By: Emil G. Hirsch
—Biblical Data:
Prophetical book composed of fourteen chapters; the eleventh in the order of the Minor Prophets, following Haggai and preceding Malachi. Ch. i.-viii. comprise three prophecies: (1) an introduction (i. 1-6); (2) a complex of visions (i. 7-vi.); and (3) the seed of Peace (vii.-viii.).
(1) The introduction, dated in the eighth month of the second year of King Darius, is an admonition to repentance addressed to the people and rendered impressive by reference to the consequences of disobedience, of which the experience of the fathers is a witness.
Contents.
(2) This introductory exhortation is followed on the twenty-fourth day of the month of Shebaṭ by eight symbolic visions: (a) angel-horsemen (i. 7-17); (b) the four horns and the four smiths (i. 18-21 [English], ii. 1-4 [Hebrew]); (c) the city of peace (ii. 1-5 [English]); (d) the high priest and the Satan (iii.); (e) the Temple candlestick and the olive-trees (iv.); (f) the winged scroll (v. 1-4); (g) the woman in the barrel (v. 5-11); (h) the chariots of the four winds (vi. 1-8). To these is added a historical appendix, in which the prophet speaks of the divine command to turn the gold and silver offered by some of the exiles into a crown for Joshua (or Zerubbabel ?), and reiterates the promise of the Messiah (vi. 9-15).
(3) The next two chapters (vii.-viii.) are devoted to censuring fasting and mourning (vii.) when obedience to God's moral law is essential, and to describing the Messianic future.
Ch. ix.-xiv. contain:
(1) A prophecy concerning the judgment about to fall upon Damascus, Hamath, Tyre, Zidon, and the cities of the Philistines (ix.).
(2) Exhortation of the people to seek help not from Teraphim and diviners but from Yhwh.
(3) Announcement of war upon unworthy tyrants, followed by an allegory in which the faithless people is censured and the brotherhood between Israel and Judah is declared to be at an end; fate of the unworthy shepherd (xi.). To this chapter xiii. 7-9 seems to belong, as descriptive of a process of purification by the sword and fire, two-thirds of the people being consumed.
(4) Judah versus Jerusalem (xii. 1-7).
(5) Results, four in number, of Jerusalem's deliverance (xii. 8-xiii. 6).
(6) The judgment of the heathen and the sanctification of Jerusalem (xiv.).
—Critical View:
Inspection of its contents shows immediately that the book readily divides into two parts; namely, i.-viii. and ix.-xiv., each of which is distinguished from the other by its method of presenting the subject and by the range of the subject presented. In the first part Israel is the object of solicitude; and to encourage it to proceed with the rearing of the Temple and to secure the recognition of Zerubbabel and Joshua are the purposes of the prophecy. Visions, which are described and construed so as to indicate Yhwh's approval of the prophet's anxiety, predominate as the mediums of the prophetic message, and the lesson is fortified by appeals to Israel's past history, while stress is laid on righteousness versus ritualism. The date is definitely assigned to the second year of King Darius Hystaspes. The historical background is the condition which confronted the Jews who first returned from the Exile (see, however, Koster's "Herstel von Israel," 1894). Some event—according to Stade, the revolt of Smerdis; but more probably the second conquest of Babylon under Darius—seems to have inspired buoyant hopes in the otherwise despondent congregation in Jerusalem, thus raising their Messianic expectations (Zech. ii. 10 [A. V. 6] et seq. vi. 8) to a firm belief in the reestablishing of David's throne and the universal acknowledgment of the supremacy of Yhwh. Angels and Satan are intermediaries and actors.
The Second Zechariah.
In the second part the method is radically different. Apocalyptic visions are altogether lacking, and historical data and chronological material are absent. The style is fantastic and contains many obscure allusions. That the two parts are widely divergent in date and authorship is admitted by all modern critics, but while there is general agreement that the first part is by the prophet Zechariah, no harmony has yet been attained concerning the identity or the date of the second part.
Many recent commentators regard the second part as older than the first, and as preexilic in date. They would divide it, furthermore, into at least two parts, ix.-xi. and xii.-xiv., the former by an author contemporary with Amos and Hosea. This assignment is based on the facts that both Israel and Judah are mentioned, and that the names of Assyria, Egypt, and the contiguous nations are juxtaposed, much as they are in Amos. The sins censured are falseprophecy and idolatry (xiii. 1-6). This group of chapters (xii.-xiv.), containing the denunciations familiar in all preexilic prophets, is regarded as later than the other division, since only Judah is mentioned. It is therefore assigned to the period after the fall of the Northern Kingdom, and more specifically, on account of xii. 11, to the last days of the Southern Kingdom after the battle of Megiddo and the death of King Josiah.
Date of the Second Zechariah.
Other scholars have argued with much plausibility for the hypothesis that the second part belongs to a very late period of Jewish history. In the first place, the theology (see Eschatology) of these chapters shows tendencies which are not found in Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, or Jeremiah, but are due to Ezekiel's influence, such as the war on Jerusalem preceding the Messianic triumph. Again, the Temple service (xiv.) is focal even in the Messianic age, and this suggests the religious atmosphere of the Sadducean and Maccabean theocracy with Zion as its technical designation. A mixture of races is also mentioned, a reminiscence of conditions described by Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 23 et seq.), while deliverance from Babylonian exile underlies such promises as occur in ix. 12. The advent of a king is expected, though as yet only a Davidic family is known in Jerusalem (xii. 7, 12).
The second part of the book may thus be recognized to be a compilation rather than a unit, all its components being post-exilic in character. Two groups, ix.-xi. and xii.-xiv., are clearly indicated. The second group (xii.-xiv.) is eschatological and has no individual coloring, although from the contrast between Jerusalem and the country of Judah a situation may be inferred which recalls the conditions of the early stages of the Maccabean rebellion. The first group may likewise be subdivided into two sections, ix. 1-xi. 3 and xi. 4-17 and xiii. 7-9. The Greeks (see Javan) are described in ix. 13 as enemies of Judea, and the Assyrians and Egyptians are similarly mentioned in x., these names denoting the Syrians (Seleucidæ) and the Ptolemies. In ix. 1-2 Damascus, Hamath, and Hadrach are seats of the Seleucid kings, a situation which is known to have existed in 200-165 B.C. The internal conditions of the Jewish community immediately before the Maccabean uprising appear in the second subdivision, where the shepherds are the tax-farmers (see Tobiads; Menelaus). In xi. 13 there seems to be an allusion to Hyrcanus, son of Tobias, who was an exception among the rapacious shepherds.
Bibliography:
Wright, Zechariah and His Prophecies, 2d ed., London, 1879, which gives earlier literature;
Stade, Deuterozachariah, in Zeitschrift für Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1881-82;
the commentaries by Marti, Nowack, and Wellhausen;
G. A. Smith, Twelve Prophets, ii.;
Bredenkamp, Der Prophet Sacharya, 1879;
Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungszeit der Jüdischen Gemeinde, 1901;
Stärk, Untersuchungen über die Komposition und Abfassungszeit von Zachariah, 1891, ix.-xiv.
ZECHARIAH, BOOK OF.—The first eight chapters contain the genuine prophecies of Zechariah. Chs. 9–14 are sharply distinguished from these in form, language, and thought. They are generally regarded as anonymous prophecies which became attached to the original book, and are often spoken of as Deutero-Zechariah.
I. Chapters 1–8
1. Historical occasion.—According to Ezra (Ezr 5:1; Ezr 6:14), the prophets Haggai and Zechariah roused Zerubbabel and Joshua to build the Temple, and the work went forward prosperously through their prophesying. The dates given in the book itself assign the prophecies to the second and fourth years of Darius (b.c. 520, 518). The first message (Zec 1:1-5) is placed two months after the first address of Haggai, between the second and third. The section Zec 1:7 to Zec 6:15 is two months later than the last addresses of Haggai, while chs. 7, 8 follow after an interval of nearly two years. The prophecies are thus associated with the earlier part of the four years devoted to the re-building of the Temple, and their contents connect themselves with this occasion.
2. Contents.—The book opens with an exhortation to return unto Jehovah (Zec 1:1-6), based upon the sad experience of the fathers who had not heeded the word of the prophets to return from their evil ways.
It is especially noticeable that this post-exilic prophet, although very familiar with the words of his predecessors, is not enslaved by them; he rather draws a living lesson from a broad view of the vital experiences of the past. The main body of the book (Zec 1:7 to Zec 6:15) is made up of a series of eight visions and a symbolic action, after the manner of Ezekiel. In the first ( Zec 1:7-17) the prophet aees at night, in a myrtle-shaded glen, four horsemen whom the angel that talks with him designates as the messengers of Jehovah. They report that all is quiet in the earth. The angel calls upon Jehovah: ‘How long wilt thou not have mercy on Jerusalem and on the cities of Judah, against which thou hast had indignation these threescore and ten years?’ In response, assurance comes that Jehovah is displeased with the nations which are at ease, He is returned to Jerusalem, His house shall be built, His cities shall overflow with prosperity, Zion be comforted, Jerusalem chosen. The second vision (Zec 1:18-21) is of four horns—the nations which have scattered the holy people—and four smiths, who are to cast them down. Next, the prophet sees (Zec 2:1-5) the future Jerusalem spread far and wide beyond the limits of her old walls, with Jehovah as a wall of fire round about her. There follows a song that calls upon the exiles to return, pictures the discomfiture of those that have plundered them, and the future glory of Zion as Jehovah’s dwelling-place.
In ch. 3, Joshua, the high priest, is seen standing before Jehovah’s angel, clad in filthy garments and accused by the Satan. Now these garments are taken from him, and he is clothed in rich apparel as a symbol of the removal of guilt. Joshua is promised full exercise of his priestly functions if he will walk in Jehovah’s ways; he and those with him are a sign that Jehovah is to bring His servant the Branch (cf. Isa 4:2, Jer 23:5; Jer 33:15). The vision that follows (ch. 4) is of the seven-branched lamp of the Temple, supplied with oil from two olive trees. Probably the promise to Zerubbabel (Zec 4:6-10 a) should be transferred to the end of the chapter; then confusion disappears, and the seven lamps are interpreted as the eyes of Jehovah which run to and fro through the earth. The olive trees are explained as the two sons of oil that stand by the Lord of the whole earth. They must be Zerubbabel and Joshua, representatives of king and priest. The splendid promise to Zerubbabel now closes the picture, as that to Joshua had closed the preceding. In this, Zerubbabel is assured that he shall bring the Temple to completion, not by might nor by power, but by Jehovah’s spirit. The prominent place given in these visions to priest and king, as essential to the national life, is most significant. Next, the prophet aees (Jer 5:1-4) the curse of Jehovah as a book that flies and enters the house of every thief and perjurer to consume it. The seventh vision (Jer 5:6-11) follows naturally upon the preceding. Wickedness, represented by a woman, is carried away from the land to Babylonia. Jehovah’s curse has fallen upon the sinners, and sin itself is now removed to the land of exile. The last vision (Jer 6:1-8) represents four chariots going forth upon the earth; of these the one that goes to the north executes the wrath of Jehovah upon those who have oppressed His people. The visions opened with the horsemen that reported the earth as quiet; they close with the chariots that keep the world in subjection to Jehovah. There follows the symbolic act of crowning Joshua (more probably, in the original text, Zerubbabel). The visions centre in the hope of a glorious future for Jerusalem, with its Temple restored, its enemies stilled, its exiles returned, its sin forgiven, its wickedness removed, and with Jehovah’s spirit flowing in through priest and prince of Davidic line. The visions lead on to the symbolic crowning of the promised ruler.
In the third section (chs. 7, 8), Zechariah is led by a question concerning fasting to teach that the fasts which have been kept in the years of exile are to be changed into joyous feasts. Rather than fast they should observe the teachings of the earlier prophets concerning justice and mercy. With glorious promises for the peace and prosperity of Jerusalem, with the nations coming to seek Jehovah, the original Book of Zechariah closes.
3. Significance.—The historical importance of Zechariah in connection with the re-building of the Temple has already been noted. In the transition from prophetical to apocalyptic literature, this book is an important link. Zechariah has a large measure of the spirit of the early ethical prophets. From the experiences of the past he can draw broad and deep moral lessons, with something of the freedom and consciousness of immediate Divine illumination that distinguished an Amos or an Isaiah. Yet, even in the passages where this is most observable, one feels a harking back that was not characteristic of the earlier prophecy—less of vital touch with present conditions and with the God in whose name he speaks. The centring of hope in prince and priest, with the consciousness that the great era of prophecy is past, sharply distinguishes Zechariah from his pre-exilic predecessors. In the visions, the machinery of apocalypse, Introduced by Ezekiel, has been somewhat developed in its feature of angelic intermediaries. The characteristic apocalyptic spirit, however, with its revelling in the blood of enemies, is noticeably lacking. Zechariah loves, rather, to dwell upon peace and prosperity, upon sin removed, and the Divine spirit inflowing. His message is rich and full, for he has caught the ethical enthusiasm of the great eighth-century prophets, and has enriched it by the spiritual insight of Jeremiah and the glorious hopes of the exilic prophets. Zechariah not only strove to get the Temple built, but also urged upon the builders those moral and spiritual truths without which the Temple and its worship would be hollow mockery.
II. Chapters 9–14
1. Critical analysis.—As early as 1653, it was maintained, in the interest of the accuracy of Mat 27:9-10, that chs. 9–11 were written by Jeremiah. This view was soon adopted by several writers, and chs. 12–14 were connected with 9–11 as the work of the earlier prophet. Near the close of the 18th century, chs. 9–11 and 12–14 were distinguished as separate prophecies, dated respectively, from internal evidence, in the time of Hosea, and shortly after the death of Josiah. At about the same time, the view that 9–14 were really later than Zechariah was advocated. During the 19th century, each of the three general conclusions—(1) that the entire book is the work of Zechariah; (2) that 9–14 are pre-exilic; (3) that 9–14 are post-Zecharian—found many advocates. In the third quarter of the century, however, the first view was largely abandoned, and, after the thoroughgoing discussion of Stade, in 1881–2, the third view became almost completely dominant. Growing knowledge of the general course of development of prophetic and apocalyptic literature makes this conclusion more and more inevitable. How many separate prophecies, by different hands, may be embodied in these six chapters is not determinable with equal clearness. On the whole, however, 9–11 (with Mat 13:7-9) seem distinct from 12–14. Less conclusive are the data which indicate distinct sections as beginning at Mat 11:4 and Mat 14:1. It is not possible to connect chs. 9–14 positively with any known events in the post-exilic history. In general, the historical situation seems to be that of the years after Alexander’s conquests and death, when the Egyptian and Syrian rulers struggled for the possession of Palestine. Possibly some of the material comes from the time just before or during the Maccabæan struggle.
2. Contents.—In Mat 9:1 to Mat 11:2 the oracle is one of doom upon Israel’s neighbours, with promises of dominion and prosperity for Israel, restored to her land. The title ‘burden of the word of Jehovah’ is very unusual, occurring elsewhere only in Zec 12:1 and Mal 1:1. The opening message of doom upon Israel’s neighbours bears outward resemblance to Amos, but the ethical ground of Amos’s denunciation is noticeably lacking. If v. 7 is rightly interpreted as referring to food ritually unclean, the contrast with the early prophet is still more striking. V. 8, with its comforting promise, seems to reflect the devastation of the Temple, as in the past. This is followed by the prediction of the coming king of peace—a beautiful lyric which breaks in sharply upon the context, and is followed by a prediction of successful resistance to the Greeks, and victory given through Jehovah. The shepherds of Judah, Jehovah’s flock, are condemned, and victory is promised to the flock. The house of Judah shall be strengthened, and the house of Joseph restored to its land. In 11:4–17, 13:7–9 the figure of the false shepherds, introduced in the preceding section, is worked out into an allegory of the false and true shepherd, in a way that enables the prophet to illustrate the frustration of God’s beneficeot purpose by the obstinacy of His people, as well as the evil character of their rulers. The three shepherds cut off in quick succession strongly suggest the conditions shortly before the Maccabæan uprising, but the highly symbolic and somewhat imitative character of the prophecy renders it precarious to seek any exact picture of immediate conditions; our ignorance, too, of large portions of the post-exilic age makes it impossible to say that some other time may not have furnished an equally appropriate occasion.
The second main division of chs. 9–14, beginning with ch. 12, leads us immediately into the familiar apocalyptic conception introduced by Zephaniah, and developed by Ezekiel and Joel. The nations are assembled against Jerusalem, there to be consumed through the power of Jehovah. Hope centres in the house of David, and yet this house, it would seem, is now reduced to the position of merely one of the important families of the people. The closing verses of the first section in this division (13:1–6) indicate a time when prophecy is utterly degraded—idols, prophets, unclean spirit are evils to be removed. Ch. 14 gives another apocalyptic vision of the siege of Jerusalem. The onslaught is terrible, and the discomfiture of her enemies is wrought only after great affliction. In this little apocalypse the vengeful, proud hopes with which the wretched, persecuted Jews consuled themselves throughout the later pre-Christian centuries, and on into Christian times, find vivid expression. With these hopes there is clearly present that late, narrow, legalistic spirit which finds its climax of religious outlook in a wide recognition of the feasts, and in ceremonially clean boiling-pots for the sacrifices. It is evident that the closing oracle of this collection appended to Zechariah carries us far into ‘the night of legalism.’
Henry T. Fowler.
1. The Prophet
2. His Times and Mission
3. Contents and Analysis
4. The Critical Question Involved
5. The Unity of the Book
6. Conclusion
LITERATURE
Few books of the Old Testament are as difficult of interpretation as the Book of Zechariah; no other book is as Messianic. Jewish expositors like Abarbanel and Jarchi, and Christian expositors such as Jerome, are forced to concede that they have failed “to find their hands” in the exposition of it, and that in their investigations they passed from one labyrinth to another, and from one cloud into another, until they lost themselves in trying to discover the prophet’s meaning. The scope of Zechariah’s vision and the profundity of his thought are almost without a parallel. In the present writer’s judgment, his book is the most Messianic, the most truly apocalyptic and eschatological, of all the writings of the Old Testament.
1. The Prophet:
Zechariah was the son of Berechiah, and the grandson of Iddo (Zec 1:1, Zec 1:7). The same Iddo seems to be mentioned among the priests who returned from exile under Zerubbabel and Joshua in the year 536 BC (Neh 12:4; Ezr 2:2). If so, Zechariah was a priest as well as a prophet, and presumably a young man when he began to preach. Tradition, on the contrary, declares that he was well advanced in years. He apparently survived Haggai, his contemporary (Ezr 5:1; Ezr 6:14). He was a poet as well as a prophet. Nothing is known of his end. The Targum says he died a martyr.
2. His Times and Mission:
The earliest date in his book is the 2nd year (520 BC) of the reign of Darius Hystaspis, and the latest, the 4th year of the same king’s reign (Zec 1:1, Zec 1:7; Zec 7:1). Though these are the only dates given in his writings, it is possible of course that he may have continued active for several additional years. Otherwise, he preached barely two years. The conditions under which he labored were similar to those in Haggai’s times. Indeed, Haggai had begun to preach just two months before Zechariah was called. At that time there were upheavals and commotions in different parts of the Persian empire, especially in the Northeast Jeremiah’s prophecies regarding the domination of Babylon for 70 years had been fulfilled (Jer 15:11; Jer 29:10). The returned captives were becoming disheartened and depressed because Yahweh had not made it possible to restore Zion and rebuild the temple. The foundations of the latter had been already laid, but as yet there was no superstructure (Ezr 3:8-10; Zec 1:16). The altar of burnt offering was set up upon its old site, but as yet there were no priests worthy to officiate in the ritual of sacrifice (Ezr 3:2, Ezr 3:3; Zec 3:3). The people had fallen into apathy, and needed to be aroused to their opportunity. Haggai had given them real initiative, for within 24 days after he began to preach the people began to work (Hag 1:1, Hag 1:15). It was left for Zechariah to bring the task of temple-building to completion. This Zechariah did successfully; this, indeed, was his primary mission and work.
3. Contents and Analysis:
The prophecies of Zechariah naturally fall into two parts, chapters 1 through 8 and 9 through 14, both of which begin with the present and look forward into the distant future. (1) Zechariah 1 through 8, consisting of three distinct messages delivered on three different occasions: (a) Zec 1:1-6, an introduction, delivered in the 8th month of the 2nd year of Darius Hystaspis (520 BC). These words, having been spoken three months before the prophecies which follow, are obviously a general introduction. They are decidely spiritual and strike the keynote of the entire collection. In them the prophet issues one of the strongest and most intensely spiritual calls to repentance to be found in the Old Testament. (b) Zec 1:7 through 6:15, a series of eight night visions, followed by a coronation scene, all delivered on the 24th day of the 11th month of the same 2nd year of Darius (520 BC), or exactly two months after the corner stone of the temple had been laid (Hag 2:18; Zec 1:7). These visions were intended to encourage the people to rebuild God’s house. They are eight in number, and teach severally the following lessons:
(i) The vision of the horses (Zec 1:7-17), teaching God’s special care for and interest in his people: “My house shall be built” (Zec 1:16). (ii) The four horns and four smiths (Zec 1:18-21), teaching that Israel’s foes have finally been destroyed; in fact that they have destroyed themselves. There is no longer, therefore, any opposition to building God’s house. (iii) The man with a measuring line (Zec 2:1-13), teaching that God will re-people, protect and dwell in Jerusalem as soon as the sacred edifice has been built. The city itself will expand till it becomes a great metropolis without walls; Yahweh will be a wall of fire round about it. (iv) Joshua, the high priest, clad in filthy garments, and bearing the sins both of himself and the people (Zec 3:1-10); but cleansed, continued and made typical of the Messiah-Branch to come. (v) The candelabrum and the two olive trees (Zec 4:1-14), teaching that the visible must give place to the spiritual, and that, through “the two sons of oil,” Zerubbabel the layman, and Joshua the priest (Zec 4:14), the light of God’s church will continue to burn with ever-flaming brightness. For it is “not by might” but by Yahweh’s Spirit, i.e. by divine life and animation, by divine vigor and vivacity, by divine disposition and courage, by divine executive ability and technical skill, that God’s house shall be built and supplied with spiritual life (Zec 4:6). (vi) The flying roll (Zec 5:1-4), teaching that when the temple is built and God’s law is taught the land shall be purified from outward wickedness. (vii) The Ephah (Zec 5:5-11); wickedness personified is borne away back to the land of Shinar, teaching that when the temple is rebuilt wickedness shall be actually removed from the land. (viii) The four chariots (Zec 6:1-8), teaching that God’s protecting providence will be over His sanctuary, and that His people, purified from sin, shall rest secure in Him. These eight visions are followed by a coronation scene, in which Joshua the high priest is crowned and made typical of the Messiah-Priest-King, whose name is Branch (Zec 6:9-15). (c) Zec 7:1-14; 8, Zechariah’s answer to the Bethel deputation concerning fasting; delivered on the 4th day of the 9th month of the 4th year of Darius (518 BC). The Jews had been accustomed to fast on the anniversaries of the following four great outstanding events in the history of their capital: (i) when Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem, in the 4th month (Jer 52:6); (ii) when the Temple was burned in the 5th month (Jer 52:12); (iii) when Gedaliah was murdered in the 7th month (Jer 41:2); and (iv) when the siege of Jerusalem was begun in the 10th month (2Ki 25:1).
There are four sections to the prophet’s answer divided by the slightly varying formula, “The word of Yahweh came unto me” (Zec 7:4, Zec 7:8; Zec 8:1, Zec 8:18) and teaching: (a) Fasting affects only yourselves; God requires obedience (Zec 7:4-7). (b) Look at the lesson from your fathers; they forsook justice and compassion and God punished them (Zec 7:8-14). (c) Yahweh is now waiting to return to Jerusalem to save His people in truth and holiness. In the future, instead of a curse God will send blessing, instead of evil, good (Zec 8:1-17). (d) In fact, your fasts shall be changed into festivals, and many nations shall in that day seek Yahweh of hosts in Jerusalem (Zec 8:18-23).
(2) Zechariah 9 through 14, consisting of two oracles, without dates; (a) Zechariah 9 through 11, an oracle of promise to the new theocracy. This section contains promises of a land in which to dwell, a return from exile, victory over a hostile world-power, temporal blessings and national strength, closing, with a parable of judgment brought on by Israel’s rejection of Yahweh as their shepherd; thus Judah and Ephraim restored, united and made victorious over their enemies, are promised a land and a king (Zec 9); Israel shall be saved and strengthened (Zec 10:1-12); Israel shall be punished for rejecting the shepherding care of Yahweh (Zec 11); (b) Zechariah 12 through 14, an oracle describing the victories of the new theocracy, and the coming day of Yahweh. This section is strongly eschatological, presenting three distinct apocalyptic pictures: thus how Jerusalem shall be besieged by her enemies, but saved by Yahweh (Zec 12:1-14); how a remnant of Israel purified and refined shall be saved (Zec 13:1-9); closing with a grand apocalyptic vision of judgment and redemption - the nations streaming up to Jerusalem to keep the joyous Feast of Tabernacles, and everything in that day becoming holy to Yahweh.
4. The Critical Question Involved:
There are two opposing schools of criticism in regard to the origin of Zechariah 9 through 14; one holds what is known as the pre-exilic hypothesis, according to which chapters 9 through 14 were written before the downfall of Jerusalem; more specifically, that Zechariah 9 through 11 and Zec 13:7-9 spring from the 8th century BC, having been composed perhaps by Zechariah, the son of Jeberechiah mentioned in Isa 8:2; whereas Zechariah 12 through 14, except Zec 13:7-9, were composed by some unknown contemporary of Jeremiah in the 7th century BC. On the other hand, there are also those who advocate a late post-Zecharian origin for chapters 9 through 14, somewhere about the 3rd century BC. The latter hypothesis is today the more popular. Over against these the traditional view, of course, is that Zechariah, near the close of the 6th century, wrote the entire book ascribed to him. Only chapters 9 through 14 are in dispute. No one doubts the genuineness of Zechariah 1 through 8.
The following are the main arguments of those who advocate a pre-exilic origin for these oracles: (1) Zec 11:8, “And I cut off the three shepherds in one month.” These “three shepherds” are identified with certain kings who reigned but a short time each in the Northern Kingdom; for example, Zechariah, Shallum and Menahem (2Ki 15:8-14). But the difficulty with this argument is that they were not cut off “in one month”; Menahem, on the contrary, reigned 10 years in Samaria (2Ki 15:17). (2) Zec 12:11-14, which speaks of “a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the valley of Megiddon,” is claimed to fix the date of Zechariah 12 through 14. Josiah fell in the valley of Megiddo (2Ki 23:29; 2Ch 35:22). But surely the mourning of Judah for Josiah might have been remembered for a century, from 609 BC till 518 BC. (3) Zec 14:5, referring to the “earthquake” in the days of Uzziah, is another passage fastened upon to prove the preexilic origin of these prophecies. But the earthquake which is here alluded to took place at least a century and a half before the date assigned for the composition of Zechariah 14. And surely if an earthquake can be alluded to by an author 150 years after it occurs, Zechariah, who lived less than a century later, might have alluded to it also. (4) A much stronger argument in favor of a pre-exilic origin of these prophecies is the names given to theocracy, e.g. “Ephraim” and “Jerusalem” (Zec 9:10), “Judah” and “Ephraim” (Zec 9:13), “house of Judah” and “house of Joseph” (Zec 10:6), “Judah and Israel” (Zec 11:14), implying that the kingdoms of Israel and Judah are still standing. But subsequent to the captivity the Jews ever regarded themselves as representatives of the 12 tribes, as is obvious from their offering 12 sacrifices (Ezr 6:17; Ezr 8:35). Moreover, old names such as “Israel” and “Judah” long survived (compare Jer 31:27-31; Zec 8:13). (5) Zec 14:10, which defines the area occupied by Judah as extending “from Geba to Rimmon,” which corresponds, it is alleged, with the conditions which prevailed just prior to the captivity. But it satisfies equally well the conditions after the exile in Zechariah’s own time. (6) Again, it is argued that the national sins, the prevailing sins, idolatry, teraphim and false prophecy (Zec 10:2; Zec 13:2-6), are those of pre-exilic times. But the same sins persisted in the post-exilic congregation (Neh 6:7-14; Mal 2:11; Mal 3:5), and there is no special emphasis laid upon them here. (7) Finally, it is argued that the enemies of Israel mentioned in Zechariah 9 through 14 are those of pre-exilic times, Assyria and Egypt (Zec 10:10, Zec 10:11), Syria, Phoenicia and Philistia (Zec 9:1-7). But forms of expression are slow in changing: the name “Assyrians” occurs in Lam 5:6, and “Assyria” is employed instead of “Persia” in Ezr 6:22. Jeremiah prophesied against Damascus and Hamath long after their loss of independence (Jer 49:23-27). After the exile, the Philistines resisted Israel’s return (Neh 4:7, Neh 4:8). In short all these nations were Israel’s hereditary foes, and, therefore, judgments pronounced against them were always in place. Furthermore, it may be said in general that there are reasons for thinking that, in both halves of the Book of Zechariah, the exile is represented as an event of the past, and that the restoration from exile both of Ephraim and Judah, though incomplete, has already begun. This is unquestionably true of Zechariah 1 through 8 (Zec 1:12; Zec 2:6-12; Zec 6:10; Zec 7:5; Zec 8:7, Zec 8:8). The exile is treated as a fact. It is almost equally true of Zechariah 9 through 14 (compare Zec 9:8, Zec 9:11; Zec 10:6, Zec 10:8-10). Moreover, it may with justice be claimed that the alleged authors of chapters 9 through 14 dissociate themselves from any definitely named person or any specific event known to be pre-exilic. God alone is described as Ruler of His people. The only king mentioned is the Messiah-King (Zec 9:9, Zec 9:10; Zec 14:9). The “house of David” mentioned in Zec 12:7-12; Zec 13:1, is never described as in possession of the throne. It is David’s “house,” and not any earthly ruler in it, of which the prophet speaks. Further, there are passages, indeed, in chapters 9 through 14 which, if pre-exilic in origin, would have been obscure and even misleading to a people confronted by the catastrophes of 722 and 586 BC. No specific enemy is alluded to. No definite army is named as approaching. Instead of Assyria, Javan is painted as the opposing enemy of theocracy (Zec 9:13), and even she is not yet raised up or even threatening. On the other hand, in Zechariah 12 through 14, it is not the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar, but “all nations,” who are described as coming up against Jerusalem (Zec 12:2, Zec 12:3; Zec 14:2). Moreover, victory and not defeat is promised (Zec 9:8, Zec 9:14, Zec 9:16; Zec 12:4, Zec 12:7, Zec 12:8). The preexilic prophets Amos, Hosea and Jeremiah held out no such hopes. These oracles, however, promise even temporal prosperity and abundance (Jer 9:17; Jer 10:1, Jer 10:8, Jer 10:12; Jer 12:8; Jer 14:2, Jer 14:14); and they exhort the people to rejoice rather than to fear (Jer 9:9; Jer 10:7); while in Jer 14:16-19 all nations are represented as going up to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of Tabernacles, which was the most joyous feast of the Hebrew calendar. All this is quite the opposite of what the pre-exilic prophets (who are known to have been pre-exilic) actually prophesied. In Zec 9 through 14, there is sounded forth not one clear note of alarm or warning; judgment rather gives place to hope, warning to encouragement, threatening to joy and gladness, all of which is most inconsistent with the idea that these chapters are of preexilic origin. On the other hand, their are perfectly consistent with the conditions and promises of post-exilic times.
The other hypothesis remaining to be discussed is that known as the post-Zecharian. This may be said to represent the prevailing critical view at the present time. But it, like the pre-exilic hypothesis, is based upon a too literalistic and mechanical view of prophecy. Those, like Stade, Wellhausen, Kuenen, Marti, Kautzsch, Cornill, Cheyne, Driver, Kuiper, Echardt and Mitchell, who advocate this view, employ the same critical methods as those whose views we have just discussed, but arrive at diametrically opposite conclusions. Indeed, no two critics agree as to the historical circumstances which produced these oracles. Most are of the opinion, however, that these chapters were composed during the Greek period, i.e. after 333 BC. In examining the arguments urged by the representatives of this school special caution is needed in distinguishing between the grounds advanced in support of a post-exilic and those which argue a post-Zecharian date. The former we may for the most part accept, as Zechariah was himself a post-exilic prophet; the latter we must first examine. In favor of a very late or Grecian origin for Zechariah 9 through 14, the chief and all-important passage, and the one upon which more emphasis is placed than upon all others together, is Zec 9:13, “For I have bent Judah for me, I have filled the bow with Ephraim; and I will stir up thy sons, O Zion, against thy sons, O Greece, and will make thee as the sword of a mighty man.” Kuiper in summing up throws the whole weight of his argument in favor of a Greek date on this verse. Wellhausen makes it decide the date of these prophecies; while Stade declares that the announcement of the “sons of Javan” is alone sufficient to prove that these prophecies are after 333 BC. Two things are especially emphasized by critics in connection with this important passage: (1) that the sons of Javan are the world-power of the author’s day, namely, the Greek-Maccabean world-power; and (2) that they are the enemies of Zion. But in opposition to these claims it should be observed (1) that the sons of Javan are but one of several world-powers within the range of the prophet’s horizon (Zec 9:1-7, Syria, Phoenicia, Philistia; Zec 12:2 f; Zec 14:2 f, all nations; and Zec 10:10, Zec 10:11, Assyria and Egypt); and (2) that the Greeks under Alexander were not the enemies of Zion, and did not fight against the Jews, but against the Persians. Assuming the genuineness of the passage (Zec 9:13), the following considerations point to the Persian period as its probable historical background: (a) The prophecy would be vague and meaningless if uttered after the invasion of Alexander. (b) The passage does not describe a victory for the sons of Javan, but rather a defeat. (c) It is introduced by an appeal to those still in exile to return, which would have been quite meaningless after Alexander’s conquest. (d) In short, Zec 9:13-17, as a whole, is not a picture of actual war, but rather an apocalyptic vision of the struggle of Israel with the world-power of the West, hence, its indefiniteness and figurative language.
Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that in Zechariah’s own day the Greeks were rapidly becoming a menacing world-power. In the first 3 years (521-519 BC) of Darius’ reign, 12 different revolts took place, principally in the North and East But, in 518, Darius was compelled to move westward at the head of his royal armies; Darius’ visit to Egypt in 517 BC was cut short by the disturbances of the Greeks (compare Wiedemann, Gesch., 236). In the year 516 BC the Greeks of the Hellespont and Bosporus, with the island of Samos, were made to submit to Pets rule. The next year (515 BC), Darius led an expedition against the Scythians across the Danube, the failure of which encouraged the Ionians subsequently to revolt. In 500 BC the great Ionian revolt actually took place. In 499 BC Sardis, the most important stronghold for Persia in Asia Minor, was burned by the Athenians. In 490 BC Marathon was fought and Persia was conquered. In 480 BC Xerxes was defeated at Salamis. But it is unnecessary to sketch the rise of Jayan further. Enough has been related to show that already in the reign of Darius Hystaspis - in whose reign Zechariah is known to have lived and prophesied - the sons of Greece were a rising world-power, and a threatening world-power. This is all really that is required by the passage. The sons of Jayan were but one of Israel’s enemies in Zechariah’s day; but they were of such importance that victory over them carried with it momentous Messianic interests. The language of chapter 9 is vague, and, in our judgment, too vague and too indefinite to have been uttered after Marathon (490 BC), or even after the burning of Sardis (500 BC); for, in that case, the author would have been influenced more by Greece and less by the movements and commotions of the nations.
Other arguments advanced by the post-Zecharian school are: (1) Zec 14:9, “And Yahweh shall be King over all the earth: in that day shall Yahweh be one, and his name one.” To Stade this passage contains a polemic against the conditions in Greek times when all gods were conceived of as only different representations of one and the same god. But, on the contrary, the post-exilic congregation was as truly a theocracy in the days of Darius Hystaspis as in the period subsequent to Alexander’s conquest. The Jewish colony of the Restoration was a religious sect, not a political organization. Zechariah often pictures the close relation of Yahweh to His people (Zec 2:10-13; Zec 8:3, Zec 8:13), and the author of chapters 9 through 14 describes similar conditions. The “yearning for a fuller theocracy,” which Cheyne (Bampton Lectures, 120) discovers in Zec 9-14, is thoroughly consistent with the yearning of a struggling congregation in a land of forsaken idols shortly after the return from exile. (2) Zec 12:2, interpreted to mean that “Judah also, forced by the enemy, shall be in the siege against Jerusalem,” is a proof, it is alleged, that the children of the Diaspora had served as soldiers. The verse, accordingly, is said to be a description of the hostile relations which actually existed between Jerusalem and Judah in the beginning of the Maccabean struggle. The validity of these claims, however, is vitiated by a correct exegesis of the passage in hand. The text is apparently corrupt. In order to obtain a subject for “shall be,” the preposition before Judah had better be stricken out, as in the Targum. The passage then translated reads, “And Judah also shall be in the siege against Jerusalem.” But this is ambiguous. It may mean that Judah shall fight against Jerusalem, or it may mean that Judah, too, shall be besieged. The latter is obviously the true meaning of the passage, as Zec 12:7 indicates. For, as one nation might besiege Jerusalem (a city), so all nations, coming up are practically going to besiege Judah. The Septuagint favors this interpretation; likewise the Coptic version; and Zec 14:14. Wellhausen frankly concedes that “no characteristic of the prophecy under discussion in reality agrees with the conditions of the Maccabean time. The Maccabees were not the Jews of the lowland, and they did not join themselves with the heathen out of hatred to the city of Jerusalem, in order finally to fall treacherously upon their companions in war. There is not the slightest hint in our passage of religious persecution; that alone decides, and hence, the most important sign of Maccabean times is wanting.” (3) Zec 10:10, Zec 10:11, which mentions “Egypt” and “Assyria” (and which, strange to say, is also one of the strongest proofs in support of the preexilic hypothesis), is singularly enough interpreted to refer respectively to the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. But this is quite impossible, and especially so in view of the prominence which is given to Egypt in Zec 14:19, which points to Persian rather than Greek conditions; for then Egypt, in consequence of her perpetual efforts to throw off the Persian yoke, was naturally brought under the observation of the Jews in Palestine, who repeatedly beheld the Persian armies passing on their way to the valley of the Nile.
(4) Still another argument advanced in favor of a late post-Zecharian date for these oracles is that from language and style: Aramaisms, scriptio plena, the preponderance of the shorter form of the personal pronoun “I,” the Hebrew ending
5. The Unity of the Book:
Among the further objections made to the genuineness of Zechariah 9 through 14, and consequently to the unity of the book, the following are the chief: (1) There are no “visions” in these oracles as in Zechariah 1 through 6. But there are none either in Zec 7:1-14; 8, and yet these latter are not denied to Zechariah. As a matter of fact, however, visions do actually occur in chapters 9 through 14, only of a historico-parabolic (Zec 11:4-17) and eschatological character (Zec 9:13-17; Zec 12:1-14; 14). (2) There are “no dates,” as in Zec 1:1, Zec 1:7; Zec 7:1. But dates are seldom attached to “oracles” (Isa 13:1; Isa 15:1; Nah 1:1; Hab 1:1; Mal 1:1). There is but one instance in the entire Old Testament (Isa 14:28 margin); whereas “visions” are frequently dated. (3) There is “no Satan.” But Satan is never mentioned elsewhere in any prophetic book of the Old Testament. (4) There is “no interpreting angel” in Zechariah 9 through 14. But “oracles” need no interpreting angel. On the other hand, “the Angel of Yahweh” is mentioned in both parts (Zec 3:1 ff; Zec 12:8), a fact which is far more noteworthy. (5) Proper names are wanting in Zechariah 9 through 14, e.g. Zerubbabel and Joshua. But neither do these names occur in chapters 7; 8. (6) The sins alluded to are different, e.g. theft and false swearing in Zec 5:3, Zec 5:1; while in Zec 10:2 seeking teraphim and in Zec 13:2 ff false prophecy are named. But these sins may have existed side by side. What is far more noteworthy, in both parts the prophet declares that all these evils shall be taken away and removed out of the land (Zec 3:9; Zec 5:9-11; Zec 13:1, Zec 13:2). (7) The Messianic pictures are different, e.g. in Zechariah 1 through 8 the Messiah is spoken of as Branch-Priest (Zec 3:8, Zec 3:9; Zec 6:12, Zec 6:13); whereas in chapters 9 through 14, as King, (Zec 9:9, Zec 9:10). But in Zec 6:13 it is expressly stated that the Branch-Priest “shall sit and rule upon his throne.” Of far greater moment is the picture of the nations coming to Zion to worship Yahweh. This remarkable picture recurs in all the different sections of the book (Zec 6:12, Zec 6:13, Zec 6:15; Zec 8:20-23; Zec 12:6; Zec 14:16-19).
On the other hand, the following are some of the arguments which favor the genuineness of these disputed chapters: (1) The fundamental ideas of both parts are the same. By this we mean that the deeper we go the nearer we approach unity. As Dr. G.A. Smith argues against Graetz, who divides Hosea 1 through 3 from Hosea 4 through 14, “in both parts there are the same religious principles and the same urgent and jealous temper”; the same is equally true of Zec 1 through 8 and Zec 9 through 14. Certain similarities are especially noteworthy, e.g. (a) an unusually deep, spiritual tone pervades the entire book. The call to a true repentance, first sounded forth in the introduction (Zec 1:1-7), is developed more and more throughout the entire 14 chapters; thus, in the sanctifying of Joshua (Zec 3:4), in the message to Zerubbabel, “not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit” (Zec 4:6), in the conditions of future blessing (Zec 6:15), in the answer to the Bethel deputation (Zec 7:5-9; Zec 8:16 ff); and in Zechariah 9 through 14, in the consecration of the remnant of the Philistines (Zec 9:7), in the blessings to Ephraim (Zec 10:12), in the baptism of grace upon Jerusalem (Zec 12:10), in the fountain for sin (Zec 13:1), in the worship of Yahweh (Zec 13:9), in the living waters going forth from Jerusalem (Zec 14:8), and in the dedication of everything as holy unto the Lord (Zec 14:20, Zec 14:21). The tone which tempers these prophecies is an extraordinarily deep and spiritual one throughout. And this argument cannot be set aside by rejecting wholesale certain passages as later interpolations, as is done by Mitchell (ICC, 242-44). (b) There is a similar attitude of hope and expectation in both parts. This is especially important. For example, (i) the return of the whole nation is a prevailing idea of happiness in both parts (Zec 2:6, Zec 2:10; Zec 8:7, Zec 8:8; Zec 9:12; Zec 10:6, Zec 10:7). (ii) The expectation that Jerusalem shall be inhabited (Zec 1:16, Zec 1:17; Zec 2:4; Zec 8:3, Zec 8:8; Zec 12:6; Zec 14:10, Zec 14:11), (iii) and that the temple shall be built and become the center of the nation’s religious life (Zec 1:16, Zec 1:17; Zec 3:7; Zec 6:15; Zec 7:2, Zec 7:3; Zec 9:8; Zec 14:20, Zec 14:21). (iv) Messianic hope is peculiarly strong in both (Zec 3:8, Zec 3:9; Zec 6:12, Zec 6:13; Zec 9:9, Zec 9:10; Zec 11:12, Zec 11:13; Zec 12:10; Zec 13:1, Zec 13:7-9). (v) Peace and prosperity are expected (Zec 1:17; Zec 3:10; Zec 6:13; Zec 8:12, Zec 8:19; Zec 9:10, Zec 9:12-17; Zec 10:1, Zec 10:7, Zec 10:8, Zec 10:10, Zec 10:12; Zec 12:8; Zec 14:11, Zec 14:16-19). (vi) The idea of God’s providence as extending to the whole earth (Zec 1:14-17; Zec 2:9, Zec 2:12; Zec 4:10; Zec 6:5; Zec 9:1, Zec 9:8, Zec 9:14; Zec 10:3, Zec 10:1, Zec 10:9, Zec 10:12; Zec 12:2-4, Zec 12:8; Zec 13:7; Zec 14:3, Zec 14:9). Again, (c) the prophet’s attitude toward Judah is the same in both parts. It is an attitude of supreme regard for Judah’s interests, making them second only to the capital (Zec 2:2, Zec 2:4, 16; Zec 8:19; Zec 1:12; Zec 8:13, Zec 8:15; Zec 12:2; Zec 14:14; Zec 10:3; Zec 12:4, Zec 12:6, Zec 12:7; Zec 14:21; Zec 9:9, Zec 9:13; Zec 10:6; Zec 11:14; Zec 14:5). The prophet’s attitude toward the nations, the enemies of theocracy, is the same in both parts. The whole assembled world are the enemies of Israel. But though they have scattered Judah, Israel and Jerusalem (Zec 1:11), and are still coming up to besiege Jerusalem (Zec 12:2; Zec 14:2), yet they shall be joined to the Lord in that day (Zec 2:11) and worship Yahweh like the Jews (Zec 8:20-23; Zec 14:16-19). These are all striking instances of similarity in the fundamental ideas of the two parts of the book.
(2) There are peculiarities of thought common to both parts: e.g. (a) the habit of dwelling on the same thought (Zec 2:1, Zec 2:4, Zec 2:5, Zec 2:11; Zec 6:12, Zec 6:13; Zec 8:4, Zec 8:5; Zec 8:21, Zec 8:22; Zec 11:8; parallel Zec 13:3; Zec 14:5, Zec 14:16, Zec 14:18, Zec 14:19); (b) the habit of expanding one fundamental thought into a series of clauses (Zec 6:13; Zec 9:5, Zec 9:7; Zec 1:17; Zec 3:8, Zec 3:9; Zec 12:4); (c) the habit of referring to a thought already introduced: e.g. to the “Branch” (Zec 3:8; Zec 6:12); “eyes” (Zec 3:9; Zec 4:10); measuring “line” (Zec 1:16; Zec 2:5, Zec 2:6); choosing Jerusalem (Zec 1:17; Zec 2:12; Zec 3:2); removing iniquity (Zec 3:9; Zec 5:3 ff; Zec 13:2); measurements (Zec 5:2; Zec 14:10); colors of horses (Zec 1:8; Zec 6:2, Zec 6:6); the idea of Israel as a “flock” (Zec 9:16; Zec 10:2; Zec 11:4 f; Zec 13:7); idols (Zec 10:2; Zec 13:2); shepherds (Zec 11:3 ff; Zec 13:7); and of “all nations” (Zec 11:10; Zec 12:3 ff; Zec 14:2 ff); Mitchell in attempting to answer this argument has failed utterly to grasp the point (ICC, 243); (d) the use made of the cardinal number “two”; thus, two olive trees (Zec 4:3); two women (Zec 5:9); two mountains (Zec 6:1); two staves (Zec 11:7); two parts (Zec 14:2, Zec 14:4); with which compare Zec 6:13; Zec 9:12; Zec 14:8; (e) the resort in each part of the book to symbolic actions as a mode of instruction; e.g. the coronation scene in Zec 6:9-15, and the breaking of the two staves in Zec 11:4-14.
(3) Certain peculiarities of diction and style favor unity of authorship; e.g. the phrase “no man passed through nor returned” (Zec 7:14; Zec 9:8) never occurs elsewhere in the Old Testament. The author’s preference for and frequent use of vocatives (Zec 2:7, Zec 2:10; Zec 3:2, Zec 3:8; Zec 4:7; Zec 9:9, Zec 9:13; Zec 11:1, Zec 11:2; Zec 13:7); and especially the frequent alternation of the scriptio plena and the scriprio defectiva orthography in the Hebrew (compare Zec 1:2, Zec 1:5 with Zec 1:4, Zec 1:6 and Zec 8:14; Zec 2:11 with Zec 5:7; Zec 1:11 with Zec 7:7; Zec 9:5 with Zec 10:5, Zec 10:11; and Zec 10:4 with Zec 9:9).
Accordingly, we conclude, (1) that Zechariah 9 through 14 are of post-exilic origin; (2) that they are not, however, late post-exilic; (3) that they had their origin in the period just before the completion of the temple, 516 BC, and (4) that they were probably composed by Zechariah himself.
6. Conclusion:
This conclusion is based upon the text taken as a whole, without an arbitrary dissection of the prophecies in the interests of a false theory. Mitchell (ICC, 258-59), after eliminating numerous individual passages, arrives at the conclusion that Zechariah 9 through 14 were written by four different writers; (1) Zec 9:1-10, soon after 333 BC; (2) Zec 9:11 through 11:3, about 247-222 BC; (3) Zec 11:4-17 and Zec 13:7-9, between 217 and 204 BC; and (4) Zec 12:1 through 13:6 and chapter 14, about the same time. Tradition points to a saner and securer conclusion, that these oracles were written by Zechariah himself; which in turn is corroborated by internal evidence, as has been shown above. One wonders why these oracles, written so late in Israel’s history, should have been appended by the collectors of the Canon to the genuine prophecies of Zechariah, if, as is alleged, that prophet had nothing whatever to do with them!
Literature.
(1) Those Who Defend the Unity of the Book:
C. H. H. Wright, Zechariah and His Prophecies (Bampton Lectures), London, 1879; G. L. Robinson, The Prophecies of Zechariah, with Special Reference to the Origin and Date of Chapters 9 through 14, Leipzig Dissertation, reprinted from American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, XII, 1896; W.H. Lowe, Hebrew Student’s Commentary on Zechariah, Hebrew and the Septuagint, London, 1882; O.J. Bredenkamp, Der Prophet Sach., Erklart, 1879; Marcus Dods, The Post-Exilian Prophets: Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi (“Handbook for Biblical Classes”), Edinburgh, 1879; E.B. Pusey, Minor Prophets, 1877; W. Drake, “Commentary on Zechariah” (Speaker’s Commentary), 1876; T. W. Chambers, “The Book of Zechariah” (Lange’s Bible Work), 1874; A. Van Hoonacker, in Revue Biblique, 1902, 161 ff; idem, Les douze petits prophetes, 1908; Wm. Moeller, article “Zechariah” in The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, edited by W.C. Piercy, 1908.
(2) Those Who Advocate a Preexilic Origin for Zechariah 9 Through 14:
Hitzig-Steiner, Die zwolf kleinen Propheten, 1881; Samuel Davidson, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 1862-63; W. Pressel, Commentar zu den Schriften der Propheten Haggai, Sacharja und Maleachi, 1870; C. A. Bruston, Histoire critique de la litterature prophetique des Hebreux, 1881; Samuel Sharpe, History of the Hebrew Nation, Literature and Chronology, 1882; G. von Orelll, Das Buch Ezechiel u. die zwolf kleinen Propheten, 1888; Ferd. Montet, Etude critique sur la date assignable aux six derniers chapitres de Zac, 1882; H. L. Strack, Einleitung in das Altes Testament, 1895; F. W. Farrar, Minor Prophets, in “Men of the Bible” series.
(3) Those Who Advocate a Post-Zecharian Origin for Zecharaih 9 Through 14:
B. Stade, “Deuterozacharja, eine krit. Studie,” in ZATW, 1881-82; T. K. Cheyne, “The Date of Zec 9-14,” in JQR, I, 1889; C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Altes Testament, 1891; S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 1910; J. Wellhausen, Die kleinen Propheten ubersetzt, 1893; N. I. Rubinkam, The Second Part of the Book of Zechariah, 1892; Karl Marti, Der Prophet Sacharja, 1892; A. F. Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the Prophets, 1892; R. Eckardt, “Der Sprachgebrauch von Zach 9 through 14,” ZATW, 1893, 76-109; A. K. Kuiper, Zacharja 9 through 14; eine exegetischcritische Studie, 1894; J. W. Rothstein, Die Nachtgesichte des Sacharja, 1910; G.A. Smith in Expositor’s Bible, 1896-97; S. R. Driver In the New Century Bible; H. G. Mitchell, ICC, 1912.
After the decree of Cyrus in 539 BC that released the Jews from captivity, a number returned to their homeland. They settled in Jerusalem under the leadership of the governor Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua, and set about rebuilding the city and the temple (Ezr 1:1-4; Ezr 2:1-2). Soon they had set up the altar and laid the foundation of the temple, but when local people began persecuting them, they became discouraged and stopped work (Ezr 4:1-5; Ezr 4:24). For sixteen years no work was done on the temple. Then, in 520 BC, God raised up two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, to stir up the people to get to work again and finish the temple (Ezr 5:1-2; Hag 1:1; Zec 1:1).
Characteristics of the book
The prophets’ preaching for the first six months was largely concerned with encouraging the people through the early difficulties. Haggai began the preaching with two stirring messages (Haggai 1; Hag 2:1-9), after which Zechariah delivered his first message (Zec 1:1-6). Haggai followed this with two more messages (Hag 2:10-23), after which Zechariah delivered his second message (Zec 1:7-21; Zechariah 2; Zechariah 3; Zechariah 4; Zechariah 5; Zechariah 6). Zechariah’s next recorded message was preached when the construction had reached the half-way point (Zechariah 7; Zechariah 8). The temple was finished in 516 BC, after four and a half years work (Ezr 6:14-15).
Haggai and Zechariah were both concerned with rousing the people from their spiritual laziness and getting them to work on the temple, but the preaching of Zechariah went further. Through him God was preparing his people for the task for which he had chosen them, namely, the coming of the Messiah, the establishment of his kingdom and the salvation of people worldwide. Zechariah was therefore concerned to bring about a lasting spiritual change in the lives of the people.
The latter half of Zechariah’s book, which consists of two messages delivered probably late in his life, shows that the task the people faced was not an easy one. There would be bitter conflicts with the forces of evil, but in the end God’s kingdom would triumph.
In contrast to the straightforward preaching of Haggai, Zechariah’s preaching was often mysterious and colourful. His book shows characteristics of the apocalyptic literature that developed in Israel over the next few centuries. Apocalyptic writers presented their messages in the form of visions in which symbolic figures and numbers usually featured (see APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE).
Contents of the book
After an initial call to repentance (1:1-6), Zechariah recounts eight visions, all of which concern the rebuilding of the temple and God’s purposes for his people. The first three visions give encouragement to the workmen (1:7-2:13), the central pair give encouragement to the leaders, Joshua and Zerubbabel (3:1-4:14), and the last three give assurance of final victory (5:1-6:8). A short narrative recounts the crowning of the high priest (6:9-15).
At the half-way point in the building program, some representatives of the people asked Zechariah if they should still keep certain fasts to mourn the destruction of the former temple. In response Zechariah warns not to mourn over the past, but to have confidence for the future (7:1-8:23).
In the first of the two longer messages given later in life, Zechariah speaks of the punishment of enemies and the restoration of freedom. He draws a striking contrast between the worthless leadership of unspiritual people and the kind of leadership God wants (9:1-11:17). In the second message he warns that the victory Israel looked for will be achieved only at great cost and with much sorrow. He again notes the difference between the false shepherds and the true shepherd, and looks forward to the final triumph of the Messiah’s kingdom (12:1-14:21).
Zechariah is the longest of the twelve books known as the Minor Prophets in the Old Testament. These books are called "minor" because they are shorter than the major prophetic books.
Zechariah can also be the most difficult to understand. One reason is that it contains many visions whose meanings need explanation. A vision is an experience in which God shows someone scenes or images that communicate a message. A vision may occur while the person is awake or asleep. Sometimes an angel explains a vision (Zechariah 1:9–10, 19–20; 4:1–6; 5:5–6). At other times, no angel explains it, even when its meaning is unclear. These difficult passages have led to many theories about when the book was written, who wrote it, whether its parts belong together, and what it means.
Zechariah is important for Christians because of its use in the New Testament. The Gospel accounts of the suffering and death of Jesus quote the final section of Zechariah (Zechariah 9–14) more often than any other section of the prophetic books. Zechariah also influenced the book of Revelation more than any other Old Testament book except Ezekiel.
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Who Wrote the Book of Zechariah?
When Was the Book of Zechariah Written?
What Is the Background of the Book of Zechariah?
Why Was the Book of Zechariah Written?
What Is the Book of Zechariah About?
Who Wrote the Book of Zechariah?
The name Zechariah likely means "the Lord remembers" or "the Lord is renowned." Zechariah is a common name in the Old Testament and New Testament. At least 30 different people in the Old Testament are named Zechariah. There is confusion about the prophet's father. In Zechariah 1:1 and 1:7, he is called "son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo," but in Ezra 5:1 and 6:14, he is called "son of Iddo." Another Zechariah from Isaiah's time had a father named Jeberechiah (Isaiah 8:2).
A different prophet named Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada the priest, lived earlier during King Joash's reign in Judah, from 835 to 796 BC. This prophet was stoned to death for saying the Lord had abandoned his people due to their sins (2 Chronicles 24:20–22). Jesus seemed to refer to this or a similar unrecorded event, but he calls the prophet the son of Berechiah, the last of the martyrs (people killed for their faith or message) among the prophets (Matthew 23:35).
However, Luke's account of Jesus's words about Zechariah (Luke 11:51) does not mention "the son of Berechiah." Some interpreters understand Jesus’s words as referring to Zechariah son of Jehoiada. In the traditional Jewish ordering, Chronicles is the last book of the Hebrew Bible. On this interpretation, Abel and Zechariah represent the first and last recorded murders of righteous people in that arrangement. There is no evidence that the prophet from the book of Zechariah was martyred. Therefore, it is best to consider Berechiah as the father and Iddo as the grandfather of this prophet.
When Was the Book of Zechariah Written?
The first part of the book of Zechariah (Zechariah 1–8) is easy to date. The first date appears in the first verse: "the eighth month of the second year of Darius." This refers to Darius, king of Persia, who ruled from 521 to 486 BC. The eighth month of Darius's second year is October 520 BC. This date marks the first time the "word of the LORD" came to Zechariah.
The second date in Zechariah is in Zechariah 1:7: "On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, the month of Shebat, in the second year of Darius." This date corresponds to February 15, 519 BC. The word of the Lord that came to Zechariah on this date includes the account of eight night visions and some messages from an angel who spoke with him. The third date in Zechariah is in Zechariah 7:1: "In the fourth year of King Darius… on the fourth day of the ninth month, the month of Chislev." This date is equivalent to December 7, 518 BC.
There are no dates in Zechariah 9–14. Zechariah’s name is not mentioned, nor is Darius or any king. A time of peace and stability changes to war. The temple is standing (Zechariah 11:13; 14:20), and Greek soldiers seem to be present (9:13). Trying to assign specific dates to Zechariah 9–14 would only be a guess.
What Is the Background of the Book of Zechariah?
Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, destroyed the temple in Jerusalem in 586 BC. He attacked Jerusalem several times, taking many people to Babylon (see 2 Kings 24:1–17; Daniel 1:1). Jeremiah predicted twice that the captivity (the time when the people were held in Babylon) would last 70 years (Jeremiah 25:11; 29:10; see also Daniel 9:2). During Zechariah's time, the 70-year period since Jerusalem's fall was nearing its end (Zechariah 1:12; 7:5). It had been 66 years since Jerusalem fell when Zechariah received the first "word of the LORD" in the second year of Darius (520 BC). The Persian Empire conquered Babylon in 538 BC, and Cyrus, the first Persian king, allowed the Jewish exiles (people forced to live away from their homeland) to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple (2 Chronicles 36:23; Ezra 1:1–4).
The first group of Jewish captives returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel and Joshua the priest around 536 BC. Their main goal was to rebuild the temple (Ezra 1:3), but internal conflicts and opposition from the Samaritans delayed the rebuilding.
After Darius I became king of Persia in 521 BC, hope and excitement grew among the Jewish communities in Jerusalem and Babylon. Two prophets, possibly from the Babylonian exiles, Haggai and Zechariah, preached so effectively that work on the second temple began in 520 BC and finished in 516 BC (Ezra 5:1, 14–15; Haggai 1–2; Zechariah 1–8).
The book of Zechariah begins in the second year of Darius (520 BC). Some captives had returned to Jerusalem 16 years earlier, but they had not started rebuilding the temple. Zechariah's first message urged the people to repent (turn away from sin and return to God) and avoid repeating their ancestors' mistakes. Their ancestors' sins and refusal to repent led to exile and the temple's destruction (Zechariah 1:1–6). Then, Zechariah shares eight night visions (Zechariah 1:7–6:8) that promise the temple will be rebuilt by Zerubbabel (Zechariah 1:16; 4:9; 6:15).
Two verses in Zechariah highlight the challenges in Jerusalem before the temple's reconstruction: "This is what the LORD of Hosts says: 'Let your hands be strong, you who now hear these words spoken by the prophets who were present when the foundations were laid to rebuild the temple, the house of the LORD of Hosts. For before those days neither man nor beast received wages, nor was there safety from the enemy for anyone who came or went, for I had turned every man against his neighbor'" (Zechariah 8:9–10).
The first eight chapters of Zechariah focus on the social, political, and religious situations in Jerusalem from 520 to 518 BC. Starting with Zechariah 9, the historical context is unclear. Chapter 9 begins with a prophecy against Syria, including Damascus, Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia. These places will be conquered, purified, and become like a clan in Judah. There is a promise of a new king coming to Jerusalem triumphantly, yet humbly riding a donkey. His rule will be peaceful and worldwide.
The next prophecy talks about freeing captives, but it might not mean the Babylonian captives because it mentions the Greeks. Zechariah 9–12 mainly focuses on the future. Some scholars describe this part as apocalyptic literature, which uses visions and symbols to describe God’s judgment and future rule. Nations attack Jerusalem and are defeated (Zechariah 12, 14). The temple is standing (Zechariah 11:13), but it does not seem very important in the new Jerusalem and the kingdom of God (Zechariah 14:6–9).
Why Was the Book of Zechariah Written?
The book aims to reassure and encourage. The Jewish community in 520 BC needed to know the temple would be rebuilt. Later, God's people needed to understand that God's kingdom would eventually come in full. The book of Zechariah has three main messages:
the need for repentance (Zechariah 1:1–5:11);
the eight night visions (Zechariah 1:7–6:8) showing that the temple would be rebuilt and God's glory would return to Jerusalem; and
the coming of God's kingdom (Zechariah 9–14).
What Is the Book of Zechariah About?
The book of Zechariah has two main sections: Zechariah 1–8 and 9–14.
The first section dates from 520 BC to 518 BC. It contains the oracles and visions of Zechariah, the son of Berechiah. An oracle is a message from God, often delivered through a prophet. It may announce judgment, give instruction, or promise hope. Most of the book of Zechariah is written in prose, or ordinary language rather than poetry. It reassures the Jewish community that returned from exile that the temple will be rebuilt.
The second section, Zechariah 9–14, is undated and does not mention Zechariah. The temple is already standing, and the language is eschatological (related to the end times) and apocalyptic (revealing hidden truths). This section itself divides into two parts: Zechariah 9–11 and 12–14. Zechariah 9 and 12 both start with “This is the burden of the word of the LORD.”
The first part of Zechariah (Zechariah 1–8) has four main sections:
the introduction and first message (Zechariah 1:1–6);
eight night visions and related messages (Zechariah 1:7–6:8);
the symbolic crowning of Joshua (Zechariah 6:9–15); and
the question about fasting and right and wrong conduct (Zechariah 7:1–8:23).
The Introduction and First Message (1:1–6)
This section refers to the "eighth month" of the Babylonian calendar, which spans from mid-October to mid-November. The second year of Darius, king of Persia, was 520 BC. This date is important for connecting Zechariah's work with Haggai's (see Haggai 1:1, 15; 2:1, 10, 18–20) and the temple reconstruction under Zerubbabel. The first oracle emphasizes the need for repentance. Zechariah's first message came between Haggai's second and third messages. Like Haggai, Zechariah likely believed that crop failures and other hardships resulted from not rebuilding the temple (see Haggai 1:6–11). Zechariah urges the people to repent so they can continue working on the temple.
The Eight Night Visions and Related Oracles (1:7–6:8)
Zechariah saw these visions in Jerusalem on the night of the 24th day of the 11th month (Shebat) in the second year of Darius, which is mid-January to mid-February 519 BC. Seven of the eight visions have a similar structure. Four visions start with "Then I looked up and saw" (Zechariah 1:18; 2:1; 5:1; 6:1). One begins with "I looked out into the night" (Zechariah 1:8). Another starts with "Then the angel who was speaking with me returned and woke me, as a man is awakened from his sleep. "'What do you see?' he asked" (Zechariah 4:1–2).
Yet another (the seventh) vision starts with "Then the angel who was speaking with me came forward and told me…" (Zechariah 5:5). However, the fourth vision is different. It begins with "Then the angel showed me" (Zechariah 3:1; compare Amos 7:1, 4, 7). Unlike several other visions, this vision does not follow the usual pattern of Zechariah asking an angel to explain what he sees. This fourth vision is so different from the others that it was not part of the original series of eight.
There is no clear pattern in the eight visions. Some scholars find significance in the shift from night in the first vision to sunrise in the last. Others see connections between pairs of visions. The first and last visions involve horses, riders, or chariots. The second and third visions focus on restoring Judah and Jerusalem (Zechariah 1:18–21; 2:1–5).
The fourth and fifth visions discuss the roles of two leaders in the restored community/ Joshua will be cleansed and restored as high priest (Zechariah 3:1–5). Zerubbabel, the governor, will complete the temple (Zechariah 4:1–14)
The sixth and seventh visions involve cleansing the land. A flying scroll enters the house of every thief and false witness and destroys it (Zechariah 5:1–4). Wickedness, shown as a woman, will be carried in a basket to the land of Shinar (Zechariah 5:5–11).
Four messages are mixed into the vision accounts (Zechariah 1:14–17; 2:8–13; 3:6–10; 4:8–14). Each oracle starts with “This is what the LORD of Hosts says” or “Proclaim further” (Zechariah 1:14, 17).
The first message promises the renewal of the temple, cities, and God’s choice of Jerusalem.
The second message urges exiles in Babylon to return to Judah and Jerusalem (Zechariah 2:7–12). Zechariah 2:12–13 is notable. Zechariah 2:12 is the only Old Testament reference to Palestine as “the Holy Land,” and verse 13 resembles the call to worship in Habakkuk 2:20: “Be silent before the LORD, all people, for he has roused himself from his holy dwelling” (Zechariah 2:13).
The third message in the visions is about Joshua the high priest as a sign of the coming of God’s servant, the Branch, who will remove the land's guilt in one day (Zechariah 3:6–10).
The fourth message promises that Zerubbabel will finish the temple and identifies the two anointed ones who serve the Lord (Zechariah 4:8–14).
The Symbolic Crowning of Joshua (6:9–15)
Zechariah is instructed to go to the house of Josiah, son of Zephaniah. He is to take silver and gold from some people returning from Babylon, make a crown, and place it on the head of Joshua the priest. This act symbolizes the ruler who will serve as both king and priest, the Branch, who will build the temple. After the ceremony, the crown will hang in the temple as a memorial to those who gave the silver and gold. The last verse (Zechariah 6:15) suggests that just as exiles contributed gold and silver for the king's crowning, they will also help complete the temple. Then, Zechariah’s listeners will know God sent him to prophesy. This will happen if they diligently obey the voice of the Lord.
The Question about Fasting and Morality (7:1–8:23)
A group from Bethel, located 16.1 kilometers (10 miles) north of Jerusalem, visited Jerusalem in the fourth year of Darius in 518 BC. Work on the temple had resumed about two years earlier. They came to ask the Lord to show them kindness (Zechariah 7:2) and to ask the priests and prophets if they should continue fasting as they had since the temple's destruction 70 years earlier (Zechariah 7:3). The Lord instructed Zechariah to question their reasons for fasting. Was their fasting for the Lord or for selfish reasons?
The answer suggests that God values truth, justice, and love more than fasting. Zechariah repeats the message God had given through earlier prophets. The last section of the first part of Zechariah contains ten promises (Zechariah 8:1–23). Each promise starts with “This is what the LORD of Hosts says” or “the word of the LORD of Hosts came to me.” God's final message is one of promise, hope, forgiveness, and restoration, not judgment.
The Messages of the Lord (chapters 9–14)
The last half of the book of Zechariah (Zechariah 9–14) is divided into two almost equal parts:
Zechariah 9–11, which has 46 verses, and
Zechariah 12–14, which has 44 verses.
Each part starts with the words "the burden" (Zechariah 9:1; 12:1). Both oracles mainly discuss future events.
The first part (Zechariah 9–11) focuses on bringing the tribes back to Palestine (9:11–17; 10:6–12). To achieve this, the Lord will remove opponents from Palestine and Syria (Zechariah 9:1–8; 11:1–3), eliminate corrupt leaders (10:2b–5; 11:4–17), and the Prince of Peace will arrive (9:9–10).
The last oracle of Zechariah (Zechariah 12:1–14:21) also deals with future events, focusing on Jerusalem and Judah. Jerusalem is attacked twice by other nations (Zechariah 12:1–8; 14:1–5). Each time, the Lord defends Jerusalem, Judah, and David's royal family. Jerusalem mourns for an unknown martyr (Zechariah 12:10–14). This martyr might be the "good" shepherd who is killed, causing his followers to scatter (Zechariah 13:7–9).
Jesus mentioned this passage when he was arrested (Matthew 26:31; Mark 14:27). A fountain will open for the house of David, cleansing Jerusalem's people from sin, idolatry, and false prophets (Zechariah 13:1–6). The new Jerusalem will stay elevated, and the surrounding land will become flat (Zechariah 14:10–11). There will be no night or extreme temperatures in the new Jerusalem. Living waters will flow from Jerusalem, and the Lord will become King of the whole earth. Those who fight against Jerusalem will be destroyed, but survivors will worship the Lord each year by celebrating the Feast of Tabernacles (a festival during which the Israelites lived in temporary shelters).
The book ends with a picture of the Lord ruling over the whole earth. Jerusalem will be secure, and everyday objects will be holy to the Lord. Warhorses will be as holy as a priest’s turban, and regular cooking pots will be like temple vessels (containers used in temple worship). Traders, referred to as Canaanites, will be gone. People from the surviving nations will come to Jerusalem to worship the Lord as King.
See also History of Israel; Postexilic Period; Prophecy; Prophet, Prophetess; Zechariah (Person) #20.
Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.