Cattle

Cattle [BEASTS]

Cattle. See Bull.

(the representative in various passages in the A.V. of the Hebrews words . בְּהֵמָה, behemah´, a large quadruped in general, usually "beast", SEE BEHEMOTH; in Num 20:4, and Psa 78:48, בְּעַיר, beïr´, grazing animals, elsewhere "beast;" so the Gr. βοσκήματα, as beingfd, 2Ma 12:11, or θρέμματα, from being reared, Joh 4:12; most frequently and characteristically מַקְנֶה, mikneh´, apossession, as sometimes rendered-from the fact that Oriental wealth ["substance," Job 1:3; Job 1:10] largely consisted in this kind of property; like the Gr. κτήνη, as being possessed, 1Ma 12:23; also idiomatically, שֶׂה, seh, Gen 30:32; Isa 7:25; Isa 43:23; Eze 34:17; Eze 34:20; Eze 34:22, an individual sheep or limb, as elsewhere rendered; or צאֹן, tson, Gen 30:39-43; Gen 31:8; Gen 31:10; Gen 31:12; Gen 31:41; Gen 31:43; Ecc 2:7, sheep collectively or a flock, as rendered elsewhere), in scriptural usage, embraces the tame quadrupeds employed by mankind for domestic purposes, as oxen, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, camels, and asses (Gen 1:25; Gen 13:2; Gen 32:13-17; Ezekiel 12:29; Eze 34:19; Num 20:19; Num 32:16; Psa 50:10). See each of these in their alphabetical place.

The Holy Land was eminently distinguished for its abundance of cattle, to the management and rearing of which the inhabitants, from the earliest times, chiefly applied themselves, as indeed they have always constituted the principal and almost only possession of a nomade race. In this case, wealthy people were exposed to all the vicissitudes of the seasons (Gen 31:40). Moses was a shepherd during his exile, Shamgar was taken from the herd to be. a judge in Israel, and Gideon from his threshing- floor (Jdg 6:11), as were Jair and Jephthah from the keeping of sheep; Saul and David might also be mentioned. Some of the prophets were called from that employment to the prophetic dignity, as Elisha was from the plough (1Ki 19:19), and Amos from being a herdsman. But the tending of flocks was not confined to the men. Rachel, the daughter of Laban, kept her father’s sheep (Gen 29:9), and Zipporah and her six sisters had the care of their father Jethro’s flocks, who was a prince or priest of Midian (Exo 2:16). The following is a general treatment of the subject under its two great sections. SEE HERD; SEE FLOCK.

I. Neat Cattle. — These are designated collectively by the Hebrews term בָּקָר, bakar; single animals of this kind are called אִלּוּ, alluph’, an "ox," or שׁוֹר, shor (Chald. תּוֹר, tor), a "bullock;" the calves are styled עֵגֶל, e’gel, often a yearling — fem. עֶגְלָה eglah´, a "heifer" (also a young cow, even when broken to the yoke, Jdg 14:18; Hos 10:11); when grown, but still in full youthful vigor, פָּר, par, a steer — fem. פָּרָה, .parah´, a heifer (juvencus, juvenca; comp. Varro, Res Rust. 2:5, 8). The nomadic Abrahamidma (like the Homeric chiefs, see Feith, Antiq. Hom. p. 405) already practiced the raising of cattle (Gen 12:16; Gen 18:7; Gen 24:35; Gen 32:5; Gen 34:28; comp. Gen 13:5), and when they emigrated into Egypt still carried it on (Exo 10:9; Exo 10:24; Exo 12:32 sq.). In later times, also, this was a principal pursuit of the Israelites, especially in several districts of Palestine (Deu 8:13; Deu 12:21; 1Sa 11:5; 1Sa 12:3; 2Sa 12:2; Psa 144:14; Jer 3:24; Jer 5:11; Jdt 8:6, etc.). The oxen are there somewhat small, with short horns, and a bunch ,of fat on the shoulders (Hasselquist, Travels, p. 180; comp. Shaw, Travels, p. 150). The finest herds and strongest bullocks were found in Bashan, beyond Jordan (Num 32:4); hence the Bashanite steers are often put metaphorically for formidable enemies (Psa 22:13), while Bashanite cows are a symbol of stately women (Amo 1:4). In the district west of the Jordan, the plain of Sharon, extending to the Mediterranean Sea, afforded the finest pastures (Isa 65:10; see Jerome in loc.).

Even the kings had their herdsmen (1 Chronicles 28:29). There was great demand for neat cattle; many hundreds were yearly slaughtered in sacrifice (and these were animals of the finest quality, as among other nations, see Herod. 2:41; Xenoph. Cyrop. 8:31; Varro, Res Rust. 2:5, 11; Pliny, 8:10, etc.), others were employed for food or festive occasions (Deu 12:21; 2Sa 12:4; Tob 8:21; Mat 23:4), as then generally beef (1Sa 14:32; 1Ki 19:21; comp. 4:23; Neh 5:18), and still oftener veal was a feast to the Israelites (Gen 18:7; 1Sa 28:24; Amo 6:4; Luk 15:23; Luk 15:27; Luk 15:30), it being anciently regarded as an act of wanton prodigality to slay useful agricultural beasts (compare Apollon. Rhod. 2:655 sq.) in order to enjoy their flesh (AElian, Var. Hist. 5:14; Anim. 12:34; Varro, R. R. 2:5, 6; Pliny, Hist. Nat. 8:70; Valer. Max. 8:1; Cic. Nat. Deor. 2:65). SEE FOOD. The milk was used either sweet or curdled, and was made also into cheese. SEE MILK; SEE CHEESE; SEE BUTTER. Cattle were yoked to the plough (Deu 22:10; 1Ki 19:19 sq.; Isa 30:24; Amo 6:12; Job 1:14; comp. Jdg 14:18; Josephus, Ant. 12:4, 6), likewise for draught (Num 7:3; Num 7:7; 1Sa 6:7; 2Sa 6:3; 2Sa 6:6), and were sometimes employed for burdens (1Ch 12:40; comp. AElian, Anim. 7:4), but especially for threshing (comp. Baba Mezia, 6:4; Chelim, 16:7). SEE AGRICULTURE. They were driven (Jdg 3:31; 1Sa 13:21; compare Sir 38:25; Act 9:5) with a pointed stick (מִלְמָד, malmad´, or דָּרְבָּן, dorban,; κέντρον or βούκεντρον, also βουπλήξ) in Iliad, 6:135, Lat. stimulus [comp. Schol. ad Pindar, Pyth. 2:173]), an instrument employed also for horses (Ovid, Metam. 2:127; see Schöttgen, De stimulo bourn, Frcf. a V. 1717). SEE GOAD. During summer cattle ranged under the open sky. In the stalls (2Ch 32:28) their fodder (Pro 14:4; Luk 13:15) was placed in a crib (אֵבוּס, ebus’; φάτνη). Besides fresh grass and meadow-plants. (Dan 4:29; Num 22:4), meslin (בְּלַיל, belil´, Job 6:5; Isa 30:24; תֶּבֶן, te´ben, Isa 11:7) is mentioned as provender of cattle, a mixed food, like the Roman farrago (Gesenius, Thesaur. p. 212). That salt (to gratify the appetite) was" added may be inferred from Isa 30:24 (see Gesenius in loc.). SEE SALT. Cattle were greatly annoyed by insects, and perhaps the קֶרֶוֹ, ke´rets (A. V. "destruction"), of Jer 46:20, indicates some sort of such noxious creature, namely, the gadfly or aestrus (see Hitzig in loc.; otherwise Gesenius in loc.). SEE BEEVE. In the Mosaic law the following enactments relate especially to oxen:

1. The mouth of the threshing-cattle was not to be- bound so as to prevent their eating the provender spread under them (compare Burckhardt, Proverbs, p. 67). SEE MUZZLE. Hence the term "threshing oxen" sometimes stands for fat or well-conditioned animals (Jeremiah 1, 11; see Rosenmüller in loc.).

2. Whoever stole and then sold or slaughtered an ox must give five oxen in satisfaction (Exo 22:1); but if the animal was found alive in the possession of the thief, he was merely required to make double restitution (Exo 22:4). SEE THEFT.

3. Whoever met an ox that had fallen or strayed was under obligation immediately to help it up and bring it back to the owner (Exo 23:4; Deu 22:1; Deu 22:4), an injunction the more needful in a country not only thinly inhabited, but intersected by many desert tracts. SEE PALESTINE.

4. An ox and an ass must not be yoked together to the plough (Deu 22:10). This prohibition is evidently akin to those relating to heterogeneous combinations, although Michaelis (Mos. Recht, 3:149) gives it another interpretation. SEE DIVERSE. Respecting unruly cattle (Exo 21:28 sq.), SEE DAMAGES. It was considered unmerciful to take the only beast of a widow in pawn (Job 24:3). SEE DEBT. On the subject generally, see Bochart, Hieroz. 1:268 sq.; Ugolino, De Re Rust. Hebr. (in his Thesaur. 19), 2:9 sq. For the symbolical worship of the young bull, SEE CALF, GOLDEN. Compare BEAST.

II. Small Cattle:

1. Sheep. — These are designated collectively by צאֹן, tson (a general term, like μῆλον and pecus, including also goats), singly by שֶׂה, seh; while רָחֵל, rachel´, means ewe; אִיַל, a´yil, wether (Chald. דְּכִר, dekar´); כִּר, Kar, a fat pasture lamb; כֶּבֶשׂ, ke´bes, a lamb of one to three years (comp. Gesen.´ Thes. p. 659); טָלֶה, taleh´ (or טְלַי, tell´), a suckling or milk- lamb; מַשְׁנַים, mishnim´ ("fatlings," 1Sa 15:9), is an obscure term, possibly signifying two-year-old lambs (oves secundarias, Columella, Res Rust. 7:3; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. 1:469). Next to neat herds, sheep formed the most important staple of Oriental nomadic pursuits in Aramaea (Genesis 29, 30) and Palestine (Gen 12:16; Gen 13:5; Gen 20:14; Gen 21:27; Gen 24:35; Gen 32:5; Gen 34:28), as in Egypt (Gen 47:17; Exo 9:3), Arabia Petraea and Deserta (Exo 2:16; Exo 2:19; Exo 3:1; Num 31:32; Isa 34:6; Isa 60:7), and Moabitis (2 Kings, in, 4; Isa 16:1). In military feuds between such tribes, we always find sheep mentioned among the booty of the victors (Num 31:32; Jos 6:21; 1Sa 14:32; 1Sa 15:3 sq.; 1Sa 27:9; 1Ch 5:21, etc.). The same is still universally true of modern Bedouin Arabs, whose traffic in sheep (comp. Eze 26:21) is their leading mark of prosperity and even opulence (comp. Arvieux, 3:132). The patriarchs had large flocks of sheep in Palestine, as later in Egypt or Goshen (Exo 10:9; Exo 10:24; compare Hengstenberg, Pent. p. 5 sq.); also upon the occupation of Canaan by the Israelites, sheep-breeding continued to be the chief employment of a large part of the population down to the latest period, being carried on amid the numerous open tracts and hills of the country (Isa 7:25), many of which were productive of saline plants (comp. Deu 7:1-3; Deu 8:13; Deu 28:4; Jdg 6:4; 1Sa 22:19; 2Sa 12:2; Pro 27:23; Ecc 2:7; Jer 3:24; Jer 5:17; Hos 5:6; Joe 1:18; Jdt 8:6, etc.). There were rich owners of flecks (1Sa 25:2; 2Sa 12:2; comp. Job 1:3; Job 42:12), and even kings had their shepherds (1Ch 27:31; Amo 7:1; compare 2Ch 32:28), from whom they derived a revenue of sheep and wool as presents (2Sa 17:29; 1Ch 12:40) or tribute (2Ki 3:4; Isa 16:1). Among the regions most favorable for sheep- rearing are mentioned the plain of Sharon (Isa 65:10), Matthew Carmel (Mic 7:14), Bashan (Ezekiel 39), and Gilead (Micah 50, 100.). The sheep in the patriarchal age were tended oftentimes by the daughters of the owners (Gen 29:9; compare Exo 2:16); later by overseers or hired men (Joh 10:12); sometimes by the sons of the family (1Sa 16:11; 1Sa 17:15). SEE SHEPHERD.

The keepers gave their sheep, especially the bell-wethers, regular names (Joh 10:3; compare Theocr. 5:102 sq.; Aristot. Anim. 6:16; Longin. Pastor. 5:17 and 19), and familiarized these animals with their voice so as to follow them (comp. 2Sa 12:2). The sheep roamed all summer in the open air, being folded only at night (Num 32:16; 2Ch 32:28) in a pen (גְּדֵרָה, gederah´; Talmud, דור), where, in exposed positions, they were guarded by sentries (Luk 2:8). In the daytime they appear to have been sometimes sheltered from the heat of the sun in caverns (כְּרוֹת, Zep 2:6; which, however, according to others, signifies only pits, i.e. cisterns for watering the sheep). Shepherds’ dogs were indispensable (Job 30:1). Of the young, which sheep bear twice a year, the autumn lambs were considered the more vigorous (Varro, Res Rust. 2:2, 18; Colum. R. R. 7:3; Pliny, 8:72; comp. Hamaker, Miscell. Phoenic. p. 117 sq.). The flesh of the sheep, especially that of wethers and lambs, was, as with modern Arabs (Wellsted, Trav. p. 121), a highly esteemed food (1Sa 25:18; Isa 22:13; Amo 6:4; Tob 7:9; Tob 8:21), and was essential to a well-spread board (1Ki 4:23; Nehemiah v. 18). The milk of sheep was also an article of culinary use (Deu 32:14; comp. Diod. Sic. 1:18; Pliny 28:33; Strabo, 17:835; Colum. R. R. 7:2; Dioscor. 2:75). Sheep, especially lambs and rams (q.v.), were a prominent animal in sacrifices (q.v.), and a stock of them was often sacrilegiously offered for sale in the Jewish temple (Joh 2:14). The wool (צֶמֶר, tse´mer, or גֵּז, gez), which, on account of the pasturing of the flock under the open sky, attained a high degree of fineness (as in Spain), was wrought into garments (Lev 13:47; Deu 22:11; Eze 34:3; Job 31:20; Pro 27:26; Pro 31:13), and the Israelites were obliged to pay tithes of this product (Deu 18:4). Sheep- shearing (Gen 38:12) was a rural festive occasion (1Sa 25:4; 2Sa 13:23). As enemies of the shepherd are named the lion (Mic 5:7), the bear (1Sa 17:34) and the wolf (Sir 13:21; Mat 10:16; Joh 10:12; conip. Isa 11:6; Isa 65:25), which might easily carry off a single animal in the extensive and solitary pastures, although even this was often rescued by the sheep-tender (1Sa 17:34 sq.). SEE LION.

The sheep were very liable also to stray in the wide pasturages (Psa 109:17; Isa 53:6; Hos 4:16; Mat 18:12). On the "rot," or disease peculiar to flocks, see Bochart, 1:596; Aristot. Anim. 9:3. The color of sheep is in the East generally white (Psa 147:16; Isa 1:18; Dan 7:9; Son 6:5; Rev 1:14; comp. Eze 27:18); although black (חוּם, dusky, Gen 30:32) ones are also found (Colum. R. R. 7:2; Pliny, 8:73; comp. Wellsted, 1:213; Ruppell, Abyssin. 2:21), as well as spotted and grizzled (Gen 30:32), peculiarities which shepherds knew how to produce artificially (Gen 30:37 sq.; Strabo, 10:449; Pliny, 31:9; comp. Rosselini, Monum. Civil. 1:246). See JACOB. A peculiar species of sheep (Ovis laticaudata, Linn.) is found in the East, with a long fat tail (אִלְיָה, ayah´, Arab. alyat, A. V. "rump;" Lev 3:9; Lev 7:3; Lev 8:25; Lev 9:19) of 10 to 15, and sometimes 40 to 50 pounds’ weight, turned up at the end, and often drawn by the animal upon a board or small two-wheeled cart (Herod. 3:113; Aristot. Anim. 8:28; Pliny, 8:75; Died. Sic. 2:54; AElian, Anm. 3:3; 10:4; Olear. Persian. 5:8; Kampfer, Amoen. p. 506 sq.; Lucas, Reise nach d. Levante, p. 183; Russel, Aleppo, 2:8; Descript. de l’Egypte, 23:197 sq.; Oedman, Samml. 4:75 sq.; comp. Korte, Reise, p. 429; Robinson, Res. 2:169, 180; Schubert, 3:118). That the same contrivance was customary with the Jews may be seen from the Mishna (Shabb. 5:4). This kind of sheep is farther distinguished from the common species of the Bedouins by its turned-up nose, and long, pendent ears. On the Mosaic enactments respecting the rights of property in sheep ( Exodus 22; Deuteronomy 22), see above. Compare generally Bochart, Hieroz. 1:451 sq.; Michaelis, Verm. Schrift. 1:118 sq. In Daniel 8 the Persian empire (king) is personified by a ram. SEE PERSIA. On this figure (which represents the subjects as a flock), see Lengerke, Daniel, p. 365 sq. SEE SHEEP.

2. Goats. — This kind of stock is usually classed with sheep under the word צאֹן, tson, or (when a single head is intended) שֶׂה, seh, and thus associated with neat cattle, בָּקָרbakar´ (as in Hem. μῆλα, then βόες). The terms for goats individually are: עֵן, ez, a he-goat; שְׂעַירִת עַזִּים, seïrath´ izzim´ (shaggy female of the goats), a she-goat; for the buck, more distinctively, there are several terms: תִּיַשׁ, ta´yish; עִתּוּד, attud´; שָׂעַיר, saïr´ (more fully שְׂעַיר עַזַּים, seïr´ izzim´, i.e. shaggy male of the goats); צְפַיר, tsephir´; גְּדַי, gedi´, is a collective term. Goats were reared by the early patriarchs (Gen 15:9; Gen 32:14; Gen 37:31), as by the modern Bedouins; and in later times they also formed an important element (in all the hilly regions of Palestine) of agricultural wealth (comp. 1Sa 25:2; Son 6:5; Pro 27:26; see Eze 27:21). They were used not only for sacrifice, but also for food (Deu 14:4; comp. Buckingham, 2:67; Robinson, 1:342; Wellsted, p. 406), especially the young males (Gen 27:9; Gen 27:14; Gen 27:17; Jdg 6:19; Jdg 13:15; 1Sa 16:20), as still in the East (Russel, Aleppo, 2:23). The milk of goats was also an article of food (Pro 27:27), being more wholesome than that of sheep (Pliny, 28:33; comp. Bochart, Hieroz. 1:717; Prosp. Alpin. Res AEgypt. p. 229). Goat-skins were only employed as clothing by poor persons, or such as chose to wear mean apparel (Heb 11:37). They were generally made into water or wine casks. SEE BOTTLE.

Goat’s hair was often the material of tent-cloth (Exo 26:7; Exo 36:14; comp. Della Valle, Trav. 1:206; Arvieux, in, 226; Volney, 1:303; Thevenot, in, 196), as well as of matresses and bedding (1Sa 19:13; 1Sa 19:16; but see on this passage Kolkar, Quaest. Bibl. spec. 2:56 sq.), and frequently of cloaks (Robinson, 1:279). SEE TENT; SEE BOLSTER; SEE CLOTHING. The goats of the nomadic Arabs are generally black; but in Syria (Russel, ut sup.; Thevenot, 2:196; Russegger, 1:712) and Lower Egypt (Sonini, 1:329) there are found goats of a large size, like the European, with hanging ears (often a foot or more in length), and of a bright red color: this species is called Capra Mambrica. Whether the Angora goat (Capra Angorensis of Linn.) (see Hasselquist, p. 285; Tournefort, 3:488; Schubert, 1:379), whose long, soft, silky hair is made into the well-known "’camlet" stuff, was also indigenous to Palestine (Schulz, Leit. 5:28, will have it found on Lebanon), is undetermined; it is possibly that referred to in Son 6:5. On the Mosaic enactment respecting the cooking of a kid in its mother’s milk (Exo 23:19; Exo 34:26; Deu 14:21), SEE KID. The symbol of the Macedonian (Alexander’s) empire by a hegoat (צְפַיר הָעַזַּים) in Dan 8:5 sq., may be illustrated by the epithet AEgean (Αἰγεάδες, q. d. goatmen), applied to the Greek colonies on that part of the Mediterranean Sea (comp. Justin. 7:1, 7). SEE MACEDONIA. See generally Bochart, Hieroz. 1:703. On the Syrian wild goats, SEE IBEX. SEE GOAT.

Various Hebrew words are used in reference to the cow and the ox as ’cattle.’ The word miqneh, however, often used for ’cattle,’ signifies ’possession,’ because the principal property of nomadic tribes consisted of their cattle: the word includes also sheep and goats, but not horses and asses. Exo 9:3-21, etc. Another word, tson , signifies small cattle, that is, sheep and goats. Gen 30:39-43; Gen 31:8-43; Ecc 2:7. seh has the same meaning, Gen 30:32; Eze 34:17-22: in Isa 7:25 it is translated ’lesser cattle,’ and in Isa 43:23 ’small cattle.’

(Hebrew, = "possession"):

By: Emil G. Hirsch, Henry Hyvernat

Term used to denote all domestic animals, the principal possession of nomadic and pastoral peoples.

Cattle were very important in the early life of the Hebrews. The story of Abel, who was a "keeper of sheep," and offered unto the Lord "of the firstlings of his flock" (Gen. iv. 2, 4), is without doubt an indication of the conditions of early times. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob his sons were "shepherds" in all the significance of the word (Gen. xlvi. 34; xlvii. 1, 3, 4, 6); and their respective stories show the importance of cattle in their lives. Their cattle furnished them their dwelling, the tent, their clothing, and their food, the last consisting of milk, cheese, and butter, and, on great occasions, meat. They also supplied them almost exclusively with the material of the sacrifices.

In Agriculture.

After having settled in the Land of Promise, the Israelites did not entirely abandon their early mode of life. Some tribes, particularly those of Reuben, Gad, and Simeon, continued in the pastoral life, in which they were encouraged by the nature of their respective territories. Others seem to have continued the rearing of cattle, along with their new agricultural occupations. Therefore the herds and flocks were a part of all blessings (Deut. viii. 13, xxviii. 4) and prophecies (Jer. xxxi. 27, xxxiii. 12, 13; Zech. ii. 4). In the ordinary usage of the language, kings were called "shepherds" (II Sam. v. 2, vii. 7; Isa. xli. 28), and the same figurative language is used to describe Providence (Ps. xxiii. 2).

The live stock of the Israelites consisted chiefly of small cattle, horned cattle, and asses. The camel and the horse were not common in Biblical times. Small cattle—i.e., sheep and goats—were the most numerous, since Palestine, like the other Mediterranean countries, was in ancient times, as in modern, well suited to the habits of these animals. They were known by the collective name ; (ẓon; compare the Homeric μὶλα; see Goat, Sheep). Horned cattle were raised successfully only in well-watered places, as the valley of the Jordan, the plain of Sharon, and, particularly, the western part of Bashan. They were called (baḳar, "plowers"; compare "armentum," from "arare"; see Ox). Asses were as common as they were good, and she-asses were especially appreciated (Gen. xii. 16, xxx. 43; Josh. vii. 24; I Sam. viii. 16), even after the introduction of the horse (Ezra ii. 66 et seq.; Neh. vii. 68 et seq.).

Kindness to Animals.

Many passages in the Scriptures enjoin on man kindness and humanity toward domestic animals. God, as Creator and Providence of all animals, gave man sway over them, delegating to him His providence, as well as His dominion. Punishing man, He strikes also the animals; making His peace with mankind, He extends the reconciliation to animals. The firstlings of the domestic animals are His, as are the first-born of Israel. Domestic animals were entitled to their rest on the Sabbath (Ex. xx. 10, xxiii. 12; Deut. v. 14), and during the Sabbatical year were allowed to wander through the fields feeding on the spontaneous products (Lev. xxv. 7; Ex. xxiii. 11). Castration was forbidden, according to Josephus ("Ant." iv. 8, § 40; probably based on Lev. xxii. 24), and, likewise, hybridization (Lev. xix. 19). To plow with an ass and an ox was not allowed, probably because of the superior strength of the ox, which was the plower par excellence (Deut. xxii. 10). The overladen ass must be relieved of part of his burden, and if he should fall under it, his master must help him up (Deut. xxii. 4). The ox treading out the corn was not to be muzzled (Deut. xxv. 4). A cow or a ewe and her young could not be killed in one day (Lev. xxii. 28). The origin of the command not to seethe a kid in its mother's milk (Ex. xxiii. 19, xxxiv. 26; Deut. xiv. 21) is uncertain. Its purpose seems to have been to deter the Israelites from a heathen custom (see Bochart, "Hierozoicon," pp. 634 et seq.; Dillmann, on Ex. xxiii. 19; Nowack, "Lehrbuch der Hebräischen Archäologie," p. 117. Maimonides, "Moreh Nebukim").

Shelter at Night.

During the summer cattle were left in the open air. At night they were driven into pens or folds, for which the Bible has a great variety of names: , Boẓrah (Micah ii. 12); , Mikla (Hab. iii. 17 et seq.); , Gederah (Num. xxxii. 16, 24, 36); , Mishpetayim (Gen. xlix. 14). These pens were sometimes fenced about with stakes; more often, however, they consisted of an enclosure with a dry-stone wall, to protect the cattle from wild beasts; and occasionally they were provided with watch-towers (II Chron. xxvi. 10). The cattle were counted in the morning and the evening when going out and coming in; and the shepherd was obliged to replace every missing head, unless he could prove that it had not perished through his own fault (Gen. xxxi. 39; Ex. xxii. 12-13; compare Amos iii. 12). In the neighborhood of the pens were watering-places, consisting generally of a well or cistern, with a trough. To dip out the water and fill the troughs must have been one of the hardest duties of the shepherds (Gen. xxiv. 20, xxix. 8-10). During the winter the cattle were sheltered in regular stables (, marbeḳ), which were furnished with cribs (, ebus). It is incidentally mentioned that the ox and the cow were generally fed on chopped straw (, teben, Isa. xi., lxv. 25), or sometimes on a sour mixture (, belil ḥamiz), a provender consisting of various grains, mixed with alkaline herbs (Isa. xxx. 24), sometimes like the "farrago" of the Latin (see Bochart, l.c. pp. 113, 303; Blau, in "Z. D. M. G." xxvii. 522 et seq.). Horses also were fed on chopped straw and on barley. Oats and hay were then, as now, unknown in Oriental countries. Fatlings were probably kept always in the stables, hence the expression. "'egel" or "'egle marbeḳ" (, I Sam. xxviii. 24; Jer. xlvi. 21; see Gesenius, "Thesaurus," p. 1260; Bochart, l.c. pp. 302 et seq.). Elsewhere fat beeves are called (Beri'im = "fattened"), in contradiṣtinction to , re'i ("beeves of pasture," I Kings v. 3), or , meri'im (II Sam. vi. 13; I Kings i. 9). There is no evidence that the Hebrews understood the art of breeding with a view to the bettering of the race. Under this heading one would hardly consider the trick of Jacob, used to increase his flocks at the expense of his father-in-law.

Bibliography:

Bochart, Hierozoicon;

Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebräischen Archäologie.

CATTLE.—The word commonly used in OT is miqneh, meaning primarily possessions or wealth—oxen, camels, sheep, and goats being the only wealth of peoples in a nomadic stage of civilization. It includes sometimes horses and asses, e.g. Exo 9:3, Job 1:3. The word is also sometimes rendered ‘possessions’ (e.g. Ecc 2:7), ‘flocks’ (Psa 78:46), and ‘herds’ (Gen 47:18). For other words rendered in EV [Note: English Version.] ‘cattle,’ see Beast. See also Ox, Sheep, Shepherd, etc.

E. W. G. Masterman.

kat´’l (בּהמה, b^ehēmāh, “a dumb beast”; מקנה, miḳneh, “a possession” from קנה, ḳānāh, “to acquire” (compare Arabic ḳana), “to acquire,” and Greek κτῆνος, ktḗnos, “beast,” and plural κτήνεα, ktḗnea, “flocks,” from κτάομαι, ktáomai, “to acquire,” flocks being both with the Homeric peoples and with the patriarchs an important form of property; compare English “fee”); צאן, cō’n “small cattle,” “sheep” or goats (compare Arabic ḍa’n, “sheep”); שׂה, seh, a single sheep or goat (compare Arabic shāh); מלאכה, m^elā’khāh, “property,” from לאך, lā’akh, “to minister” (compare Arabic malākah and mulk, “property,” from malak, “to possess”); מריא, m^erı̄’ “fatling” (1 Ki 19); θρέμμα, thrémma (Joh 4:12), “cattle,” i.e. “that which is nourished,” from τρέφω, tréphō, “to nourish”; בּקר, bāḳār, “kine,” “oxen” (compare Arabic baḳar, “cattle”); שׁור, shōr, תּור, tōr (Dan 4:25), ταῦρος, taúros (Mat 22:4), “ox” or “bull”; βοῦς, boús, “ox” (Luk 13:15); אלף, ’eleph, only in the plural, אלפים, ’ălāphı̄m, “oxen” (Psa 8:7)): From the foregoing and by examination of the many references to “cattle,” “kine” or “oxen” it is apparent that there are important points of contact in derivation and usage in the Hebrew, Greek and English terms. It is evident that neat cattle were possessed in abundance by the patriarchs and later Israelites, which is fax from being the case in Palestine at the present day. The Bedouin usually have no cattle. The fellāḥı̄n in most parts of the country keep them in small numbers, mostly for plowing, and but little for milk or for slaughtering. Travelers in the Holy Land realize that goat’s milk is in most places easier to obtain than cow’s milk. The commonest cattle of the fellachin are a small black breed. In the vicinity of Damascus are many large, fine milch cattle which furnish the delicious milk and cream of the Damascus bazaars. For some reason, probably because they are not confined and highly fed, the bulls of Palestine are meek creatures as compared with their European or American fellows.

In English Versions of the Bible the word “cattle” is more often used in a wide sense to include sheep and goats than to denote merely neat cattle. In fact, bāḳār, which distinctively denotes neat cattle, is often rendered “herds,” as cō’n, literally “sheep,” is in a large number of instances translated “flocks.” A good illustration is found in Gen 32:7: “Then Jacob ... divided the, people (‛ām) that were with him, and the flocks (cō’n), and the herds (bāḳār), and the camels (g^emallı̄m), into two companies (maḥănōth).” For the last word the King James Version has “drove” in Gen 33:8, the Revised Version (British and American) “company.” Next to cō’n, the word most commonly rendered “flock” in English Versions of the Bible is ‛ēdher, from root “to arrange,” “to set in order.” ‛Ēdher is rendered “herd” in Pro 27:23, and in Joe 1:18 it occurs twice, being rendered “herds of cattle,” ‛edhrē bāḳār, and “flocks of sheep,” ‛edhrē ha-cō’ň. Miḳneh is rendered “flock” in Num 32:26, “herd” in Gen 47:18, and “cattle” in a large number of passages. Other words rendered “flock” are: mar‛ı̄th (r, rā‛āh (Arabic ra‛a), “to pasture”), once in Jer 10:21; ’asht^erōth cō’n, “flocks of thy sheep,” the Revised Version (British and American) “young of thy flock,” in Deu 7:13, etc., ‛ashtārōth being plural of ‛ashtōreth, or Ashtoreth; ḥāsı̄ph, once in 1Ki 20:27: “The Children of Israel encamped before them (the Syrians) like two little flocks of kids,” ḥāsı̄ph signifying “something stripped off or separated,” from root ḥāsaph, “to strip” or “to peel,” like the Arabic ḳaṭı̄‛, “flock,” from root ḳaṭa‛, “to cut off”; ποίμνη, poı́mnē (Mat 26:31): “The sheep of the flock shall be scattered,” and (Luk 2:8): “keeping watch by night over their flock”; ποίμνιον, poı́mnion (Luk 12:32): “Fear not, little flock,” and (1Pe 5:2): “Tend the flock of God which is among you.”

Figurative: Not only poimnē and poimnion but also ר, ’edher and נ, co’n are used figuratively of God’s people; e.g. Isa 40:11: “He will feed his flock (‛ēdher) like a shepherd”; Zec 10:3: “Yahweh of hosts hath visited his flock ([’edher), the house of Judah”; Isa 65:10: “And Sharon shall be a fold of flocks” (cō’n); Jer 23:2: “Ye have scattered my flock” (cō’n); Eze 34:22: “Therefore will I save my flock” (cō’n); Mic 7:14: “Feed ... the flock (cō’n) of thy heritage.”

The wild ox or wild bull, the Revised Version (British and American) “antelope” (t^e ō or tō of Deu 14:5 and Isa 51:20), is considered by the writer to be probably the Arabian oryx, and in this he is in agreement with Tristram (NHB). Tristram however thinks that the unicorn (rēm or r^e’ēm), the Revised Version (British and American) “wild ox,” was the aurochs, while the present writer believes that this also may well have been the oryx, which at the present day has at least three names in Arabic, one of which, baḳar-ul-waḥsh, means “wild ox.” See ANTELOPE.

Our domestic cattle are believed by some of the best authorities to be of the same species as the ancient European wild ox or aurochs, Bos taurus, which is by others counted as a distinct species under the title of Bos primigenius. The aurochs was widely spread over Europe in Roman times, but is now extinct. Some degenerate wild cattle are preserved in some British parks, but these according to Lydekker in the Royal Natural History are probably feral descendants of early domestic breeds. Tristram cites the occurrence in the Dog River bone breccia of teeth which may be those of the aurochs, but this is a deposit accumulated by prehistoric man of an unknown antiquity to be variously estimated according to the predilections of the geologist at a few thousands or a few score of thousands of years, and is far from proving that this animal existed in Palestine in Bible times or at any time.

The European bison (Bos or Bison bonassus) is thought by some to be the wild ox of the Bible. This is a forest-dwelling species and is now confined to the forests of Lithuania and the Caucasus. It was formerly more widely distributed, but there is no certain evidence that it ever lived as far South as Palestine, and there have probably never existed in Palestine forests suitable to be the haunts of this animal.

About the Sea of Tiberias and the Jordan valley and in the plain of Coele-Syria there exist today Indian buffaloes (Bos bubalus) some feral and some in a state of domestication, which are believed to have been introduced in comparatively recent times. See BEAST; CALF.

Psa 50:10 (b) This represents the great wealth and resources of GOD which are for the blessing of His people.

Isa 43:23 (b) This tells us that GOD notices when even the smallest offerings are not brought to Him.

Jon 4:11 (c) This indicates that GOD cares for everything that He has made.

Cattle. If we think of cattle as a group of cows, we must adjust our thinking when we read the Bible. The word cattle is usually a general reference to livestock (Gen 30:32; Gen 31:10). What we think of as cattle, the Bible calls oxen. A wild ox-- a massive, untamable beast-- is also mentioned (Job 39:9-10). The KJV calls it a unicorn.

The Bible also uses many specific terms to refer to cattle: kine, for instance, the plural of cow, and beeves, the plural of beef. But then as now, a male was a bull, a female was a cow, and their offspring was a calf. Until she bore a calf, a young female was known as a heifer; the young male was a bullock.

Some oxen were raised for sacrifice or prime quality meat. Rather than running with the herd, they were fed in a small enclosure. Fatling, fatted calf, fed beasts, stalled ox, fattened cattle and yearling described such well-cared-for animals. One translation even refers to buffalo (2Sa 6:13), (NEB), when fatling seems to be the obvious reference. A similar term, firstling, refers to the first offspring of any livestock. All firstborn males belonged to the Lord (Gen 4:4; Exo 13:12).

Oxen were hollow-horned, divided-hoof, cud-chewing animals considered "clean" by the Jews. They needed considerable food and space because of their large size, so a person who kept many cattle was rich indeed. The pastures and grain country of Bashan, located east of the Jordan River and south of amascus, were ideal places to raise oxen.

Scripture speaks of oxen as a measure of wealth (Job 42:12), beasts of burden (1Ch 12:40), draft animals (Deu 22:10), meat (Gen 18:7), and sacrificial offerings (2Sa 6:13).

Bulls (as opposed to work oxen) were allowed a large measure of freedom. Strong, fearsome beasts, they were often used as symbols. The BRONZE SEA in the Temple rested on the backs of 12 brass oxen-perhaps to show that Israel’s strength was dedicated to the Lord (1Ki 7:23). Anyone who has trembled at a bully can identify with King David’s frustration with his enemies, whom he compared to the "strong bulls of Bashan" (Psa 22:12).

The Old Testament showed concern for the humane treatment of oxen (Deu 22:4) and provided legal recourse for a person wounded by an ox (Exo 21:28-36).

While in Egypt, the Hebrews were surrounded by bull worshipers. After the Exodus, they began to despair of Moses and his invisible God. So Aaron melted down their jewelry to make a visible idol, a golden calf. The people were punished severely for this idolatry, but some of their descendants fell into the same sin (Exodus 32; 1Ki 12:18).

Cattle are large farm animals that people raise for meat, milk, and other uses. Cattle typically refers to cows and oxen, but in the Bible "cattle" sometimes also refers to sheep and goats.

Early Uses of Cattle

The Old Testament often emphasized the beauty of cattle. Egypt, especially the area called Goshen near the Nile River, had many cattle. The Hebrew people lived there when Joseph brought them to Egypt.

Early peoples may have first kept cattle mainly for milk rather than meat. They got their meat from wild animals they hunted. Cattle provided strong hides for shields, replacing wood. They used their dung as fuel when there was not enough wood (Ezra 4:15). Cattle were also used for heavy loads and plowing. Farmers used cattle to pull wheeled transport more than any other animal.

Types of Cattle

The Bible uses “cattle” to refer to all trained animals or livestock (Genesis 1:24; 2:20; 7:23; 47:6, 16–17; Exodus 9:3–7; Numbers 3:41, 45). Sometimes, it meant all large trained animals (Numbers 31:9; 32:26). However, sometimes the King James Version uses cattle to refer only to sheep and goats (Genesis 30:32, 39, 43; 31:8, 10; Isaiah 7:25; 43:23).

Various cattle types were tamed in the holy land. In southern Judah, small, short-legged, black or brown shorthorn cattle thrived. They were easy to train and vital for farming. Along the coast, a larger cattle type was found. Meanwhile, the wild areas east of the Jordan River were home to large black cattle.

Breeding and Laws about Cattle

Cattle breeding was widely practiced by the patriarchs (see Genesis 32:15; Job 21:10). Strict laws in Mesopotamia, as well as in Israel, penalized the owner of a bull that gored a man or other cattle (Exodus 21:28–36). Bulls were sometimes used as a symbol of strength or violence (Deuteronomy 33:17; Psalms 22:12; 68:30; Isaiah 10:13). Usually, one bull can breed with about 30 cows. However, more bulls were kept in Israel. This was because bulls were often used for general sacrifices (Leviticus 22:23; Numbers 23:1) or for special sacrifices (Judges 6:25; 1 Samuel 1:24).

Particular sacrifices were offered at the:

• anointing of priests (Exodus 29:1)

• Blessing of an altar (Numbers 7)

• Purification of the Levites (Numbers 8)

• Sin offerings (Leviticus 16)

• Day of the new moon (Numbers 28:11–14)

• Passover (Numbers 28:19)

• Feast of Weeks (Numbers 28:27)

• Feast of Trumpets (Numbers 29:1–2)

• Day of Atonement (Numbers 29:7–9)

• Feast of Tabernacles (Numbers 29:12–38)

The Feast of Tabernacles required the most bulls for burnt offerings of all the annual feasts. A total of 71 were slaughtered over eight days.

Calves in the Bible

Calves were sometimes called “sons of the herd” in the original Hebrew (Genesis 18:8; 1 Samuel 6:7; 14:32). The calf was a symbol of peacefulness (Isaiah 11:6). It was also used to refer to the weak (Psalm 68:30). A calf’s head decorated the back of Solomon’s throne (1 Kings 10:19). Calves were sometimes fed in stalls to keep them from running and losing weight in the field (Amos 6:4; Malachi 4:2; Luke 15:23). They may also have been kept around the house. The witch of Endor kept a calf in her house. She killed it and served it to Saul and his men (1 Samuel 28:24–25). Calves supplied veal (Genesis 18:7), a delicacy of the rich. Amos criticized the wealthy for their luxurious, careless lives. He mentioned the stall-fattened calves (Amos 6:4).Calves also supplied meat for all Saul’s armies at the great slaughter of the Philistines (1 Samuel 14:32). The “fatted calf” served roasted or boiled was gourmet fare, suitable for the finest banquet (Genesis 18:7; Matthew 22:4; Luke 15:23).

Cattle were included in the law of firstborn (Exodus 13:12). They were a sign of wealth (Genesis 13:2) and were allowed to be spoils of war (Joshua 8:2). Aaron, the first high priest, made a golden calf to rival the ark of the covenant (Exodus 32; Deuteronomy 9:16, 21). hough he called the calf an image of the invisible God, it was offensive. The calf was a fertility symbol linked to Egyptian and Canaanite practices. Two calves were later made by Jeroboam I of Israel for the shrines at Bethel and Dan (1 Kings 12:28–33). Hosea’s prophetic rejection of calf worship were directed at those shrines (Hosea 8:5–6; 13:2).

Oxen and Their Uses

An ox is an adult bull that has been neutered (had its reproductive organs removed). A young ox is called a steer. People used oxen to do work (Numbers 7:3; Deuteronomy 22:10; 25:4). However, cows were used to move heavy objects because they were gentler.

Oxen were also used as pack animals (1 Chronicles 12:40). However, they had less energy than donkeys, camels, or mules. They usually ate grass (Numbers 22:4; Psalm 106:20), but they also ate straw (Isaiah 11:7) and salted fodder (food prepared for cattle) (Isaiah 30:24). They were kept in stables (Luke 13:15). Oxen could not be offered as sacrifices because they had been castrated (Leviticus 22:24). They could be used for food but were rarely eaten. In ancient Palestine, an ox and an ass were the bare minimum for survival in the agricultural economy (Job 24:3; compare Exodus 20:17).

See also Agriculture; Food and Food Preparation; Offerings and Sacrifices.

Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.