visions of God
Word of the lord came assuredly unto Ezekiel Hand of the LORD was there upon him
RECIPIENT
Ezekiel son of Buzi the priest
The preface to the Book of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1:1-3) presents the setting for the inaugural vision of the prophet. These verses set forth information regarding (1) the recipient; (2) the time; (3) the place; and (4) the nature of the vision.
A. The Recipient of the Call Vision
The author of the book identifies himself for the first time in Ezekiel 1:3. He is Ezekiel the son Of Buzi. The name Ezekiel means God strengthens. Nothing further is known of his father beyond what is said here. The title the priest properly belongs to the name Buzi as is indicated by the Hebrew accent marks. Ezekiel would also be a priest, however, as the Old Testament priesthood was hereditary.
In the first three Chapter s of Ezekiel that moment in time is described in which the fledgling priest was called to be a prophet. A prophet is one who speaks for another (Exodus 7:1; Exodus 4:16). This involved speaking for God to man through sermon and oracle, and it involved speaking for man to God in intercessory prayer. While the priesthood was hereditary, one could only become a prophet who was divinely chosen to be so. Priests interpreted the law of God and led in the divinely ordained Temple rituals. Prophets interpreted history in the light of the Law, urged compliance to the spirit of the Law in the present, and announced God’s plans for the near and distant future as those plans related to Israel and the neighboring nations as well. While both priest and prophet fulfilled vital functions, the ministry of prophet was somewhat broader and less affected by time Priests were concerned with Old Covenant law and ritual the types and shadows which according to God’s grand plan were to pass away. Prophets were concerned with basic timeless principles and with the ultimate developments of God’s program for this earth. While the names of even the greatest priests are scarcely known today, the prophets through their writings continue to instruct, challenge, guide and rebuke the sons of men
B. The Time of the Call Vision
Ezekiel’s inaugural receives double dating. In Ezekiel 1:1 the vision is dated in terms of Ezekiel’s own life; in Ezekiel 1:2, according to the captivity of King Jehoiachin.
- The personal dating (Ezekiel 1:1). Ezekiel was thirty years old when he received the divine call to be a prophet.[52] From Ezekiel 1:2 it can be computed that the call vision fell in the year 593 B.C. This would mean that Ezekiel was born about 622 B.C. during the reign of good King Josiah. He was born four years after Jeremiah began his ministry, and one year before the discovery of the lost book of the Law in the Temple. The dated prophecies in this book cover a span of twenty-two years, and thus Ezekiel’s prophetic activity centered in the period of his life between the ages of thirty and fifty-two.
[52] This interpretation of the thirtieth year in Ezekiel 1:1 seems to have been proposed first by the church father Origen (d. A.D. 253). The objection has been raised that it is rather unusual for a prophet to call attention to his age. It must be remembered, however, that Ezekiel was an unusual prophet, Ezekiel 1:1 presents certain unique characteristics on any interpretation. See Harrison, JOT, p. 838.
It is strange that nothing is said in the Old Testament or in Jewish tradition about the age at which a priest began to serve. However, under the Law of Moses Levites entered into their service at the age of thirty (Numbers 4:23; Numbers 4:30), and the probability is rather strong that this was the normal age for entering priestly service as well.[53] If this is so, then Ezekiel never functioned as a priest prior to his deportation in 597 B.C., for as Ezekiel 1:2 clearly shows, his thirtieth year fell in 593 B.C. While he never officiated in the Temple, Ezekiel must have studied for years the intricate details of priestly ritual. His thirtieth birthday would have been particularly sad for the son of Buzi because he knew he would never succeed his father in the sacred vocation for which he had prepared throughout his youth. This was a crucial time in the life of Ezekiel. Since it would not be possible for this godly man to serve the Lord as a priest, God called him to another and even more vital sphere of service.
[53] It was at this age that Jesus commenced his priestly ministry. John the Baptist was also in his thirtieth year when he began to preach on the banks of Jordan.
Some scholars feel that the thirty years should be reckoned from some fixed point in Babylonian or Jewish history. Thus in one scheme the thirty years are counted from the accession of Nabopolassar in 626 B.C. This would yield a date of 596 B.C., one year after the deportation of Ezekiel and ten thousand of his countrymen. This computation would not square with the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin mentioned in Ezekiel 1:2. Even less justification exists for counting the thirty years from 621 B.C. when the lost lawbook was discovered in the Jerusalem Temple.[54] As important as this event was in the history of the monarchy, no example of reckoning time from this year can be adduced in the Old Testament.[55]
[54] An interpretation advocated in the Targum and in Fisch, SBB, p. 1.
[55] For a host of other interpretations of the thirtieth year see Blackwood, EPH, pp. 35-36. Blackwood overstates the difficulty of the expression when he calls the interpretation here an insoluble puzzle.
So important was the inaugural vision in the life of Ezekiel that he dates it as to month and day as well as year. The call came in the fourth month. Ezekiel here follows the normal preexilic custom of numbering rather than naming the month. In post-exilic times the fourth month was known as Tammuz. Converted into modern day equivalents, Ezekiel’s call vision occurred on July 31, 593.
- The national dating (Ezekiel 1:2). The vision is further dated to the fifth year of King Jehoiachin’s captivity. Jehoiachin was taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar when he surrendered to the Chaldean conqueror on March 20, 597 B.C. The fifth year of the captivity would thus fall in 593 B.C.
Most of the dates in Ezekiel are given in terms of the captivity of Jehoiachin. It has been suggested that Ezekiel regarded Jehoiachin as the legitimate ruler of the Jews even though he had reigned only for three months after the death of his father Jehoiakim (2 Kings 24:8).[56] However this may be reading too much into Ezekiel’s dating system. The captivity of Jehoiachin involved Ezekiel as well, and may simply have been the most convenient way of measuring time for the captives.
[56] Carley, BPE, p. 10.
The call of Ezekiel did not occur in a historical vacuum. There were antecedents to that inaugural vision. False prophets had arisen in Babylon peddling their nauseating platitudes to the effect that Jerusalem would never be conquered by the Chaldeans and that those Jews in Babylon would shortly be heading home. At least two of the false prophets who were stirring up the captives against the Chaldean government were executed by being burned in a furnace (Jeremiah 29:21-22). Jeremiah wrote a letter to the captives urging that they settle down and submit themselves to the will of God. The prophet from Anathoth predicted that the Babylonian empire would endure for seventy years, and only then would there be any hope of return to Palestine. This letter was sent shortly after the deportation of 597 B.C. Furthermore, in the fourth year of the captivity (594 B.C.) Zedekiah the puppet king of Judah had attempted to throw off the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar. When rumors of the conspiracy reached the ears of Nebuchadnezzar he summoned Zedekiah to Babylon to renew his vassal commitment (Jeremiah 51:59). All of this produced confusion in the camp along the Chebar. In the midst of this ferment Ezekiel was called to deliver God’s infallible word to the exiles.
C. The Place of the Vision
The inaugural vision took place in the land of the Chaldeans (Ezekiel 1:3). Although originally the Chaldeans and Babylonians were ethnically distinct groups, at this stage of history the two terms were used interchangeably. The land of the Chaldeans is the southern Mesopotamian basin. It is not altogether certain when the Chaldeans began to filter into this region from the SyroArabian desert, but the Assyrian kings found the Chaldeans a formidable force under the leadership of Merodach-Baladan in the late eighth century. Under Nabopolassar (626-605 B.C.) the Chaldeans were able to extricate southern Mesopotamia from the grip of the Assyrians and found what was destined to become the most powerful and wealthy empire which had heretofore existed on the face of the earth.
Ezekiel was by the river Chebar (Ezekiel 1:1) at the time God called him to the prophetic ministry. The Jewish captives were not in confinement, but were restricted to a certain area of the land. It is now known that the river Chebar was not actually a river, but an enormous irrigation canal. The remains of this canal are known as Shatt en Nil. The canal started from the Euphrates above Babylon, flowed southeasterly sixty miles through Nippur, and re-entered the Euphrates near Uruk. Evidence of one large Jewish settlement near Nippur has come to light. The river Chebar is known in Babylonian inscriptions as Naru Kabari, the grand canal.
He was in the midst of the captives (Ezekiel 1:1) when he received his majestic vision. What a mixed group they were! Some had given up on God because of the misfortunes which had befallen them. They had compromised with the materialistic culture of Babylon. Others clung desperately at the outset to the illusion that God would never let Jerusalem be destroyed that God would shortly bring them back to their homeland.
Ezekiel was not the first to receive divine revelation during the Babylonian exile. Daniel had preceded Ezekiel into captivity in 605 B.C. and had begun his prophetic ministry in the second year of Nebuchadnezzar (603-602 B.C.; Daniel 2:1 ff.). But whereas Daniel spoke only to government officials, Ezekiel spoke to the needs of the Jewish captives.
Some critics are unable to accept these statements regarding Ezekiel’s location at face value. They think that because this prophet shows such familiarity with the Temple and with the situation in Jerusalem that he must have actually written this book in Palestine. Therefore, it should be underscored that here in the preface Babylon is stipulated as the place of his call, and time and again throughout the book it is mentioned as the place of his labors.[57]
[57] See Ezekiel 3:11; Ezekiel 3:15; Ezekiel 3:23; Ezekiel 10:15; Ezekiel 10:20; Ezekiel 10:22; Ezekiel 11:24-25
D. The Manner of the Call Vision
In the preface of his book Ezekiel states in a general way what he will amplify in the rest of Chapter s 1-3. The vision began when the heavens were opened. Whether to the prophet’s mental eye or to his physical eye, the heavens unfolded like curtains of a stage to reveal to him the divine glory.
The phrase visions of God could be legitimately understood in more than one way. Often the Hebrews would add the name of God to a noun to express greatness or majesty. Thus, Psalms 36:6 in the Hebrew refers to the mountains of God by which is meant great mountains.[58] Thus, visions of God could be translated great or majestic visions. But Currey is correct when he observes that .. the visions were not only supremely majestic, but visions of the majesty of God.[59] The Hebrew then may also be translated divine visions, i.e., visions concerning God or devised by God.
[58] See also Psalms 80:10; Psalms 65:9
[59] Currey, BC, p. 18.
By means of visions and dreams God communicated to individuals known as prophets in Old Testament times (Numbers 12:6). The Israelite prophet (nabhi) was also known as a seer (ro-’eh or chozeh). The term ro-’eh is used of Samuel and Hanani (1 Samuel 9:9; 2 Chronicles 16:7). Isaiah still employed this term in reference to prophets in the eighth century (Isaiah 30:10). The Chronicler uses the title chozeh for such prophets as Gad and Iddo (2 Chronicles 9:29; 2 Chronicles 29:25). The prophecy of Isaiah begins with the phrase, The vision (chazon) of Isaiah. which he saw (chaza). Add to this data the numerous passages within prophetic literature where a prophet describes what he saw. From all of this one must conclude that the visionary experience was an important aspect of the prophetic consciousness in Israel.
These visions of God are further identified as being the word of the LORD (Ezekiel 1:3). This is the most frequently used expression in the Old Testament to affirm that a prophet had received direct communication from God.[60] The phrase is not to be restricted to the oral directions which came to Ezekiel in chapter two. Rather the word of the LORD embraces all the revelatory experiences of the prophet.
[60] See 1 Samuel 15:10; 1 Kings 12:22; Isaiah 38:4; Jeremiah 1:2; Hoses Ezekiel 1:1; Joe 1:1.
The problem of authority was crucial for Ezekiel. The somewhat shocking nature of his message required that his credentials be impeccable. For this reason Ezekiel makes the strongest possible claim that he was commissioned of God. The word of the LORD came most assuredly[61] to him. No doubt existed in his own mind that he had in fact received a heaven-sent vision. In the opening words of Eze 1:3 Ezekiel insists that this book be read as prophecy. Those who communicated the divine will to Israel were said to be in possession of the word of God. The claim to bear the divine word is found often in Old Testament prophecy (cf. Amos 7; Hosea 1).
[61] Hebrew infinitive absolute.
Prophets were not called to dispense their own opinions, nor to feed the fantasies of faithless men. They were called to declare the whole counsel of God. So it was that the word of God came to Ezekiel. The messages he preached were not of his own choosing not necessarily of his own liking. That which he spoke forth was the word of God.
The phrase word of the LORD includes what was seen in vision as well as what was heard. The term word (dabhar) in the Old Testament has a much broader meaning than it does in modern English. The Old Testament use of the term word prepared the way for the grand revelation of John 1 that the eternal Word became flesh and dwelled among mankind.
God not only gave this captive priest a message, He also endowed him with the power to deliver that message. Such is the import of the sentence, the hand of the LORD was there on him (Ezekiel 1:3). Proclaiming the unpopular word of God is never easy Add to that the relative youth of Ezekiel. Young men were to be seen, not heard. All wisdom resided in the elders of the nation! Thus Ezekiel needed the reassurance of the hand of the Lord. He needed that unseen hand to guide, strengthen and protect him.
Reference to the hand of the LORD (or God) is frequent in the Old Testament. This anthropomorphism refers to the authority, power or protection of the Lord. In reference to individuals the expression is used somewhat sparingly. The hand of the Lord is said to have come upon Elijah (1 Kings 18:46) and Elisha (2 Kings 3:15). In the former case the hand of the Lord bestowed upon the prophet unusual physical power and endurance; in the latter case, oracular power. In the Book of Ezekiel the expression is used four times besides the present passage to introduce a visionary experience (Ezekiel 3:22; Ezekiel 8:1; Ezekiel 37:1; Ezekiel 40:1), In two passages the hand of the Lord refers to the divine constraining or sustaining power as it manifested itself in the physical stamina of the prophet (Ezekiel 3:14; Ezekiel 33:22).[62] The evidence then points to the following definition for this expression: The hand of the Lord refers to the supernatural manifestation of divine power in the life of a prophet such as would enhance his physical abilities and enable him to see that which the unaided human mind could never grasp or ascertain. Whereas the term visions of God in Ezekiel 1:1 points to the mystical transcendence of the prophetic experience, the hand of God points to the divine immanence.
[62] Cf. Revelation 1:17; Daniel 8:18; Daniel 10:10.
Ezekiel 1:4
II. THE SUBSTANCE OF THE VISION 1:4-28
The call-vision of a prophet is of immense importance in understanding the prophet himself. The vision granted to Ezekiel was more symbolic than that of Isaiah or Jeremiah and is indicative of this man’s more pronounced visionary and mystic nature. The account is replete with strange and even grotesque figures. Ancient Rabbis warned teachers not to expound the mystery of creation in the presence of more than one person, and the mystery of Ezekiel’s chariot-throne not even to the one, unless he was unusually wise and discreet.[63]
[63] Mishnah Hagiga 2, 1. Cited by Blackwood, EPH, p. 39,
Ezekiel beholds Yahweh’s throne-chariot coming on a great storm cloud. The point of the vision is that God is arriving to be with His people. As one reads this visionary account he has a sense of awe, mystery, and irresistible power. If only this much can be learned from the account here given, the prophet will have accomplished his purpose. If the reader misses this in the reading of chapter 1, detailed analysis of the vision will be of little value.
Ezekiel’s inaugural vision is discussed under its five chief aspects: (1) the storm cloud (Ezekiel 1:4); (2) the cherubim (Ezekiel 1:5-14); (3) the wheels (Ezekiel 1:15-21); (4) the platform (Ezekiel 1:22-25); and (5) the throne (Ezekiel 1:26-28).
A. The Storm Cloud 1:4
TRANSLATION
(4) And I looked, and behold a stormy wind was coming from the north, a great cloud with fire flashing forth and a radiant splendor round about, and from its midst something that appeared like polished bronze from the midst of the fire.
COMMENTS
Two kinds of visions are found in the Old Testament. In the objective type vision, the prophet is led to discover some meaning in an object upon which he is meditating, Any other person present could have seen the same object; only the significance of the object is given through special revelation. In the second type of vision the subjective type the vision is purely internal. It is something that only the prophet experiences. Ezekiel’s vision of the throne-chariot is doubtlessly of the subjective type.[64]
[64] Taylor (TOTC. p. 54) suggests that it was while Ezekiel was meditating on a black northern storm cloud that this vision developed. The physical and visible led into the spiritual and visionary. See also Blackwood, EPH, pp. 40-41.
The first sight to meet the eyes of Ezekiel was a stormy wind. Association of deity with storm phenomena and fire is quite common in Hebrew thought.[65] The mighty thunderstorm is but the attendant of the throne of God. This storm must be a symbol of God’s omnipotent power. Within six more years Jerusalem would be destroyed by this stormy wind. Chapter s 4-24 recount in detail Ezekiel’s description and prediction of that forthcoming judgment.
[65] E. g., Exodus 3:2; Exodus 19:16-19; Psalms 18:7-15; Psalms 29:3-8.
The stormy wind comes from the north. Why so? In other passages the Lord is depicted as going forth from Zion to accomplish His purposes. Probably the coming of the thunderstorm from the north has multiple significance. Perhaps this detail is designed to emphasize the universality of Yahweh. He was God of the captives in Babylon as well as of those who remained in Jerusalem. Then again, perhaps the violent thunderstorm coming from the north is to be connected with the enemy from the north concept of Jeremiah (Ezekiel 1:14; Ezekiel 4:6). God would employ a ruthless foe from the north the Chaldeans to bring about the final destruction of Jerusalem. The Jews through the eye of flesh would be able to see nothing in that destructive storm but grief and despair; Ezekiel through the eye of faith sees God.[66]
[66] Ellison (EMM, p. 22) sees in the reference to the north a reference to the Babylonian myth that the gods lived in the north. The storm cloud from the north would then mean that Yahweh had vanquished the pagan deities on the way. This interpretation seems a bit forced. Even more so is that contention of Currey (BC, p. 18) that the north was felt by the Jews to be the peculiar seat of the power of Yahweh, an interpretation based on an erroneous understanding of Psa 48:2,
Accompanying the stormy wind was a great cloud. The cloud may be a portent of impending calamity[67] or perhaps better, a symbol of approaching deity. God would be present in the judgment which Ezekiel would learn was about to fall on Jerusalem.
[67] Fisch, SBB, p. 3.
Ezekiel does not dwell on the blackness of the cloud. He emphasizes rather its radiance. From that cloud fire was flashing forth. The Hebrew phrase is literally a fire taking hold of itself, i.e., a succession of outbursts of flame.[68] The fire here is probably lightning streaking across the blackness of the heavens. Those who see in this fire an indication that the Jerusalem Temple was to be burned[69] are probably reading too much into this descriptive detail.
[68] Currey (BC, p. 19) understands this to mean that the fire formed a circle of light about the cloud.
[69] Fisch, .SBB, p. 3.
A radiant splendor (nogah) surrounded the black storm cloud. This dazzling sight is not to be explained with Taylor[70] as the brightness of the desert sun lighting up the edges of the cloud. Still less was the radiant splendor produced by the fire that was flashing forth from the cloud.[71] It is rather the splendor of the glory of God which is being observed by Ezekiel in connection with the great cloud and stormy wind. It is almost impossible to talk about God for any length of time without mentioning light.
[70] Taylor, TOTC, p. 54.
[71] Fisch, SBB, p. 3.
In the midst of the great cloud was something that appeared like (lit., as the eye of) polished bronze (Heb. chashmal). The Hebrew word occurs only in Ezekiel, here, in Ezekiel 1:27 and Ezekiel 8:2, and therefore some uncertainty exists as to its precise meaning. The Septuagint and Vulgate have electrum, a substance composed of silver and gold. Cooke, however, traces chashmal back to an Akkadian word meaning polished bronze.
Ezekiel 1:5-14
B. The Cherubim 1:5-14
TRANSLATION
(5) And from its midst the likeness of four living creatures. And this was their appearance: they possessed the likeness of a man. (6) And each of them had four faces and four wings. (7) And their feet were straight feet, and the soles of their feet were like the sole of a calf’s foot, and they glistened like the appearance of polished bronze. (8) Under their wings upon their four sides were hands of a man. Now as for the faces and wings of the four of them, (9) their wings were joined together, they did not turn when they moved, each went straight ahead. (10) And the likeness of their faces was as the face of a man, and the four of them had the face of a lion on the right, and a face of a bull on the left, and the four of them had the face of an eagle. (11) And their faces and their wings were separated above. Each had two which joined another, and two covering their bodies. (12) And each went straight ahead wherever the spirit was to go, they went; they did not turn as they went. (13) And as for the likeness of the living creatures, their appearance was like coals of fire, like the appearance of torches. Fire[72] was going to and fro between the living creatures. The fire had a radiant splendor and from the fire lightning was going forth. (14) And the living creatures were running back and forth like lightning bolts.
[72] The Hebrew actually uses a feminine pronoun, but the reference is obviously to the fire.
COMMENTS
Ezekiel observed four living creatures emerging from the midst of the flashing cloud. These grotesque creatures supported the platform (Ezekiel 1:22 f.) on which stood the throne of Yahweh. The living creatures were basically human in appearance (Ezekiel 1:5). The Greek version uses the word zoon (animal, living creature), the same word employed of the four living creatures of Rev 4:6.
According to the Hebrew text of Eze 1:13, the likeness of the appearance of the living creatures was like coals of fire. Many scholars feel at this point the Septuagint (Greek) Old Testament preserves a more ancient reading: In the midst of the living creatures was something that looked like burning coals of fire. However, the Hebrew rendering of the verse should be retained. So understood, the verse adds to the general description of the living creatures. They glowed like coals of fire or torches.[73]
[73] The Hebrew word lappid is variously translated in English versions as lamp, lighting, firebrand, and torch. The word properly means, not the vessel which contains the light, but the light itself.
It is frequently asserted that these living creatures of Ezekiel are to be linked to the winged man-headed animals which stood guard over Mesopotamian temples. Ezekiel was living in a country on the walls of whose temples and palaces were strange mixed figures, human heads with the bodies of lions, and the feet of calves, and the like. These combinations were of course symbolical and this symbolism was no doubt familiar to Ezekiel. But the prophet is not constructing his cherubim in imitation of these figures. Rather the Spirit of God is revealing forms corresponding to the general rules of oriental symbolism.[74] This mode of representation was too common throughout the Near East to be ascribed to any one nation. The throne-chariot and guarding cherubim are but an extension of Temple symbolism the ark and its winged attendants in the Holy of Holies.
[74] Currey, BC, p. 19.
The cherubim are four in number. This number has special significance in Ezekiel and throughout the Bible. It suggests primarily the idea of completeness and totality. As a secondary import this number stands for the created world. Thus the Old Testament speaks of the four corners of the earth (Isaiah 11:12), the four winds (Ezekiel 37:9) and so forth. Ezekiel’s predilection for the number four can be seen in the four wings, four faces, four hands, four sides and four wheels of the inaugural vision. In chapter 8 he presents four scenes of false worship and in chapter 14 he refers to four plagues.
The inaugural vision is highly symbolic. Several of the symbols are easily identified because of more or less common usage through the ages. Gold, sapphire, and the polished bronze, are familiar images of majestic glory. The thunders, lightnings and the stormy cloud are symbols of awful power and of judgment. The clear brightness is symbolic of God’s purity and truth, the rainbow of His mercy. As the fire, lightning and cloud are marks of inanimate creation, so the four living creatures symbolize animate creation. The wings represent the power by which all creation rises and falls at God’s commands; the one spirit, the unity and harmony of all of His works; the wheels the universality of God. The number four is the symbol of the world with its four quarters; the veiled bodies, the inability of all creatures to stand in the presence of God.
That the living creatures had their groundwork in the Old Testament cherubim there can be no doubt. Little is known about the angelic order of cherubim although they are frequently mentioned in the Bible. The description of the cherubim in Revelation 4 differs from that found here. Later in Ezekiel 41 the cherubim are depicted as having only two faces instead of the four which are mentioned in the present passage. The cherubim of the Mosaic ark and the Solomonic Temple probably did not resemble those which are here in view. This would account for the circumstance that when Ezekiel first saw these creatures on the bank of the Chebar he did not recognize them as cherubim. This identification he was able to make in Ezekiel 10:20 when he saw the creatures in connection with the Temple.
The cherubim as they appear throughout the Bible are symbols not likenesses. This is why the appearance of these creatures differs from passage to passage. In place of the four-faced, four-sided figures seen by Ezekiel, John saw each living creature having only one face. But if these living creatures are symbols, of what are they symbolical? The oldest and probably the correct explanation is that the living creatures are symbolic representations of heavenly beings.[75] This is not to say that the living creatures represented any four particular angels; nor should anyone jump to the conclusion that they will meet creatures in heaven resembling those which Ezekiel here sees. *These cherubim are symbols, not likenesses.
[75]* The Jewish commentator Kimchi thought the four living creatures represented the four great empires symbolized by the various beasts of Daniel 7. Irenaeus saw in these creatures figures of the four Gospel evangelists. Grider (BBC, p. 538) thinks they represent the forces of Nebuchadnezzar.
What encouragement Ezekiel must have received as he reflected on this aspect of the grand vision. From the cherubim he learned many lessons and some profound theological truths. But the one lesson which probably most influenced Ezekiel in a very practical way was this If heavenly beings serve the King, how much more so should the sons of men! The symbolic import of the living creatures is not difficult to ascertain. Their facial features (see following discussion) suggest that they have the specific function of representing the earthly creation before the Lord. Yahweh the God of creation and redemption holds sway over all the earth. It is most appropriate that the throne-chariot of the heavenly Sovereign should be borne by those who represent the whole earth over which the Lord holds sway. The interpretation of the details of the throne-chariot description is notoriously difficult. The Jewish Rabbis declared that if anyone could master the secrets of the merkabah (chariot) he would know all the secrets of creation, The difficulties involved here are not in the English translation. The problem lies in (1) the poverty of human language when it comes to describing the celestial and supernatural; and (2) the lack of spiritual imagination on the part of the interpreters of this book. In any case, it is the message of the throne-chariot and not the mechanics of it which is important.
- Their faces (Ezekiel 1:6; Ezekiel 1:10). Each of the living creatures had four faces (Ezekiel 1:6). Something of great importance is thus signified. Those creatures associated most intimately with God could see in all directions. The shape of the face differed on the four sides the face of a man in front, of a lion on the right side, of an ox on the left side, and of an eagle behind (Ezekiel 1:10)[76] These faces symbolized the highest forms of life which are found in the various realms of creation. Man is supreme over all the creatures of God, and so is mentioned first. Man faced forward. The lion is king of wild beasts, the ox of domesticated animals, and the eagle of the birds of the heavens.[77] Thus the living creatures were representative of all living beings. The Jewish Rabbis commented:
[76] According to Targum Jonathan, (here were four faces in each direction, so that each creature had sixteen faces. [77] Representations of the lion, OX. and eagle were common in Babylonian art, and so would be particularly suggestive to the mind of the exiles there, Four-faced statuettes Of gods have also been found in Babylon.
Man is exalted among creatures; the eagle is exalted among the birds; the ox is exalted among domestic animals; the lion is exalted among wild beasts; and all of them have received dominion, and greatness has been given them yet they are stationed below the chariot of the Holy One.[78]
[78] Midrash Rabbah Shemoth, 23.
The four faces appear again in Revelation 4:7 which is based on this passage.[79] In later Christian tradition the faces were associated with the writers of the four Gospels: Matthew (man), Mark, (lion), Luke (ox), John (eagle).
[79] In Revelation each living creature had its own distinctive character. Here all four creatures had identical four-sided faces.
The living creatures formed a square. The human face of each creature faced outward. The effect would be that whichever way one looked at the four creatures, a different face was seen from each. All four faces were visible at the same time from any angle.[80]
[80] Taylor, TOTC, p. 55.
2. Their wings (Ezekiel 1:6; Ezekiel 1:9; Ezekiel 1:11). The creatures had four wings (Ezekiel 1:6)[81], [82] For the sake of modesty, two of these wings were used to cover the naked bodies of these creatures. The other two wings were in the act of flying. They were so stretched out that the tip of each touched the wing tip of a fellow living creature on the right and on the left (Ezekiel 1:9). Thus is symbolized their unity of purpose. When the throne-chariot came to a stop the second pair of wings was let down (cf. Ezekiel 1:24). Thus the four living creatures and their extended wings formed a kind of hollow square. But although the creatures appeared at times to be connected to one another at the wing tips, yet their faces and their wings were separated[83]* above* (Ezekiel 1:11), i.e., they rose distinct from one another.
[81] By way of contrast, the angelic seraphim of Isaiah 6 had six wings, two of which were used to cover the face, two to cover the feet (possibly a euphemism for pudenda), and two to hover in mid-air.
[82] Reliefs and statuettes of four-winged creatures have been found in Mesopotamia. [83] The Hebrew root parad is rendered divided, separated, parted, dispersed, scattered, sundered in the KJV. The KJV rendering stretched in this verse seems in appropriate.
-
Their hands (Ezekiel 1:8). In addition to the four wings, each creature had hands (Ezekiel 1:8). Some doubt exists as to whether each creature had four hands or two hands. Probably the latter is correct. These hands will be put to good use a bit later (Ezekiel 10:7).
-
Their legs (Ezekiel 1:7). The feet of the creatures were straight. Probably in this verse the term feet is being used in the wider sense of legs. These legs are said to be straight, i.e., unjointed. Such at least is the old Jewish understanding of the word. The creatures then, did not bow, crouch or lie down. Throughout the vision they remained perfectly erect.
-
Their feet (Ezekiel 1:7). The feet of the creatures resembled the hoof of a calf. This probably means nothing more than that their feet were rounded.[84] this would enable creatures to move freely in every direction. The feet are said to glisten (notsetsim) like polished brass (Ezekiel 1:7).
[84] Groping for significance in the feet like a calf, Taylor (TOTC, p. 55) suggests that the calf symbolizes nimbleness.
- The fires (Ezekiel 1:13). In the midst of the hollow square formed by the four cherubim Ezekiel observed a bright fire which seemed to move back and forth among the living creatures. Periodically lightning flashed forth from the interior of the chariot.[85] This fire no doubt symbolized judgment which at that moment of history was in the center of God’s concern.[86]
[85] Ezekiel 1:13 is extremely difficult. The Greek version would make the whole verse a description of what was in the midst of the living creatures. According to the Hebrew text, followed here, the first part of the verse contains two similes descriptive of the cherubim. The latter part of the verse describes a flashing fire that was among or between the cherubim.
[86] Ellison (EMM, p. 24) thinks it is the spirit of God which is symbolized by the pulsating light coming from within the square formed by the cherubim
- Their movements (Ezekiel 1:9; Ezekiel 1:12; Ezekiel 1:14). Since each creature had a face on four sides, they did not turn around when their course was altered. The face toward the intended course moved forward in that direction (Ezekiel 1:9). Wherever they went they always moved forward, since each creature had a face in the appropriate direction[87] (Ezekiel 1:9; Ezekiel 1:12). This detail may point to the resoluteness of purpose which these creatures manifested.
[87] A difficulty arises, however, in the fact that the fourfold face is not parallel in the rest of their bodies.
Apparently the living creatures were not capable of independent movement. The entire throne-chariot of which they were a part moved as a single unit, Under the impulse of the spirit (Ezekiel 1:12). Ezekiel 1:20 speaks of the spirit of the living creatures. Apparently God from His throne exercised an influence upon the spirits of the living creatures thus coordinating their movements. Initially the movements of the living creatures seemed to Ezekiel to be erratic. The creatures were seen running back and forth like lightning bolts (Ezekiel 1:14). The throne-chariot moved to and fro with the speed of lightning.
Ezekiel 1:15-21
C. The Wheels 1:15-21
TRANSLATION
(15) Now as I saw the living creatures, behold one wheel on the earth beside each of the living creatures on its four sides. (16) The appearance of the wheels and their works was like the color of topaz and the four of them had one likeness; and their appearance and their works were as a wheel in the middle of a wheel. (17) When they went, they went toward their four sides, they did not turn about in their going. (18) As for their rims, they were high and awesome and their rims were filled with eyes round about the four of them. (19) And when the living creatures went, the wheels went beside them, and when the living creatures were lifted Up from upon the earth, the wheels were lifted up. (20) Wherever the Spirit was to go, they went; thither was the spirit to go and the wheels lifted Up opposite them for the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels. (21) In their going, they went, and in their standing still, they stood still. And when they were lifted up from upon the earth, the wheels were lifted up opposite them for the spirit of the living creatures was in the wheels.
COMMENTS
By, i.e., under, each of the living creatures was a wheel (Ezekiel 1:15). These wheels were so constructed as to facilitate movement in any direction. They were omnidirectional wheels. In appearance these wheels resembled topaz (Heb., tarshish).[88] Each wheel actually consisted of two wheels, i.e., a wheel in the middle of a wheel. The two wheels were probably solid discs which bisected each other at right angles (Ezekiel 1:16). This would produce a ballbearing-type effect which would allow movement of the wheels in any direction without being turned (Ezekiel 1:17). Apparently there was no steering mechanism connected to these wheels. The symbolism of this detail is more clear than the mechanics. The wheels are directed by the Spirit of God. Amid all the uncertainties and tragedies of life, the Spirit of God is at work providentially directing all discordant aspects of life,
[88] Opinions differ on the identity of this stone. Jasper and beryl have been suggested, The ancient versions have chrysolite, whatever that may have been,
The rims (gabbehen) of the wheels were high, i.e., the wheels were huge in comparison to the entire chariot.[89] Owing to the fact that they were full of eyes, the rims were terrifying (Ezekiel 1:18).[90] The eyes may have been no more than dazzling spots which added to the brilliancy of the wheels. But it seems more likely that they had a symbolical meaning. The eye in the ancient world was a symbol of intelligence. God sees and knows what is happening throughout His world, including the camps of Jewish captives in Mesopotamia.
[89] Some have seen in the word high the power of raising the throne chariot. Something like hydraulic wheels may be intended.
[90] The RSV emends the text of Eze 1:18 so that it reads The four wheels had rims and they had spokes. The Hebrew text In Ezekiel 1:18 is difficult, but this in no way justifies the arbitrary change of the RSV.
The wheels of the throne-chariot were not functional. In fact, the only reason the wheels are mentioned is so that the chariot imagery could be maintained. That the wheels were not essential to the movements of the throne-chariot is seen in the fact that the vehicle travelled in the air and not on the ground. Ellison[91] suggests that the wheels symbolize inanimate nature just as the four cherubim represent the living creation. In ancient Jewish teaching the wheels were thought to symbolize some order of heavenly beings.[92] The significance of the wheels is really quite simple. They are obviously symbols of movement. God is not restricted to heaven, nor to any particular spot on earth. The wheels thus symbolize the omnipresence of the Almighty.
[91] Ellison, EMM, p. 25.
[92] See the pseudepigraphic Book of Enoch 61:10; 70:7
Ezekiel 1:19-21 emphasize the mobility of God’s throne-chariot. The wheels themselves had no capacity for independent movement. They always moved in conjunction with the living creatures (Ezekiel 1:19). The creatures in turn were under the control of the Spirit of God. The Spirit of God was in the creatures, and the spirit of the creatures,[93] as it were, was in the wheels (Ezekiel 1:20). There is no indication that the wheels were attached to the living creatures. To emphasize the co-ordination of the wheels and creatures, Ezekiel 1:21 repeats and amplifies the thought that when the creatures moved in any direction, the wheels moved with them.
[93] A singular is used in Ezekiel 1:20 in a collective sense as in Ezekiel 10:20,
The main point being emphasized in this description of the mobility of God’s throne-chariot is this: God is omnipresent. He is not earth-bound. The effortless mobility of God’s throne-chariot is a way of depicting the grand theological theme of God’s omnipresence.
Ezekiel 1:22-25
D. The Platform 1:22-25
TRANSLATION
(22) And over the heads of the living creatures was something like a platform, gleaming terribly like ice, stretched forth over their heads above. (23) And under the platform their wings were straight one to another. Each one had two wings covering his body on either side.[94] (24) And I heard the sound of their wings like the sound of great waters, as the sound of the Almighty as they went, the sound of noise like the sound of an encampment. When they stood still they let down their wings. (25) And from above the platform which was over their head came a voice when they stood and let their wings down.
[94] Literally, Each one had two covering on this side and each one had two covering on that side, their bodies.
COMMENTS
Over the heads[95] of the creatures was what appeared to be a platform (raqia-’).[96] It is not certain how this platform was supported, whether by the wings of the cherubim or by some other means.[97] The platform was gleaming like terrible ice (qerach). The ice was terrible in the sense of being awesome because of its glittering brightness (Ezekiel 1:22). In this dazzling platform the glories of heaven are symbolized. In Revelation 4:6 this platform becomes a sea of glass. Many commentators feel that this expanse (KJV, firmament) was dome-shaped. But there is really no proof of this in the word itself, nor in the context here. The entire persons of the living creatures including their outstretched wings were under the platform. Each creature had one pair of wings stretched straight out, and another pair modestly covering their bodies (Ezekiel 1:23).
[95] KJV has upon the heads, but the RSV, ASV, and NASB rendering over is to be preferred.
[96] Wrongly translated firmament in KJV. The Hebrew word suggests a thin, flat area, perhaps of hammered metal. In Genesis 1:6 and elsewhere the word is used of the expanse of the heavens.
[97] Ellison (EMM, p. 24) feels it is better to regard the wings of the cherubim as forming a protective square around the throne. Cf. Revelation 4:6.
The audio portion of the vision is referred to in Ezekiel 1:24-25. The four pairs of outstretched wings vibrated powerfully as the throne chariot moved. Three similes are employed to try to depict the awesome sound produced by the theophonic chariot. The noise was like that produced (1) by great (or many) wafers; (2) by the voice of the Almighty, i.e., rolling thunder,[98] and (3) by an army on the move. When the movement of the chariot ceased, the living creatures lowered their wings (Ezekiel 1:24) and consequently the dreadful noise ceased.
[98] Cf. Job 37:4-5; Psalms 29:3; Psalms 29:5; Revelation 10:3.
The movement of the throne-chariot was directed by a voice which came from above the platform. This voice must be that of God.[99] No words are attributed to Him at this point, but the author here prepares the way for the later words of that One who was enthroned above the living creatures (Ezekiel 1:25).
[99] Currey (DC, p. 22) thinks the reference is to the voices which were praising God above the tumult in Ezekiel 3:12.
Ezekiel 1:26-28
E. The Throne 1:26-28
TRANSLATION
(26) And above the platform which was over their heads was what appeared to be a sapphire stone, the likeness of a throne; and upon the likeness of the throne was a likeness of the appearance of a man upon it above. (27) And I saw as the color of polished bronze, as the appearance of fire, as an enclosure to it round about, from the appearance of His loins and upward; and from the appearance of His loins and downward I saw the appearance of fire, and there was a radiant splendor round about Him. (28) As the appearance of a bow which is in a cloud on the day of rain, so was the appearance of the radiant splendor round about. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the LORD. When I saw it, I fell upon my face, and I heard a voice speaking.
COMMENTS
With obvious hesitation the prophet describes what he saw above that platform. There he saw what resembled a throne of sapphire.[100] What Ezekiel saw here may be compared to the vision of Moses who saw under God’s feet a pavement of sapphire stone, like the very heaven for clearness (Exodus 24:10). The throne is an obvious symbol of universal sovereignty.
[100] Some think the lapis lazuh stone is intended. In either case, the throne was made of a most precious stone.
He who sat upon the throne had the likeness of the appearance of a man (Ezekiel 1:26). Ezekiel is careful to place as much distance as possible between that divine person and a mere man. The upper portion of this human-like figure flashed like polished bronze. These bright flashes resembled fire (lightning?). Similarly, the lower half of the figure flashed like fire. A radiant splendor characterized the whole being (Ezekiel 1:27). This brightness was multi-colored, much like the beautiful colors of a rainbow. This rainbow is more than simply a token of glory and splendor. It is a token of mercy and promise as well. Ezekiel was to preach about the coming storm of judgment; but he was to look beyond that dark hour to the dawning of a new day and the resurrection and restoration of the people of God.
The term glory was a technical term used to denote the presence of the Lord among His people. To look on the face of God meant death (Exodus 33:20). But God’s presence could be described in terms of blinding light or dazzling fire, within a protective cloud (Exodus 19:16-18; Exodus 40:34-38). At the dedication of Solomon’s Temple, the glory of the Lord filled the sanctuary and took up permanent residence in the Holy of Holies (1 Kings 8:10). As time went on, God became linked more and more to Judah and the Temple. It was left to the prophets of God to champion the ancient doctrine that Yahweh was Lord of all the earth.
Ezekiel’s vision of the glory of God is truly remarkable in that he sees this manifestation at a spot far removed from the Jerusalem Temple. Those who were captive in Babylon felt cut off from the Lord because geographically they were unable to participate in Temple worship. This vision gives evidence that God’s presence could be experienced in a foreign land. Anthropomorphism describing God in human terms is quite common in the Old Testament. The use of this literary device has occasioned the charge that the concept of God in the Old Testament is primitive and unsophisticated. However, anthropomorphism serves a useful function. It aids in describing the indescribable; but it does more than that. Anthropomorphism underscores the basic theological proposition of the Old Testament, viz., that God is living. Furthermore, anthropomorphic description causes men to appreciate even more the truth that man bears in his person the divine image. In such theophanies as has been described in Ezekiel 1 no form but the human form was appropriate to represent the Lord.
Ezekiel had a great deal of trouble describing what he saw. He was, to use the language of one authority, struggling with the impossibility of expressing in words the object of his vision.[101] Apparently human language is just not sufficient to explain heavenly things. Four times in the chapter Ezekiel uses a word translated likeness (demut). The word at once suggests deference for divinity and difficulty in describing things heavenly. Currey’s comment is to the point.
[101] Currey, EC, p. 24
For the vision of the prophet was rather to the mind, than to the bodily eye, and even inspired language was inadequate to convey to the hearer the glory which eye bath not seen nor ear heard, and which only by special revelation it bath entered into the heart of man to conceive.[102]
[102] Ibid p. 22.
It is appropriate to stress that Ezekiel’s vision centers on God, not the cherubim or the wheels as interesting as they may be. However symbolic this vision may have been, it was a genuine vision of God. Ezekiel saw as much of God as is permitted to mortal man. The true spiritual significance of Ezekiel 1 is ascertained when the various details of the vision are interpreted as revealing theological truths. The search for spaceships and visitors from other planets in this chapter is ludicrous if not down right blasphemous! The visionary nature of Ezekiel’s experience must be taken seriously. These verses constitute a kind of moving, changing dream the fantastic features of which both reveal and obscure the divine glory. Davidson is right when he writes:
The cherubim, wheels, firmament, and throne are all subordinate, they have no meaning of themselves, they merely help to suggest what God is who thus manifests himself.[103]
[103] Davidson, CB, p. 12
Ezekiel’s inaugural vision must be compared to other manifestations of the divine glory to Moses at the bush (Exodus 3), to Moses, Aaron and the seventy elders (Exodus 24:9), to Isaiah (Isaiah 6), to Daniel (Daniel 7:9), and subsequently to the apostle John (Revelation 4:2). The visions have various features in common, especially the burning fire and sapphire stone.
In contemplating God under the form of a man Ezekiel helps pave the way for that grand revelation of God in Christ Jesus. Paul describes Jesus as the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15) and the brightness of God’s glory and the express image of His person (Hebrews 1:3). John declares that the word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld His glory, the glory of the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth (John 1:14). The same apostle interprets Isaiah’s grand vision as referring to Christ when he declares: These things said Isaiah when he saw His glory and spoke of Him (John 12:41). In the light of these facts, Currey is correct when he argues
We are therefore justified in maintaining that the revelation of the divine glory here made to Ezekiel has its consummation or fulfillment in the person of Christ, the only begotten of God. [104]
[104] Currey, BC, p. 25.
The whole vision of the throne-chariot and the divine Presence had a marked effect upon Ezekiel. He fell to his face. He was thus prepared to hear the word of the Lord (Ezekiel 1:28). The experience of Ezekiel was akin to that of Isaiah (Isaiah 6) and Daniel (Daniel 7:9 ff.).