The horse was of old used only for warlike expeditions, and not barely to ride, draw, and drudge, as it is now practised with us. Hence in that noble description of the horse, in the book of Job,f1 there is no notice taken of any quality of his but what relates to war. So that the horse is the symbol of war and conquest. And therefore, when the prophet Zec 10:3, saith, "that God hath made Judah as his goodly horse in the battle," the meaning is, that he will make them conquerors over his enemies, glorious and successful.
Thus in Psa 45:5, øëá
As a horse is a warlike, so he is also a swift creature, and is therefore not only the symbol of conquest, but also of the speediness of it.f5
If the colour of the horse be given, it must be particularly considered. White is the symbol of joy, felicity, and prosperity. And therefore white horses were used by conquerors on their days of triumph.f6 And it was, and still is, the custom of the Eastern nations to ride on white horses at the marriage cavalcadelf7 White horses were also looked upon by the ancients as the swiftest.f8 By a white horse, therefore, all the good significations of a horse in general are greatly enhanced. And therefore a white horse, in proportion to the capacity and quality of his rider, is the symbol of a very speedy and great advancement, and the certain prognostic of great joy and triumph upon that account.
For the rest of the Colours, see under COLOUR.
To ride armed.-For a prince to dream that he rides armed, denotes, according to the Persian and Egyptian, in ch. clvi., that he shall overcome his enemies, and obtain great renown in war.
For the tail of a horse, see under TAIL.
1. Lest there should be such commerce with Egypt as might lead to idolatry.
2. Lest the people might depend on a well appointed cavalry, as a means of security, and so cease from trusting in the promised aid and protection of Jehovah.
3. That they might not be tempted to extend their dominion by means of cavalry, and so get scattered among the surrounding idolatrous nations, and thus cease in process of time, to be that distinct and separate people which God intended they should be, and without which the prophecies relative to the Messiah could not be known to have their due and full accomplishment. In the time of the Judges we find horses and war chariots among the Canaanites, but still the Israelites had none; and hence they were generally too timid to venture down into the plains, confining their conquests to the mountainous parts of the country. In the reign of Saul, it would appear, that horse breeding had not yet been introduced into Arabia; for, in a war with some of the Arabian nations, the Israelites got plunder in camels, sheep, and asses, but no horses. David’s enemies brought against him a strong force of cavalry into the field; and in the book of Psalms the horse commonly appears only on the side of the enemies of the people of God; and so entirely unaccustomed to the management of this animal had the Israelites still continued, that, after a battle, in which they took a considerable body of cavalry prisoners, 2Sa 8:4, David caused most of the horses to be cut down, because he did not know what use to make of them. Solomon was the first who established a cavalry force.
Under these circumstances, it is not wonderful that the Mosaic law should take no notice of an animal which we hold in such high estimation. To Moses, educated as he was in Egypt, and, with his people, at last chased out by Pharaoh’s cavalry, the use of the horse for war and for travelling was well known; but as it was his object to establish a nation of husbandmen, and not of soldiers for the conquest of foreign lands, and as Palestine, from its situation, required not the defence of cavalry, he might very well decline introducing among his people the yet unusual art of horse breeding. Solomon, having married a daughter of Pharaoh, procured a breed of horses from Egypt; and so greatly did he multiply them, that he had four hundred stables, forty thousand stalls, and twelve thousand horsemen, 1Ki 4:26; 2Ch 9:25. It seems that the Egyptian horses were in high repute, and were much used in war. When the Israelites were disposed to place too implicit confidence in the assistance of cavalry, the prophet remonstrated in these terms: “The Egyptians are men, and not God, and their horses are flesh, not spirit,”
Horse (Gen 47:17; Gen 49:17; Exo 14:9; Exo 14:23, and in many other places; Jas 3:3; Rev 6:2, etc.). It appears to be substantiated that the horse was derived from High Asia, and was not indigenous in Arabia, Syria, or Egypt. They are not mentioned among the presents which Pharaoh bestowed upon Abraham, and occur in Scripture for the first time when the patriarch Joseph receives them from the Egyptians in exchange for bread (Gen 47:17), evidently as valuable animals, disposed of singly, and not in droves or flocks, like cattle and asses. They were still sufficiently important to be expressly mentioned in the funeral procession which accompanied the body of Jacob to his sepulcher in Canaan (Gen 50:9); and for centuries after it does not appear that, under the domestic management of the Egyptians, unless the murrain had greatly reduced them, horses had multiplied as they would have done in a land more congenial to their habits, since only six hundred chariots appear to have pursued Israel (Exo 14:7); even admitting that there were other chariots and horsemen not included in that number. In the sculptured battle-scenes, which are believed to represent victories of Sesostris, or of Thothmes II and III, over nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the enemy’s armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt, are abundantly supplied with horses, both for chariots and for riders; and in triumphal processions they are shown as presents or tribute, proving that they were portions of the national wealth of conquered states sufficiently valuable to be prized in Egypt. At a later period the books of Deuteronomy (Deu 17:10, for the future kings of Israel are forbidden to possess many) and Joshua (Jos 11:4) furnish similar evidence of abundance of horses in the plains of Syria; and in Job occurs a description of a perfect war-horse couched in the bold figurative language of inspiration, such as remains unequalled by any other poet, ancient or modern. Though the Israelites had chariots and horsemen opposed to them in the plain country from their first entrance into the land of promise—as in Jdg 4:15, where we find Sisera with his chariots of war defeated at the foot of Mount Tabor—yet not being intended to make military conquests beyond the mountain basin and the adjacent territory assigned them, they long remained without cavalry or chariots themselves (Deu 17:16; 2Sa 8:4): they obeyed the divine injunction to abstain from possessing horses, and, to the time of David, hamstrung such as they captured from their enemies. It appears, however, that a small cavalry force was raised by him; and as in all the military operations of Western Asia, there was a tendency to increase the mounted force and neglect the infantry, on the full establishment of royalty, when the Hebrew government acquired a more political structure, the reign of Solomon displayed a military system which embraced a regular body of horse and of chariots, evidently become the more necessary, since the limits of his sway were extended to the shores of the Arabian Gulf, and far into the Syrian desert (1Ki 10:26). Solomon likewise acted with commercial views in the monopolizing spirit which Eastern sovereigns have been prone to exercise in all ages. He bought chariots and teams of horses in Egypt, and probably in Armenia, ’in all lands,’ and had them brought into his dominions in strings, in the same manner as horses are still conducted to and from fairs: for this interpretation, as offered by Mr. Charles Taylor, appears to convey the natural and true meaning of the text, and not ’strings of linen yarn,’ which here seem to be out of place (2Ch 1:16-17; 2Ch 9:25; 2Ch 9:28).
The Tyrians purchased these objects from Solomon; but in the time of Ezekiel they imported horses themselves from Togarmah or Armenia. On returning from the Babylonish captivity, the common possession of horses in Palestine was no longer opposed; for Nehemiah numbers seven hundred and thirty six belonging to the liberated Hebrews (Neh 7:68).
All the great original varieties or races of horses were then known in Western Asia, and the Hebrew prophets themselves have not infrequented distinguished the nations they had in view, by means of the predominant colors of their horses, and that more correctly than commentators have surmised. Taking Bochart’s application of the Hebrew names, the bay race emphatically belonged to Egypt and Arabia Felix; the white to the regions above the Euxine Sea, Asia Minor, and northern High Asia; the dun, or cream-colored, to the Medes; the spotted piebald, or skewbald, to the Macedonians, the Parthians, and later Tahtars; and the black to the Romans; but the chesnuts do not belong to any known historical race (Zec 1:8; Zec 6:2).
Bay or red horses occur most frequently on Egyptian painted monuments, this being the primitive color of the Arabian stock; but white horses are also common, and in a few instances black, the last probably only to relieve the paler color of the one beside it in the picture. There is also, we understand, an instance of a spotted pair, tending to show that the valley of the Nile was originally supplied with horses from foreign sources and distinct regions, as indeed the tribute pictures further attest. The spotted, if not real, but painted horses, indicate the antiquity of a practice still in vogue; for staining the hair of riding animals with spots of various colors, and dyeing their limbs and tails crimson, is a practice of common occurrence in the East [ASS].
On the natural history of the horse there is no occasion to enter in this place; but it may be proper to notice that the riding bridle was long a mere slip-knot, passed round the under jaw into the mouth, thus furnishing only one rein; and that a rod was commonly added to guide the animal with more facility. The bridle, however, and the reins of chariot-horses were, at a very early age, exceedingly perfect; as the monuments of Egypt, Etruria, and Greece, amply prove. Saddles were not used, the rider sitting on the bare back, or using a cloth or mat girded on the animal. The Romans, no doubt copying the Persian Cataphractæ, first used pad-saddles, and from the northern nations adopted stimuli or spurs. Stirrups were unknown. Avicenna first mentions the rikiab, or Arabian stirrup, perhaps the most ancient; although in the tumuli of Central Asia, Tahtar horse skeletons, bridles, and stirrup-saddles, have been found along with idols; which proves the tombs to be more ancient than the introduction of Islam. With regard to horseshoeing, Bishop Lowth and Bracy Clark were mistaken in believing that the Roman horse or mule shoe was fastened on without nails driven through the horny part of the hoof, as at present. A contrary conclusion may be inferred from several passages in the poets: and the figure of a horse in the Pompeii battle mosaic, shod in the same manner as is now the practice, leaves little doubt on the question.
Horse. The most striking feature in the biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive application of it to warlike operations; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary locomotion or agriculture, if we except Isa 28:28. The animated description of the horse in Job 39:19-25 applies solely to the war-horse.
The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan, they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in certain localities, Jdg 1:19, and partly in consequence to the prohibition in Deu 17:16 which would be held to apply at all periods.
David first established a force of cavalry and chariots, 2Sa 8:4, but the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connection with Egypt. 1Ki 4:26. Solomon also established a very active trade in horses, which were brought by dealers out of Egypt and resold, at a profit, to the Hittites.
With regard to the trappings and management of the horse, we have little information. The bridle was placed over the horse’s nose, Isa 30:28, and a bit or curb is also mentioned. 2Ki 19:28; Psa 32:9; Pro 26:3; Isa 37:29. In the Authorized Version, it is incorrectly given "bridle," with the exception of Psa 32:1. Saddles were not used until a late period. The horses were not shod, and, therefore, hoofs as hard "as flint," Isa 5:28, were regarded as a great merit. The chariot-horses were covered with embroidered trappings Eze 27:20. Horses and chariots were used also in idolatrous processions, as noticed in regard to the sun. 2Ki 23:11.
In Scripture used for war-like purposes, not agriculture (except in treading out grain for threshing, Isa 28:28, where for "horsemen" translated "horses".) Job’s magnificent description refers to the war horse (Isa 39:19-25), "hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?" i.e. with the power of inspiring terror. Rather "with majesty" (Umbreit), "with quivering mane" (Maurer). The Greek connection between mane (
"Neither believeth he (for joy) that it is the sound of the trumpet," rather "he will not stand still at the sound." "He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha!" his mettlesome neighing expressing his eagerness for battle, which "he smelleth," snuffeth, i.e. discerneth, "the thunder (i.e. thundering voice) of the captains."
The "cutting off of the horse from Jerusalem" prophetically symbolizes the cessation of war (Zec 9:10). Not the horse’s speed or utility but his "strength" is his characteristic in Scripture (Psa 33:17). Two names are used in Hebrew, both Persian in origin:
Isa 21:7, "a chariot with a couple of horsemen"; rather "a cavalcade of horsemen riding in pairs." In 1Ki 4:28; Est 8:14; Mic 1:13,
The camel, one of Abram’s possessions in Egypt, is not mentioned in Joseph’s time nor on the Egyptian monuments. Their early possession of the desert of Sinai makes it certain they knew and must have used the camel there, "the ship of the desert," but they avoid mentioning it as being unclean. Saddles were not used until a late period. Horses’ hoofs hard "as flint" were a good point in days when shoeing was unknown (Isa 5:28). White horses were emblematic of victory (Rev 6:2; Rev 19:11; Rev 19:14). Horses were consecrated to the sun, since that luminary was supposed to drive a fiery chariot through the sky (2Ki 23:11). They were driven in procession to meet the rising sun.
Horse. This most valuable animal was first domesticated in the East, and was probably brought by those who emigrated westward from Asia into Arabia and Egypt. No mention is made of horses as forming any part of the possessions of the patriarchs; nor are any noticed among the presents Abraham received from the kings of Egypt and Gerar. Gen 12:16; Gen 20:14. The horse was probably not in those early times used except for military purposes; indeed we find scarcely an allusion in Scripture to its employment for the farm or any ordinary domestic service. Once the horse is said to tread out some species of corn, Isa 28:28; but it is a war-horse, strong and fierce, that is poetically described in Job 39:19-25.
The horse was used among the Israelites only for war, either in chariots or for what is now called cavalry; but its use betokened failure in confidence on the Lord: see Hos 14:3. They had been forbidden to multiply horses, Deu 17:16; and at first they hamstrung the horses, and burnt the chariots of the Canaanites. Jos 11:6; Jos 11:9. David, however, after the defeat of Hadadezer, reserved 100 horses for chariots. 2Sa 8:4. (See a description of the war-horse in Job 39:19-25.) Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots and 12,000 horsemen. 1Ki 4:26.
Symbolically the horse represents careering imperial power, in general providentially controlled. In the early part of Zechariah the prophet had visions of horses of different colours, they are called spirits of the heavens, and as such they acted in the four great Gentile empires described by Daniel. When these are further spoken of, the red horses are not named, for the Chaldean empire had passed away when Zechariah saw the vision. Zec 1:8; Zec 6:1-7.
In the Revelation also there are horses and riders thereon, representing the powers engaged in the providential course of God’s dealings. Rev 6:1-8; cf. Rev 9:7; Rev 9:9; Rev 9:17. In Rev 19 the Lord Jesus, the Faithful and True, comes forth on a white horse, to make war in righteousness. Rev 19:11-21. See REVELATION.
By: Emil G. Hirsch, I. M. Casanowicz
—Biblical Data:
The Hebrew terms are: 
, the generic and most common term; 
(I Kings v. 8; Micah i. 13; Esth. viii. 10, 14), the swift horse (A. V. "mule"); 
(only in the plural), the riding-horse, also the horseman (I Sam. viii. 11; Isa. xxviii. 28); 
, in the combination 
(Esth. viii. 10; A. V. "young dromedaries"; R. V. "breed of stud"); and lastly, more as a poetical epithet, 
, "the strong one" (Judges v. 22; Jer. viii. 16).
The horse is not indigenous to Palestine, nor is it among the ordinary possessions of the Semitic pastoral nomads. This accounts for its omission from the catalogue of the domestic animals of the Patriarchs; and in the Decalogue, while the ox and the ass are among the animals the coveting of which is prohibited, the horse is not mentioned (see Michaelis, "Mosaisches Recht," 2d ed., part iii., Appendix, "Etwas von der Aeltesten Gesch. der Pferde," etc.). Where the horse is referred to, it is the war-steed of the enemy, from whom for warlike purposes the Hebrews must have learned the art of training and utilizing the animal. The horse was not used for riding. It is represented as harnessed to the warchariot manned by archers; for the soldier equipped with bow and arrows had to have both of his hands free. Where upon the monuments the bowman is depicted on horseback, he is always attended by another horseman, whose business it was to lead the bowman's horse. In II Kings xxiii. 11 bronze horses are mentioned as being dedicated to the sun, which idolatrous institution Josiah is reported to have removed. This gloss corroborates the assumption of the foreign origin of the use of the horse (Victor Hehn, "Kulturpflanzen und Hausthiere," 3d ed., pp. 29 et seq., Berlin, 1877).
Introduced from Egypt.
The first mention of the horse in the Old Testament is in connection with Egypt (Gen. xlvii. 17). The only allusion in the Pentateuch to the horse as a factor in Israel's life is found in the law forbidding the king to "multiply horses" (Deut. xvii. 16). OnPalestinian soil the animal was employed as a warhorse by the non-Israelite tribes (Joshua xi. 4). David seems to have been the first to adopt this use of the horse (II Sam. viii. 4, xv. 1); Solomon imported many horses and chariots from Egypt (I Kings x. 28); and they became a permanent feature of the armies of the later kings (II Kings ix. 21, 33; xiii. 7). The horse was not used for draft purposes, though Isa. xxviii. 28 mentions the use of the horse for thrashing. As a king's state animal it is mentioned in connection with the Persian court (Esth. vi. 8). From the horse as a war animal are derived various descriptions and similes, e.g., from its strength and swiftness (Hab. i. 8; Jer. iv. 13), its flint-like hoofs (Isa. v. 28); its prancing and trampling (Judges v. 22; Jer. xlvii. 3; Nahum iii. 2); the splendid poetical description in Job xxxix. 19-25 should be especially noted. Frequent warning is given against putting one's trust in the horse (Isa. xxx. 16; Ps. xx. 7, xxxiii. 17).
In later times the horse seems to have become common in Palestine. The exiles brought with them horses from Babylon (Neh. vii. 68); and there was a "horse gate" in Jerusalem (II Chron. xxiii. 15). Horses were imported into Palestine from Egypt (Isa. xxxi. 1, 3; Ezek. xvii. 15), and especially through the Phenicians from Armenia (Togarmah), which was one of the staple markets for horses (Ezek. xxvii. 14). The whip and trappings and ornaments of the horse are mentioned in Ps. xxxii 9; Prov. xxvi. 3; and Zech. xiv. 20.
—In Rabbinical Literature:
Six characteristics are predicated of the horse in the Talmud: (1) it is salacious (comp. Ezek. xxiii. 20); (2) it loves war; (3) it is high-spirited; (4) it needs little sleep; (5) it consumes large quantities of food; and (6) its evacuations are small (Pes. 113b and parallels). The Medes and Persians were especially rich in horses (Sanh. 98b). In connection with Zech. i. 8 the Talmud distinguishes red, yellow, and white horses (Sanh. 93a).
The horse was considered one of the most useful of the domestic animals; hence one should not live in a city where the neighing of the horse is not heard (Pes. 113a). It was used for riding (Bek. 2a) and in the chase (Shab. 94a), and covers were made of the hair of its mane and tail (Suk. 20b, Rashi). Non-Israelites ate its flesh (Yer. Sheḳ. xii. 2).
Much labor was spent in the care of the horse (Shab. 113b; M. Ḳ. 10a, b). The general use of horseshoes is not mentioned in the Talmud; but in war time horses were sometimes provided with metal shoes (Shab. 59a). Among the objects used for the outfit of the horse are mentioned the bridle, an iron mouthpiece called "scorpion" ("'aḳrab"), and the collar (Kelim xi. 5, xxi. 2). For a white horse a red bridle was considered becoming (Ḥag. 9b). The forehead was decorated with scarlet-colored ornaments, and for protection against the evil eye the tail of a fox was hung between the eyes (Shab. 53a). At the death of its master the horse of a king was disabled by cutting through the tendons of the hoofs, so that it should not be used by any one else ('Ab. Zarah 11a). The horse was also employed as an instrument of punishment, culprits being bound to its tail and dragged over thorns (Sanh. 26b; Yoma 69a). The appearance in a dream of a white horse was considered a favorable omen (Sanh. 93a).
Bibliography:
Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p. 102;
Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, p. 136.
HORSE.—The Israelites must have been acquainted with horses in Egypt (Gen 47:17), and it is evident, too, from the Tell el-Amarna correspondence that horses were familiar animals in Palestine at an early period; but it would appear that the children of Israel were slow in adopting them. Throughout the OT up to the Exile they appear only as war-horses; the ass, the mule, and the camel were the beasts for riding and burden-bearing. Even for warlike purposes horses were only slowly adopted, the mountainous regions held by the Israelites being unsuitable for chariot warfare. David commenced acquiring chariots (2Sa 8:4), and Solomon greatly added to their numbers, obtaining horses for them from Musri [not Mizraim, ‘Egypt’] in N. Syria and Kue, in Cilicia (1Ki 10:28, 2Ch 1:16 [amending the text]). Horses were obtained also from Egypt (Isa 31:1; Isa 31:3, Eze 17:15). Some of the references may be to hired horsemen. The kings of Israel were warned against multiplying horses (Deu 17:16). Trust in horses is put in antithesis to trust in the Lord (Isa 30:16, Psa 20:7; Psa 33:17). Before the reforms of Josiah, horses sacred to the sun were kept in the Temple (2Ki 23:11; cf. 2Ki 11:16). The appearance of the war-horse seems to have made a deep impression (Job 39:19-25, Jer 47:3, Nah 3:2 etc.). After the Exile horses were much more common: the returning Jews brought 736 horses with them (Neh 7:68). Horses were fed on barley and tibn (chopped straw) in Solomon’s time as in Palestine to-day (1Ki 4:28). Although the breeding of horses has become so intimately associated with our ideas of the Arabs, it would seem that during the whole OT period horses were unknown, or at least scarce, in Arabia. The equipment of horses is mentioned in the Bible—the bit and bridle (Psa 32:9, Pro 26:3), bells of the horses (Zec 14:20), and ‘precious clothes for chariots’ (Eze 27:20). In OT times they were apparently unshod (Isa 5:28).
E. W. G. Masterman.
Emblem in art associated with
Saint Edward the Martyr who is depicted on horseback with his knights
Saint George on horseback against the dragon
Saint Hippolytus as the instrument of his martyrdom
Saint Hubert who hunted from horseback
Saint Martin of Tours, who was a cavalry soldier
Saint Medardus
New Catholic Dictionary
1. Names
The common names are (1)
2. Origin
The Hebrew and Egyptian names for the horse are alike akin to the Assyrian. The Jews may have obtained horses from Egypt (Deu 17:16), but the Canaanites before them had horses (Jos 17:16), and in looking toward the Northeast for the origin of the horse, philologists are in agreement with zoologists who consider that the plains of Central Asia, and also of Europe, were the original home of the horse. At least one species of wild horse is still found in Central Asia.
3. Uses
The horses of the Bible are almost exclusively war-horses, or at least the property of kings and not of the common people. A doubtful reference to the use of horses in threshing grain is found in Isa 28:28. Horses are among the property which the Egyptians gave to Joseph in exchange for grain (Gen 47:17). In Deu 17:16 it is enjoined that the king “shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people to return to Egypt, to the end that he may multiply horses.” This and other injunctions failed to prevent the Jews from borrowing from the neighboring civilizations their customs, idolatries, and vices. Solomon’s horses are enumerated in 1 Ki 4, and the
4. Figurative and Descriptive
The horse is referred to figuratively chiefly in Zechariah and Revelation. A chariot and horses of fire take Elijah up to heaven (2Ki 2:11 f). In Psa 20:7; Psa 33:17; and Psa 76:6, the great strength of the horse is recalled as a reminder of the greater strength of God. In Jas 3:3, the small bridle by which the horse can be managed is compared to the tongue (compare Psa 32:9). In Job 39:19-25 we have a magnificent description of a spirited war-horse.
In the NT, as in the OT, the horse is always the war-horse, never the gentle, domesticated creature beloved by the modern Arab. Asses, mules, and camels were the beasts used by the Jews in common life, both for riding and burden-bearing.
(1) When Christian art depicts the conversion of St. Paul, it usually represents him as falling from an affrighted horse to the earth. The narrative in Acts does not state that he was riding at all, but it seems probable that as the emissary of the High Priest, engaged on important and urgent business (Act_9:1 f.), he would not make a journey of 150 miles on foot. His task and his spirit were warlike-he was breathing threatening and slaughter-and he may have taken a small troop of horsemen with him. Strict Pharisees, however, never rode on horseback, and it is at least as likely that he and his companions were mounted on asses or mules.
(2) When St. Paul was arrested in Jerusalem, and had to be taken beyond the reach of conspirators, he was escorted to Caesarea by a company of 70 horsemen (Act_23:23; Act_23:32). These cavalry, which had been temporarily assisting the Roman garrison in Judaea , had their headquarters at Caesarea. Josephus makes repeated reference to an ala of Sebastian and Caesarean horsemen that was attached to the auxiliary cohorts (see Schürer, History of the Jewish People (Eng. tr. of GJV).] i. ii. [1890] 52). The single cohort which was stationed in Jerusalem all the year round was apparently re-inforced at the time of the Passover by cavalry and infantry from Caesarea.
(3) St. James (Jam_3:2 f.) uses the bridling of the horse, whose ‘whole body’ is thereby turned at the rider’s pleasure, to illustrate the complete self-control which a man achieves by merely bridling his lips. It is generally true that if the tongue does not utter the angry word, the hand does not grasp the sword, the feet do not run to evil and make haste to shed blood.
(4) The horse is conspicuous in the symbolism of the Apocalypse (15 references). Like the fiery steed in Job (Job_39:19-25), he goes forth to meet the armed men, and smells the battle from afar. Whether he belongs to the Church militant, or to some worldly power, or to the under world, he is always the war-horse-always ‘prepared unto battle’ or ‘running to battle’ (Rev_9:7; Rev_9:9). He is familiar with ‘the sounds of chariots’ (Rev_9:9). When he appears, we expect to see the rider’s drawn sword (Rev_19:21); we are not surprised at the sight of blood; and in one gruesome scene the deep pools of gore come up to the horses’ bridles (Rev_14:20). A white horse represents victory, a red horse carnage, a black horse famine, and a pale horse death (Rev_6:2-8). One victorious trooper carries a bow (Rev_6:2); he is the light-armed Parthian, whose shafts were so dreaded by the Romans-‘fidentemque fuga Parthum versisque sagittis’ (Virg. Georg. iii. 31). A host of fiendish mounted horses, 200,000,000 strong, armed with breastplates of red, blue, and yellow (of fire and hyacinth and brimstone, Rev_9:17), are more like the steeds of those heavy-armed Parthians who appeared at Carrhae ‘with their helmets and breastplates flashing with flame … and the horses equipped with mail of brass and iron’ (Plut. Crassus, 24). But these fiend-horses are monsters, which have the heads of lions, and breathe fire and smoke and brimstone (cf. Wis_11:18; Virg. aen. vii. 281). Against the armies of earth and Hades Christ comes forth from the opened heavens sitting on a white horse, and all His followers ride on white horses and are clad in white uniform (Rev_19:11; Rev_19:14). The combined forces of evil make war in vain against this Rider and His horsemen (Rev_19:19), who are, in the phrase of a later time, Knights of the Holy Ghost.
James Strahan.
Psa 32:9 (a) This is a warning that the believer should use good judgment, think for himself, and not be just as an animal that must be guided by another.
Psa 33:17 (b) This is a type of any human resource in which people trust for deliverance instead of in the living GOD.
Jer 12:5 (c) This is a peculiar type - the footmen represent ordinary Christians living ordinary Christian lives. They make the unsaved man weary and he wishes to get away from their influence and company. The horses represent Christians who have come to full growth even perhaps those who have already been taken to Heaven. If the weak Christian wearies the sinner, how much more will those Christians who have been made like CHRIST and have been brought into perfect manhood and full stature for GOD? The sinner would not be able to stand their presence at all.
The horses in Zechariah 1 and 6 probably represent great movements wrought by GOD in dealing with men.
Zec 6:2 (b) The red horse - a type of the destructive power of war. (See also Rev 6:4).
Zec 6:3 (b) The black horse - represents world-wide famine which naturally follows great wars both international and internal. (See also Rev 6:5). Each person receives his food by weight.
Zec 6:3 (b) Bay horse - probably represents the scourge of pestilence and disease which follows upon the famine that follows the war. (See also Rev 6:8).
Zec 6:3 (b) The white horse - probably represents a man-made peace which will be forced upon the world by the antichrist under the guise of religion and righteousness. It will be a false peace which will not stand. (See also Rev 6:2).
Rev 19:11 (b) The white horse - typical of the great power which the Lord JESUS will exhibit in righteousness and justice when He comes forth from Heaven as the Almighty Conqueror.
Horse. Horses are mentioned often in the Bible. But they were of little importance to the average Hebrew, who found it more practical to keep a donkey to ride or an ox to pull the plow. Horses were traded for food when money failed during a famine in Egypt (Gen 47:17). Some kings used swift horses rather than camels to carry messages (Est 8:10; Est 8:14). But for the most part, Hebrews thought of horses in terms of war.
Pharaoh’s horses and chariots pursued when Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt (Exo 14:9). Their Canaanite enemies met them with many horses and chariots, but they still fell before the Israelites (Jos 11:4-9). Repeatedly God warned the Hebrews not to place their faith in the strength and speed of horses (Psa 20:7) or to "multiply" horses (Deu 17:16).
In spite of these warnings, David and Solomon did multiply horses, even importing them from other countries. Solomon had a sizeable cavalry as well as horses to draw war chariots.
The prophet Jeremiah used the word stallion in speaking of horses (Jer 8:16; Jer 47:3; Jer 50:11), (RSV). He warned the nation of Judah that it would fall to a conquering army that would be riding prancing stallions. He also used the symbol of a "well-fed, lusty stallion" (Jer 5:8), (NKJV) to describe the idolatry and unfaithfulness of God’s people.
The New Testament tells of the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse," who ride out to ravage the earth in the end times (Rev 6:1-8). But even more dramatic than this is the entrance of a white horse bearing the "King of kings and Lord of lords" (Rev 19:11-16).
A horse is a hoofed mammal that has been important throughout history for transportation, warfare, and work, known for its long mane, tail, and strong build.
Types of Horses
A horse is a large four-legged animal used for riding, pulling vehicles, and in war. The domesticated horse (Equus caballus) likely came from the tarpan, a wild horse from southern Russia that became extinct in 1851. Another wild horse, Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii), lived in Mongolia until hunters with modern guns killed most of them after World War I. Horses were first tamed in Turkestan, a region north of Afghanistan and India, now part of Russia. A horse differs from a donkey by having shorter ears, a longer mane with hair on the forehead, a long hairy tail, and a soft, sensitive nose.
Horses in Biblical Times
Horses were used in war not only for riding but also for pulling the heavy, springless war chariots. Two kinds of horses were needed for these different purposes. The Hebrews distinguished between chariot horses and cavalry horses.
The Lord warned early Israelites against collecting too many horses like the Egyptians did (Deuteronomy 17:14–16). However, David and Solomon, to fulfill the needs of the army, imported and bred horses from Egypt. Solomon increased the kingdom's horse numbers and kept large stables in various cities (1 Kings 10:26). Key locations included:
Megiddo
Hazor
Gezer
These cities were important for defense (1 Kings 9:15–19). Ahab's horses are mentioned in 1 Kings 18:5. Additionally, Shalmaneser III's records show Ahab provided 2,000 chariots against Assyria.
In early Israel, the horse represented pagan luxury and dependence on physical power rather than God for protection (Deuteronomy 17:16; 1 Samuel 8:11; Psalm 20:7; Isaiah 31:1). Horse trading, mentioned as early as Genesis 47:17, was done by Solomon between Egypt and the Syro-Hittite empires (1 Kings 10:28–29).
Most biblical mentions of horses describe their use in war. However, they were also used for transport. Cavalry units (soldiers on horseback) were not introduced until the 12th century BC by the Medes (a people from ancient Persia. Joseph rode in Pharaoh's second chariot (Genesis 41:43). Absalom displayed his importance by riding in a horse-drawn chariot (2 Samuel 15:1). Naaman traveled by horse and chariot (2 Kings 5:9)
Later, horses were so common in Jerusalem that the royal palace had a special horse gate (2 Chronicles 23:15) There was also a city gate named the Horse Gate (Nehemiah 3:28; Jeremiah 31:40). Mordecai, in a show of honor, rode a royal horse from King Xerxes (Esther 6:8–11).
Horses as Symbols
Horses often appear as symbols in the Bible:
A horse represents stubbornness that needs control in Psalm 32:9.
A mare represents beauty and strength in Song of Solomon 1:9.
Stallions represent uncontrolled passion in Jeremiah 5:8 and 12:5.
Horses often represent God's judgment and power (Habakkuk 3:8; Zechariah 1:8; 6:1–8; Revelation 6:2–8; 9:17; 19:11–16).
Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
References:
Discussion:
Horses belong to an animal family that includes donkeys and zebras. They were first domesticated in the central Asian and Mongolian grasslands, the original home of the eastern wild horse, sometime before 2000 B.C. (The European wild horse was domesticated considerably later.) By 1700 B.C. horses had been imported into Canaan and Egypt. The fact that horses were imported made them very expensive, and for centuries horses were only owned by kings and wealthy local chiefs. Their military potential was soon recognized, and armies that were equipped with war chariots and had soldiers on horseback had an enormous advantage over those that did not. Horses gave armies a mobility they had never had before, and completely changed battle tactics.
In more recent times, horses have been carried abroad by European colonists and introduced to virtually every country on earth. The so-called “wild horses” of Spain, France, the Americas, and Australia are actually domesticated horses that have returned to their wild state.
Joseph, in GEN 47:17 (the first mention of horses in the Bible), used the widespread famine and Egypt’s store of grain as an opportunity to obtain horses for the Pharaoh. He thus weakened the neighboring tribes, while giving Pharaoh’s army better military capability. It is ironic that these horses were later used against Israelites under Moses.
The Canaanites also had horses and chariots, but in DEU 17:16 the people of Israel were prohibited from acquiring horses, as this was seen as weakening their reliance on God. Militarily they were thus at a considerable disadvantage in their wars against the Canaanite tribes. They counteracted this disadvantage by concentrating on fighting in the hill country, or occasionally in swampy land (JDG 4:7; JDG 5:19; JDG 5:20; JDG 5:21), where chariots were useless. They cut the hamstring tendon at the back of the hind legs on captured horses, rendering them useless to both Canaanites and themselves (JOS 11:9). Even so, JDG 1:19 states that “Judah drove out the inhabitants of the mountains, but could not drive out the inhabitants of the valleys because they had iron chariots” (NIV; compare also TEV and REB).
Joshua, Saul, and David seem to have heeded the warning not to acquire horses. However, David finally gave in to the temptation, and in 2SA 8:4 we read that although he hamstrung most of the captured horses, he kept a hundred for himself. The advantage that he gained was later turned against him when two of his sons, Absalom (2SA 15:1) and Adonijah (1KI 1:5), equipped themselves with horses from David’s stables in preparation for their revolts against him.
However, it was Solomon who made horses and chariots a major component of the Israelite army. He imported horses from Egypt and Cilicia at a cost of 150 shekels each, and he received horses as part of the annual tax paid to him by smaller states. He eventually collected 12,000 horses, which were stabled in a number of towns (1KI 10:26 ff.).
Description:
Most horses in Bible times were probably very different from today’s riding or workhorses. They were smaller, with shorter heads and thicker necks, and probably had fairly thick hair in winter. They would have been similar in appearance to the Przewalski’s horses Equus caballus przewalskii, which can be seen in some zoo parks.
Special significance or symbolism:
In the Bible the horse is symbolic of military might, and the hardness and durability of its hooves are especially referred to. Horses also acquired some religious significance and were associated with the sun, which was said to ride across the sky in a chariot. Some of the idolatrous kings of Judah apparently made images of horses dedicated to the sun (2KI 23:11) and placed them in the Temple, from where they were removed by Josiah.
Translation:
Since horses have been exported to almost every country in the world, there is usually no problem in finding a word, even though it may be borrowed from a dominant language of the region. It is best to make a gender distinction between male and female horses in SNG 1:9 (female) and, if the less likely exegesis “stallion” is followed, in JER 50:11 (male). Stallions neigh and fight each other to establish which is dominant, especially when they are in the presence of mares. This is what is possibly referred to in the Jeremiah passage.
The word ’abir literally means “mighty ones” and possibly could be a reference to exceptionally big, strong stallion war-horses, of the kind called “chargers” or “steeds” in archaic English. In many languages it will be best translated by a phrase meaning something like “fierce horse", or with a more figurative phrase such as “warrior horse” or “chief horse". In JER 50:11 the fact that this is a male horse is important, since this verse refers to the uncontrollable nature of stallions, especially when in the presence of female horses and other stallions.
sus and hippos are the general words for horse in the Old and New Testaments respectively. In the Old Testament the feminine form susah occurs once, in SNG 1:9. See also 3.23 Swift, swallow for discussion of another meaning for sus.
The word parash, which occurs over fifty times, normally refers to a war-horse and its rider as a single military unit, a mounted trooper. In the plural it usually means cavalry or a mounted battalion. (A similar usage is to be found in some of the deuterocanonical references to hippos, which is also the word used in the Septuagint to translate parash.) NAB and NIV (the latter in footnotes) take it to mean “charioteers". This word is best translated as “soldiers on horses” in most passages, with the exception of 1KI 4:26 and 2CH 9:25, where cavalry horses seem to be referred to, without reference to the riders. In these two passages there is a difference in numbers. In the Hebrew text 1KI 4:26 refers to 40,000 stables, and 2CH 9:25 to 4,000 stables. In the Septuagint both passages have 4,000. There are a number of possible interpretations.
1KI 4:26: The rendering of NAB (similarly JB), “Solomon had four thousand stalls for twelve thousand chariot horses,” involves an inconsistent translation of parash, which is not, and cannot be, translated as “chariot horse” in the parallel passage in 2CH 9:25. It appears that this unusual translation in turn is the result of opting for the figure four thousand. If the forty thousand of the Hebrew text were accepted, there would then be forty thousand stalls for chariot horses, but only twelve thousand horses!
NIV tries to avoid this pitfall with “Solomon had four thousand stalls for chariot horses, and twelve thousand horses.” However, this actually also equates parash with “chariot horse", which it does not and cannot do in 1CH 9:25.
RSV has “Solomon also had forty thousand stalls of horses for his chariots, and twelve thousand horsemen.” This translation of parash is consistent, but it ignores the difference in context. The narrator would then be counting stables and horsemen in the same phrase, which is highly unlikely.
The majority of commentaries and the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project (HOTTP) accept the Hebrew text (forty thousand) as the better text for this verse. This is reflected by TEV ’s “Solomon had forty thousand stalls for his chariot horses and twelve thousand cavalry horses” (compare NEB, REB).
Since parash refers in different contexts to (a) war-horses and their riders, (b) only the riders, or (c) only the war-horses, this translation as cavalry horses is consistent. An option would be “war-horses” or “horses for war". The Hebrew text seems, on the surface, to give forty thousand as the number of stables, but it is possible that the writer intended to indicate the number of horses stabled there.
The NIV footnote, “charioteers", for parash has very little support.
1CH 9:25: The generally accepted exegesis of this verse is “Solomon had four thousand outbuildings for his chariots and horses, and had twelve thousand cavalry horses” (compare TEV, NEB, REB). This rendering accepts an inconsistency between 1KI 4:26 and 1CH 9:25.
A solution, which is defensible, and which avoids the inconsistency, is to follow the NEB and REB rendering for 1KI 4:26 “stables for forty thousand chariot horses,” and the TEV rendering of 2CH 9:25 “four thousand stalls,” since it is possible to house forty thousand horses in four thousand stables. However, this solution would involve translating two very similar Hebrew phrases in two different ways.
The word rekesh is best translated as “fast horse", or “best horse". EST 8:10; EST 8:14 indicate that this word refers to a horse that was selectively bred and apparently particularly swift, and so especially suited to carrying messengers. There are scholars who trace the modern Arabian breed of horse back to the ancient rekesh.
MIC 1:13: The context in this verse is one of haste, and the writer is calling on the people of Lachish to hitch to their chariots their fastest horses, perhaps usually reserved for the nobility to ride.
Animals in the Bible © United Bible Societies. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.
The animal most commonly associated with war and battle, the horse also appears figuratively in poetic and prophetic literature. Its domesticated usage was mainly for personal travel and the haulage of heavy loads.
The military use of horses
EXO 15:1; JOS 11:4; 2KI 6:14–6:15 EXO 14:9, EXO 14:28; ; DEU 11:4; ; ISA 43:16–43:17; 1KI 20:1, 1KI 20:20–20:21; JOB 39:19–39:25; ; PSA 76:6; ; ISA 5:28; ; JER 4:13, JER 46:9, JER 51:21; ; EZK 38:4; ; HAB 1:8
Disabling horses in wartime
JOS 11:6 See also JOS 11:9; 2SA 8:4 parallel 1CH 18:4; MIC 5:10
Warnings against reliance on horses
ISA 31:1 See also DEU 17:16; PSA 20:7, PSA 33:17, PSA 147:10
The ritual use of horses
EST 6:7–6:9 See also 1SA 8:11; 2SA 15:1; JER 22:4
Horses as a means of exchange and a measure of wealth
GEN 47:17; 1KI 4:26 See also 1KI 9:19, 1KI 10:25–10:26 parallel 2CH 1:14; 2CH 9:28; ISA 2:7
Horses as a means of transport and for the haulage of loads
2KI 5:9 See also 2KI 14:20 parallel 2CH 25:28; EST 8:10, EST 8:14; ISA 21:7, ISA 21:9, ISA 66:20
Harness and tackle for horses
PSA 32:9 See also 2KI 19:28; JOB 41:13; ISA 30:28, ISA 37:29; REV 14:20
The figurative and prophetic use of horse imagery
JAS 3:2–3:3; REV 19:11 See also 2KI 13:14; ISA 28:28; JOL 2:4; ZEC 1:6–1:8; REV 6:1–6:8, REV 9:17, REV 19:14
Heavenly horses
2KI 2:11 See also 2KI 6:17, 2KI 7:6
Dictionary of Bible Themes © 1999 Martin H. Manser. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.