This collection of sacred poetry received its name in consequence of the lyrical character of the pieces of which it consists, as intended to be sung to stringed and other instruments of music.
In Psa 72:20 we find all the preceding compositions (Psalms 1-72) styled Prayers of David, because many of them are strictly prayers, and all are pervaded by the spirit and tone of supplication.
All the Psalms, except thirty-four, bear superscriptions. The authority of the titles is a matter of doubt. By most of the ancient critics they were considered genuine, and of equal authority with the Psalms themselves, while most of the moderns reject them wholly or in part. It deserves to be noticed, however, that they are received by Tholuck and Hengstenberg in their works on the Psalms. Of the antiquity of the inscriptions there can be no question, for they are found in the Septuagint. They are supposed to be even much older than this version, since they were no longer intelligible to the translator, who often makes no sense of them.
A good deal may be plausibly said both for and against the authority of these titles, but on the whole it seems the part of sober criticism to receive the titles as historically valid, except when we find strong internal evidence against them.
The design of these inscriptions is to specify either the author, or the chief singer, or the historical subject or occasion, or the use, or the style of poetry, or the instrument and style of music. Some titles simply designate the author, as in Psalms 25, while others specify several of the above particulars, as in Psalms 51. The longest and fullest title of all is prefixed to Psalms 60, where we have the author, the chief musician (not by name), the historical occasion (comp. 2 Samuel 8), the use or design, the style of poetry, and the instrument or style of music. It is confessedly very difficult, if not impossible, to explain all the terms employed in the inscriptions and hence critics have differed exceedingly in their conjectures. The difficulty, arising no doubt from ignorance of the Temple music, was felt, it would seem, as early as the age of the Sept.; and it was felt so much by the translators of our Authorized Version, that they generally retained the Hebrew words, even though Luther had set the example of translating them to the best of his ability.
Of the terms left untranslated or obscure in our Bible, it may be well to offer some explanation in this place, taking them in alphabetical order for the sake of convenience.
Aijeleth shahar, ’hind of the morning,’ i.e. the sun, or the dawn of day. This occurs only in Psalms 22, where we may best take it to designate a song, perhaps commencing with these words, or bearing this name, to the melody of which the psalm was to be sung.
Alamoth, Psalms 46, probably signifies ’virgins,’ and hence denotes music for female voices, or the treble.
Al-taschith, ’destroy thou not,’ is found over Psalms 57, 58, 59, 75, and signifies, by general consent, some well-known ode beginning with the expression, to the tune of which these compositions were to be sung.
Degrees appears over fifteen Psalms (Psalms 120-134), called Songs of Degrees, and has been explained in various ways, of which the following are the chief. 1. The ancients understood by it stairs or steps; and in accordance with this, Jewish writers relate that these Psalms were sung on fifteen steps, leading from the court of Israel to the court of the women. This explanation is now exploded. 2. Luther, whom Tholuck is inclined to follow, renders the title a song in the higher choir, supposing the Psalms to have been sung from an elevated place or ascent, or with elevated voice. 3. Gesenius and De Wette think the name refers to a peculiar rhythm in these songs, by which the sense advances by degrees, and so ascends from clause to clause. 4. According to the most prevalent and probable opinion, the title signifies song of the ascents, or pilgrim song, meaning a song composed for, or sung during the journeyings of the people up to Jerusalem, whether as they returned from Babylon, or as they statedly repaired to the national solemnities. Journeys to Jerusalem are generally spoken of as ascents, on account of the elevated situation of the city and temple (see Ezr 7:9, and especially Psa 122:4). This explanation of the name is favored by the brevity and the contents of these songs.
Gittith appears over Psalms 8, 81, 84, and is of very uncertain meaning, though not improbably it signifies an instrument or tune brought from the city of Gath. In the opinion of not a few the word denotes either an instrument or a melody used in the vintage.
Higgaion is found over Psa 9:16, and probably means either musical sound, according to the opinion of most, or meditation, according to Tholuck and Hengstenberg.
Jeduthun is found over Psalms 39, 62, 77, and is generally taken for the name of choristers descended from Jeduthun, of whom we read in 1Ch 25:1; 1Ch 25:3, as one of David’s three chief musicians or leaders of the Temple music.
Jonath-elem-rechokim, ’the mute dove among strangers,’ found only over Psalms 56, may well de-note the subject of the song, viz., David himself, ’when the Philistines took him in Gath;’ or it is the name or commencement of an ode to the air of which this psalm was sung.
Leannoth, in the title of Psalms 88, means to sing, denoting that it was to be sung in the way described.
Mahalath occurs in Psalms 53, 88, and denotes, according to some, a sort of flute; according to Gesenius, in his last edition of his Thesaurus, a lute; but in the opinion of Fürst, a tune, named from the first word of some popular song. Upon Mahalath, Leannoth, Psalms 88, is accordingly a direction to chant it to the instrument or tune called mahalath.
Maschil is found in the title of thirteen psalms. According to Gesenius, De Wette, and others, it means a poem, so called either for its skillful composition or for its wise and pious strain. The common interpretation, which Tholuck and Hengstenberg follow, makes it a didactic poem.
Michiam is prefixed to Psalms 16, 56, 60, and is subject to many conjectures. But the true explanation is most likely that offered by Gesenius, De Wette, Rosenmüller, and Tholuck, who hold it to signify a ’writing’ or ’poem.’
Muth-labben (Psalms 9) presents a perfect riddle, owing to the various readings of MSS., and the contradictory conjectures of the learned. Some explain it as the subject or occasion of the song, but most refer it to the music. Gesenius, in his last edition, renders it—with virgins’ voice for the boys, i.e. to be sung by a choir of boys in the treble.
Neginoth, Psalms 4 and four others. This name clearly denotes ’stringed instruments’ in general.
Nehiloth (Psalms 5) denotes ’pipes’ or ’flutes.’
Selah is found seventy-three times in the Psalms, generally at the end of a sentence or paragraph; but in Psa 55:19; Psa 57:3 it stands in the middle of the verse. While most authors have agreed in considering this word as somehow relating to the music, their conjectures about its precise meaning have varied greatly. But at present these two opinions chiefly obtain: first, that it signifies a raising of the voice or music; or, second, a pause in the singing. Probably selah was used to direct the singer to be silent, or to pause a little, while the instruments played an interlude or symphony. In Psa 9:16 it occurs in the expression higgaion selah, which Gesenius, with much probability, renders instrumental music, pause, i.e. let the instruments strike up a symphony, and let the singer pause. By Tholuck and Hengstenberg, however, the two words are rendered meditation, pause, i.e. let the singer meditate or reflect while the music stops.
Sheminith (Psalms 6, 12) means properly eighth, and denotes either, as some think, an instrument with eight chords, or, more likely, music in the lower notes, or bass.
Shiggaion (Psalms 7) denotes, according to Gesenius and Fürst, a song or hymn; but Ewald and Hengstenberg understand by it ’error or wandering,’ supposing that the aberrations of the wicked are the subject of the Psalm. According to Rosenmüller, De Wette, and Tholuck, it means a ’plaintive song or elegy.’
Shushan (Psalms 60), and in plural shoshannim (Psalms 45, 49, 80). This word commonly signifies lily, and probably denotes either an instrument bearing some resemblance to a lily (perhaps cymbal), or a melody named lily for its pleasantness.
Respecting the authors of the Psalms, many of the ancients, both Jews and Christians, maintained that they were all written by David: which is one of the most striking proofs of their uncritical judgment. The titles and the contents of the Psalms most clearly show that they were composed at different and remote periods, by several poets, of whom David was only the largest and most eminent contributor. According to the inscriptions we have the following list of authors:—
1. David, ’the sweet Psalmist of Israel’ (2Sa 23:1). To him are ascribed seventy-three Psalms in the Hebrew text; and at least eleven others in the Sept., namely, Psalms 33, 43, 91, 94-99, 104, 137; to which may be added Psalms 10, as it forms part of Psalms 9 in that version. From what has been advanced above respecting the authority of the titles, it is obviously injudicious to maintain that David composed all that have his name prefixed in the Hebrew, or to suppose that he did not compose some of the eleven ascribed to him in the Sept., and of the others which stand without any author’s name at all. We cannot feel sure that Psalms 139 is David’s, for its Chaldaisms (Psa 139:2; Psa 139:8; Psa 139:16-17) betray a later age; and Psalms 122 can scarcely be his, for its style resembles the later Hebrew, and its description of Jerusalem can hardly apply to David’s time. Besides, it is worthy of notice that the Sept. gives this and the other Songs of Degrees without specifying the author. Of those which the Sept. ascribes to David, it is not improbable that Psalms 99, 104 are really his; and of those which bear no name in either text, at least Psalms 2 appears to be David’s.
David’s compositions are generally distinguished by sweetness, softness, and grace; but sometimes, as in Psalms 18, they exhibit the sublime. His prevailing strain is plaintive, owing to his multiplied and sore trials, both before and after his occupation of the throne. The celebrated singers who were contemporaries of David were men, like himself, moved by the divine afflatus not only to excel in music, but also to indite hallowed poetry. Of these Psalmists the names of several are preserved in the titles.
2. Asaph is named as the author of twelve Psalms, viz., Psalms 50, 73-83. He was one of David’s chief musicians [ASAPH]. All the poems bearing his name cannot be his; for in Psalms 74, 79, , 80, there are manifest allusions to very late events in the history of Israel. Asaph appears from Psalms 50, 73, , 78, to have been the greatest master of didactic poetry, excelling alike in sentiment and in diction.
3. The sons of Korah was another family of choristers (see Korah, at the end), to whom eleven of the most beautiful Psalms are ascribed.
4. Heman was another of David’s chief singers (1Ch 15:19): he is called the Ezrahite, as being descended from some Ezrah, who appears to have been a descendant of Korah: at least Heman is reckoned a Kohathite (1Ch 6:33-38), and was therefore probably a Korahite for the Kohathites were continued and counted in the line of Korah; see 1Ch 6:22; 1Ch 6:37-38 [HEMAN]. Thus Heman was both an Ezrahite and of the sons of Korah. That Psalms 88 was written by him is not unlikely, though many question it.
5. Ethan is reputed the author of Psalms 89. He is doubtless the Levite of Merari’s family whom David made chief musician along with Asaph and Heman (1Ch 6:44; 1Ch 25:1; 1Ch 25:6). The Psalm could not, however, be composed by him, for it plainly alludes (Psa 89:38-44) to the downfall of the kingdom.
6. Solomon is given as the author of Psalms 72, 127 and there is no decided internal evidence to the contrary, though most consider him to be the subject and not the author of Psalms 72.
7. Moses is reputed the writer of Psalms 90 and there is no strong reason to doubt the tradition.
Jeduthun is sometimes, without just ground, held to be named as the author of Psalms 39. Many conjectures have been formed respecting other writers, especially of the anonymous psalms. The Septuagint seemingly gives, as authors, Jeremiah, (Psalms 137), and Haggai and Zechariah (Psalms 138). But these conjectures are too uncertain to call for further notice in this place.
The dates of the Psalms, as must be obvious from what has been stated respecting the authors, are very various, ranging from the time of Moses to that of the Captivity—a period of nearly 1000 years.
The Psalter is divided in the Hebrew into five books, and also in the Septuagint version, which proves the division to be older than B.C. 200.
The first book (Psalms 1-41) consists wholly of David’s songs, his name being prefixed to all except Psalms 1, 2, 10, , 33; and it is evidently the first collection, having been possibly made in the time of Hezekiah, who is known to have ordered a collection of Solomon’s proverbs (Pro 25:1), and to have commanded the Levites to sing the words of David (2Ch 29:30).
The second book (Psalms 42-72) consists mainly of pieces by the sons of Korah (Psalms 42-49), and by David (Psalms 51-65), which may have been separate minor collections. It is not likely that this collection was made till the period of the Captivity, if interpreters are right in referring Psalms 44 to the days of Jeremiah.
The third book (Psalms 73-89) consists chiefly of Asaph’s psalms, but comprises apparently two smaller collections, the one Asaphitic (Psalms 73-83), the other mostly Korahitic (Psalms 84-139). The collector of this book had no intention to bring together songs written by David, and therefore he put the above notice at the end of the second book. The date of this collection must be as late as the return from Babylon, for Psalms 85 implies as much.
The fourth book (Psalms 90-106) and the fifth (Psalms 107-150) are made up chiefly of anonymous liturgic pieces, many of which were composed for the service of the second temple. In the last book we have the Songs of Degrees (Psalms 120-134), which seem to have been originally a separate collection.
The inspiration and canonical authority of the Psalms are established by the most abundant and convincing evidence. They never were, and never can be, rejected, except by impious impugners of all divine revelation. Not to mention other ancient testimonies, we find complete evidence in the New Testament, where the book is quoted or referred to as divine by Christ and his apostles at least seventy times. No other writing is so frequently cited; Isaiah, the next in the scale of quotation, being cited only about fifty-five times.
This book has been called the heart of the Bible. It expresses sentiments produced by the Spirit of Christ, whether of prayer, sorrow, confession, or praise, in the hearts of God’s people, in which the ways of God are developed, and become known, with their blessed issue, to the faithful. The book is distinctly prophetic in character, the period covered by the language of the Psalms extending from the rejection of Christ (Psa 2; Act 4:25-28) to the Hallelujahs consequent on the establishment of the kingdom. The writers do not merely relate what others did and felt, but expressed what was passing through their own souls. And yet their language is not simply what they felt, but that of the Spirit of Christ that spoke in them, as taking part in the afflictions, the griefs, and the joys of God’s people in every phase of their experience. This accounts for Christ being found throughout the Psalms: some refer exclusively to Him, as Psa 22; in others (though the language is that of the remnant of His people), Christ takes His place with them, making their sufferings His sufferings, and their sorrows His sorrows. In no part of scripture is the inner life of the Lord Jesus disclosed as in the Psalms. The Psalms may be called ’the manual of the earthly choir.’ They commence with "Blessed is the man ," and end with "Praise ye Jehovah." Man is blessed on earth, and Jehovah is praised from earth.
1Ch 16 and 2 Sam. 22 are examples of the immediate occasions on which psalms were composed, and in the headings of the psalms other instances are mentioned; yet these things in no way hinder the Spirit of God from leading the psalmist to utter things that would be fully accomplished in Christ alone. David said, "The Spirit of Jehovah spake by me, and his word was in my tongue." 2Sa 23:1-2. Great pains have been taken sometimes to arrange the psalms in a supposed chronological order, but the effect of this is to spoil the whole, for God has Himself ordered their arrangement, and in many places the beauty of the order can be seen.
It must not be forgotten that the O.T. prophets did not grasp what "the Spirit of Christ which was in them did signify." 1Pe 1:11. David’s experience could not have caused him to indite Psa 22. But being a prophet, it was clearly the Spirit of Christ that was in him that furnished words which would be uttered by Christ on the cross. We have in it a plain instance of a prophetic psalm, and doubtless the spirit of prophecy runs through all.
If this is the main characteristic of the Psalms, they have an aspect entirely different from that in which the book is regarded by many, namely, as a book of Christian experience. The piety that the Psalms breathe is always edifying, and the deep confidence in God expressed in them under trial and sorrow has cheered the heart of God’s saints at all times. These holy experiences are to be preserved and cherished; but who has not felt the difficulty of calling on God to destroy his enemies? What Christian can take up as his own language such a sentence as "Happy shall he be that taketh and dasheth thy little ones against the stones." Psa 137:9. And how can such a sentence be spiritualised? But such appeals are intelligible in regard to a future day, when, apostasy being universal and opposition to God open and avowed, the destruction of His enemies is the only way of deliverance for His people.
Unless the difference of the spirit of the Psalms from that of Christianity be observed, the full light of redemption and of the place of the Christian in Christ is not seen, and the reader is apt to be detained in a legal state. His progress is hindered, and he does not understand the Psalms, nor enter into the gracious sympathies of Christ in their true application. When the attitude of the Jews at the time the Lord was here is remembered, and their bitter opposition to their Messiah, which exists to this day, light is thrown upon their feelings when, under tribulation, their eyes will be opened to see that it was indeed their Messiah that they crucified. Great too will be their persecution from without, from which God will deliver a remnant and bring them into blessing. Into all their sorrows Christ enters, and He suffers in sympathy with them. All these things, and the experiences through which they will pass, are found in the Psalms. But these experiences are not properly those of the Christian.
As the Psalms form a part of holy scripture, their true place and bearing must be seen before they can be rightly interpreted. The writers were not Christians, and could not express christian experience; though their piety, their confidence in God , and the spirit of praise may often be the language of a Christian, and even put a Christian to shame. Christ must be looked for everywhere, either in what He personally passed through, or in His sympathy with His people Israel, which can only end in His bringing them into full blessing on earth, when He will be hailed as "Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Father of Eternity, Prince of Peace."
The Book of Psalms is in the Hebrew divided into five books, each of which has its own prophetic characteristics. The more these are grasped, the clearer it becomes that God has watched over the order of the psalms. Each book ends with an ascription of praise or doxology.
BOOK 1 extends to the end of Psa 41, and is occupied with the state of the Jewish remnant of the future (Judah), before they are driven out of Jerusalem: cf. Mat 24:16. Christ is largely identified with this. The book recalls much of the personal history of the Lord, when He was here, though the bearing of it is future. The light of resurrection dawns for the faithful in this book, Christ having gone through death into fulness of joy at God’s right hand: compare Rev 6:11.
In Psa 2 (and Psa 1 and Psa 2 may be said to be introductory to the whole) we have Christ rejected by Jew and Gentile, yet set as King in Zion, and declared to be the Son of God, having the earth for His possession, and judging His enemies, the nations. In a wider sense Psalms 1 to 8 are introductory; from Psa 3 to Psa 7 giving the principles that follow on the rejection of Christ in Psa 1 and Psa 2, and Psa 8 giving His exaltation as Son of man , ending with "O Jehovah our Lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth." Psa 16 brings in the personal excellence of Christ and His association with the ’excellent in the earth.’
In some places the appropriateness of the sequence of the psalms, as already remarked, is very apparent, as for instance Psalms 22, 23, 24. Psa 22 pictures the sufferings of Christ in the accomplishing of redemption. In Psa 23 in consequence of redemption being accomplished, the Lord becomes the Shepherd and takes care of the sheep. In Psa 24 is celebrated the entry of the King of glory through the everlasting gates. In Psa 40 there comes forth from God One divinely perfect - the true ark of the covenant - who was competent to bring into effect the will of God in all its extent; and at the same time able (by the offering of Himself) to take away the whole system of sacrifices, in which God had found no pleasure.
BOOK 2 embraces Psa 42 to the end of Psa 72. The remnant are here viewed as outside Jerusalem, and the city given up to wickedness; but Israel has to be brought back. In Book 1 the name of Jehovah is used all through, but now God is addressed as such: the faithful are cast more entirely on what God is in His own nature and character, when they can no longer approach where Jehovah has put His name: Antichrist prevails there. In Psa 45 Messiah is introduced, and the remnant celebrate with gladness what God is for His people. Though resurrection may be dimly seen by the faithful in the circumstances of this book, yet what is before them is the restoration of Zion (Psa 45 - Psa 48 and Psa 69:35). God shines out of Zion (Psa 50:2). Psa 69, Psa 70, and Psa 71 speak of the humiliation of the remnant, and Christ with them: some of the verses clearly point to Christ personally, as in the reference to the gall and the vinegar. Psa 69:21. At the close of this book the Psalmist in the doxology arrives at, "Let the whole earth be filled with his glory. Amen and Amen." To which he adds, "The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended."
Psa 68 shows that God’s strength and excellency for Israel was of old in the heavens. The heavens are the seat both of blessing (Psa 68:9; Psa 68:18) and of rule (Psa 68:4; Psa 68:32-35). Hence Christ is seen as ascended up on high.
BOOK 3 contains Psa 73 to the end of Psa 89. It widens out to the restoration of Israel as a nation, whose general interests are in view. The sanctuary is prominent. The thought is not so much limited, as the previous books, to the Jewish remnant, though faithful ones are spoken of. In this book we have but one psalm with David’s name as writer. They are mostly ’for, or of ’ Asaph and the sons of Korah - Levites. In Psa 88 is the bitter cry of a soul expressive of being subject under a broken law to the wrath of God; and in Psa 89 praise is rendered for Jehovah’s unchangeable covenant with David, extending to the Holy One of Israel as their King. It celebrates the sure mercies of David, though David’s house had utterly failed and was cast down.
BOOK 4 embraces Psa 90 to the end of Psa 106. It begins with a psalm of Moses. In this section the eternity of Elohim, Israel’s Adonai, is seen to have been at all times their dwelling place, as declared in the first verse. It is the answer to the end of Psa 89: comp. also Psa 102:23-28 with Psa 89:44-45. In Psa 91 Messiah takes His place with Israel; and in Psa 94 to Psa 100 Jehovah comes into the world to establish the kingdom in glory and divine order. It is the introduction of the First-begotten into the earth, announced by the cry of the remnant.
BOOK 5 contains Psa 107 to the end of Psa 150. This book gives the general results of the government of God. The restoration of Israel amid dangers and difficulties is alluded to; the exaltation of Messiah to God’s right hand till His enemies are made His footstool; God’s ways with Israel; their whole condition, and the principles on which they stand with God, His law being written in their hearts; ending with full and continued praise after the destruction of their enemies, in which they have part with God. For Songs of Degrees, see DEGREES.
A collection of Divinely inspired hymns or poems in the Canon of the Old Testament as accepted by Jews and Christians; also known as the Psalter of David of 150 Psalms (Council of Trent). Psalm is from psalmos, the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew Mizmor (the title prefixed to 57 hymns in the collection), signifying "a song to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument, the psaltery or lyre." The Hebrew title of the book is "Tehilim" (hymns or songs of praise). Though David should be regarded as the chief author, since 73 psalms bear his name, he is not the sole author. Others designated in the collection are: Moses, Psalm 89; Solomon, Psalms 71 and 126; Asaph, a choir leader (1 Par. 6), Psalms 49, 72-82 (probably composed by members of this family at different times between David’s reign and the Exile, 583 B.C.); Eman, Psalm 87 (sons of Core mentioned); Ethan the Ezrahite, Psalm 88. The Sons of Core (2 Par. 20), is a designation of a guild of Temple singers, who composed or collected Psalms 83, 84, 86, and perhaps 87. Psalms bearing no mark of authorship are called "orphan psalms." While a few psalms may have been composed in the Machabean era, the vast majority were not only written, but the collection appears to have been practically completed, c.529 B.C. Although the number 150 is traditional, the enumeration of individual psalms, between Psalm 9 and Psalm 146, has not been uniform in the different versions. We need not assume that the present form represents the original in its entirety. The Biblical Commission admits the acceptance of the theory that alterations, omissions, and transpositions may have taken place even in the Miserere, for liturgical, musical, or other reasons, provided the inspiration of the entire work be accepted. The Vulgate represents a translation made from the Hexapla by Saint Jerome in 392 to replace a correction of the Vetus Latina which he himself had made, c.383. The latter is still used in the Missal and in the Office as recited in Saint Peter’s, Rome.
The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, based to some extent upon the titles, each section save the last closing with a doxology:
Psalms 1-40
Psalms 41-71
Psalms 72-88
Psalms 89-105
Psalms 105-150
The Biblical Commission directs that the importance of the titles, especially with regard to authorship, be not lightly set aside. Nearly 100 psalms have titles indicative of authorship, historical occasion, musical notation, or type of poetry. Each of the psalms has its own theme and purpose. Broadly speaking, eight classes may be distinguished:
hymns (thanksgiving, praise of God, His attributes and works in Nature and Grace), 8, 17, 102-106, 145-150 (Alleluiatic)
petition, 29, 63, 73, 93
didactic (moral), 1,48, 118
penitential, 6, 31, 37, 50, 101, 129, 142
imprecatory, 17, 34, 58, I 68, 78, 93, 108, 129
historical accounts of God’s Providence toward Israel, 75, 104, 105, 113, 134, 135
Gradual, or pilgrim, 119-133
Messianic, 2, 15, 21, 44, 68, 71, 109
The Divine character of the Book of Psalms is vouched for by Christ and the Apostles, who use it more than any other book of Scripture. In the Church it has always been regarded as a source of Divine truth. Its use for public worship and private devotion passed from the Synagogue to the early, Church, which, following the example of Christ, employed it in the celebration of the Eucharist, and other liturgical services. Today the Psalter forms the main part of the Breviary, the whole being recited normally in the course of a week. It is employed in the Introit, Gradual, and Offertory of the Mass.
I. INTRODUCTORY TOPICS
1. Title
2. Place in the Canon
3. Number of Psalms
4. Titles in the Hebrew Text
II. AUTHORSHIP AND AGE OF THE PSALMS
1. David as a Psalmist
2. Psalmody after David
III. GROWTH OF THE PSALTER
1. Division into Five Books
2. Smaller Groups of Psalms
IV. POETRY OF THE PSALTER
V. THE SPEAKER IN THE PSALMS
VI. THE GOSPEL IN THE PSALTER
1. The Soul’s Converse with God
2. The Messiah
3. Problem of Sin
4. Wrestling with Doubts
5. Out of the Depths
6. Ethical Ideals
7. Praying against the Wicked
8. The Future Life
LITERATURE
I. Introductory Topics.
1. Title:
The Hebrew title for the Psalter is
2. Place in the Canon:
The Psalms were placed in the
3. Number of Psalms:
According to the Hebrew text, followed by modern VSS, there are 150 separate poems in the Psalter. The Greek version has an additional psalm, in which David describes his victory over Goliath; but this is expressly said to be “outside the number.” The Septuagint, followed by Vulgate, combined Psalms 9 and 10, and also Psa 114:1-8 and 115, into a single psalm. On the other hand, they divide Psalms 116 and 147 each into two poems. Thus, for the greater part of the Psalter the Hebrew enumeration is one number in advance of that in the Greek and Latin Bibles.
The existing division in the Hebrew text has been called in question at various points. Psa 42:1-11 and Psa 43:1-5 are almost certainly one poem (see refrain in Psa 42:5, Psa 42:11; Psa 43:5); and it is probable that Psalms 9 and 10 were originally one, as in Septuagint. On the other hand, it is thought by some that certain psalms were composed of two psalms which were originally separate. We may cite as examples Psa 19:1-6, Psa 19:7-14; Psa 24:1-6, Psa 24:7-10; Psa 27:1-6, Psa 27:7-14; Psa 36:1-4, Psa 36:5-12. It is evident that such combinations of two different poems into one may have taken place, for we have an example in Psa 108:1-13, which is composed of portions of two other psalms (Psa 57:7-11; Psa 60:5-12).
4. Titles in the Hebrew Text:
(1) Value of the Superscriptions.
It is the fashion among advanced critics to waive the titles of the psalms out of court as wholly worthless and misleading. This method is as thoroughly unscientific as the older procedure of defending the superscriptions as part of an inspired text. These titles are clearly very old, for the Septuagint, in the 2nd century BC, did not understand many of them. The worst that can be said of the superscriptions is that they are guesses of Hebrew editors and scribes of a period long prior to the Greek version. As to many of the musical and liturgical titles, the best learning of Hebrew and Christian scholars is unable to recover the original meaning. The scribes who prefixed the titles had no conceivable reason for writing nonsense into their prayerbook and hymnal. These superscriptions and subscriptions all had a worthy meaning, when they were first placed beside individual psalms. This indisputable fact of the great antiquity of these titles ought forever to make it impossible for scientific research to ignore them. Grant for the sake of argument, that not one of them came from the pen of the writers of the Psalms, but only from editors and compilers of exilic or post-exilic days, it would still be reasonable to give attention to the views of ancient Hebrew scholars, before considering the conjectures of modern critics on questions of authorship and date. Sources of information, both oral and written, to which they had access, have long since perished. In estimating the value of their work, we have a right to use the best critical processes known to us; but it is unscientific to overlook the fact that their proximity to the time of the composition of the Psalms gave them an advantage over the modern scholar. If it be said by objectors that these ancient scribes formed their conclusions by the study of the life of David as portrayed in the historical books of Kings and Chronicles, the reply is ready that several historical notices in the titles cannot be thus explained. Who was Cush? Who was Abimelech? (Psalms 7 and 34). A careful weighing of the facts concerning the superscriptions will make it seem highly improbable that the earliest of these titles does not reach back into pre-exilic times. We almost certainly have in them the results of the labors of Hebrew scribes and compilers stretching over several centuries. Some of the titles may have been appended by the psalmists themselves.
We are far from claiming that the titles are always intelligible to us, or that, when understood, they are always correct. The process of constructing titles indicative of authorship had not ceased in the 2nd century BC, the Septuagint adding many to psalms that were anonymous in the Hebrew. The view expressed nearly 50 years ago by Perowne is eminently sane: “The inscriptions cannot always be relied on. They are sometimes genuine, and really represent the most ancient tradition. At other times, they are due to the caprice of later editors and collectors, the fruits of conjecture, or of dimmer and more uncertain traditions. In short, the inscriptions of the Psalms are like the subscriptions to the Epistles of the New Testament. They are not of any necessary authority, and their value must be weighed and tested by the usual critical processes.”
(2) Thirtle’s Theory.
J. W. Thirtle (The Titles of the Psalms, 1904) advances the hypothesis that both superscriptions and subscriptions were incorporated in the Psalter, and that in the process of copying the Psalms by hand, the distinction between the superscription of a given psalm and the subscription of the one immediately preceding it was finally lost. When at length the different psalms were separated from one another, as in printed editions, the subscriptions and superscriptions were all set forth as superscriptions. Thus it came about that the musical subscription of a given psalm was prefixed to the literary superscription of the psalm immediately following it. The prayer of Habakkuk (Hab 3) was taken by Thirtle as a model or normal psalm; and in this instance the superscription was literary. “A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, upon
(3) Meaning of the Hebrew Titles.
Scholars have not been able to come to agreement as to the meaning and application of a goodly number of words and phrases found in the titles of the Psalms. We append an alphabetical list, together with hints as to the probable meaning:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) Ascents, Song of” (Psa 120:1-7 through 184): the Revised Version (British and American) translates the title to 15 psalms “A Song of Ascents,” where the King James Version has “A Song of Degrees.” The most probable explanation of the meaning of the expression is that these 15 psalms were sung by bands of pilgrims on their way to the yearly feasts in Jerusalem (Psa 122:4). Psalms 121 through 123; Psa 125:1-5; Psa 127:1-5; Psa 128:1-6 and 132 through 134 are well suited for use on such occasions (see, however, Expository Times, XII, 62).
(e) “For the Chief Musician”: 55 psalms are dedicated to the precentor or choir leader of the temple. “To the Chief Musician” might mean that the precentor was the author of certain psalms, or that there was a collection of hymns compiled by him for use in temple worship, or that certain psalms were placed in his hands, with suggestions as to the character of the poems and the music which was to accompany them. It is quite likely that there was an official collection of psalms for public worship in the custody of the choir master of the temple.
(f) “Dedication of the House” (Psa 30:1-12): The title probably refers to the dedication of Yahweh’s house; whether in the days of David, in connection with the removal of the ark to Jerusalem, or in the days of Zerubbabel, or in the time of Judas Maccabeus, it is impossible to say positively. If Psa 39:1-13 was used on any one of these widely separated occasions, that fact might account for the insertion of the caption, “a Song at the Dedication of the House.”
(g) “Degrees”: see “Ascents” above.
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p) On “
(q)
(r)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(v) “Song of Loves” (Ps 45) is appropriate as a literary title to a marriage song.
(4) Testimony of the Titles as to Authorship.
(a) Ps 90 is ascribed to Moses. (b) To David 73 psalms are ascribed, chiefly in Books I and II. (c) Two are assigned to Solomon (Psalms 72; Psa 127:1-5). (d) 12 are ascribed to Asaph (Psalms 50; 73 through 83). (e) 11 are assigned to the sons of Korah (Psalms 42 through 49; Psa 84:1-12; Psa 85:1-13; Psa 87:1-7). (f) Ps 88 is attributed to Heman the Ezrahite. (g) Ps 89 bears the name of Ethan the Ezrahire. In most cases it is plain that the editors meant to indicate the authors or writers of the psalms. It is possible that the phrase “to David” may sometimes have been prefixed to certain psalms, merely to indicate that they were found in a collection which contained Davidic psalms. It is also possible that the titles “to Asaph” and’ “to the sons of Korah” may have originally meant that the psalms thus designated belonged to a collection in the custody of these temple singers. Ps 72 may also be a prayer for Solomon rather than a psalm by Solomon. At the same time, we must acknowledge, in the light of the titles describing the occasion of composition, that the most natural interpretation of the various superscriptions is that they indicate the supposed authors of the various poems to which they are prefixed. Internal evidence shows conclusively that some of these titles are incorrect. Each superscription should be tested by a careful study of the psalm to which it is appended.
(5) Titles Describing the Occasion of Writing.
There are 13 of these, all bearing the name of David. (a) Psalms 7; 59; Psa 56:1-13; 34; Psa 52:1-9; Psa 57:1-11; Psa 142:1-7; Psa 54:1-7 are assigned to the period of his persecution by Saul. (b) During the period of his reign over. all Israel, David is credited with Psalms 18; Psa 60:1-12; 51; Psa 3:1-8; and 63.
II. Authorship and Age of the Psalms.
Ps 90 is ascribed to Moses. It is the fashion now to deny that Moses wrote anything. A careful study of Ps 90 has brought to light nothing inconsistent with Mosaic authorship. The dignity, majesty and pathos of the poem are worthy of the great lawgiver and intercessor.
1. David as a Psalmist:
(1) The Age of David Offered Fruitful Soil for the Growth of Religious Poetry.
(a) The political and religious reforms of Samuel created a new sense of national unity, and kindled the fires of religious patriotism. (b) Music had a large place in the life of the prophetic guilds or schools of the prophets, and was used in public religious exercises (1Sa 10:5 f). (c) The victories of David and the internal expansion of the life of Israel would inevitably stimulate the poetic instinct of men of genius; compare the Elizabethan age and the Victorian era in English literature. (d) The removal of the ark to the new capital and the organization of the Levitical choirs would stimulate poets to compose hymns of praise to Yahweh (2 Sam 6; 1 Ch 15; 16; 25).
It is the fashion in certain critical circles to blot out the Mosaic era as unhistoric, all accounts of it being considered legendary or mythical. It is easy then to insist on the elimination of all the higher religious teaching attributed to Samuel. This leaves David “a rude king in a semi-barbaric age,” or, as Cheyne puts it, “the versatile condottiere, chieftain, and king.” It would seem more reasonable to accept as trustworthy the uniform tradition of Israel as to the great leaders, Moses, Samuel and David, than to rewrite Israel’s history out of the tiny fragments of historical material that are accepted by skeptical critics as credible. It is often said that late writers read into their accounts of early heroes their own ideas of what would be fitting. James Robertson’s remark in reply has great weight: “This habit of explaining the early as the backward projection of the late is always liable to the objection that it leaves the late itself without explanation” (Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 332).
(2) David’s Qualifications for Composing Psalms
(a) He was a skillful musician, with a sense of rhythm and an ear for pleasing sounds (1Sa 16:15-23). He seems to have invented new instruments of music (Amo 6:5). (b) He is recognized by critics of all schools as a poet of no mean ability. The genuineness of his elegy over Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1:19-27) is commonly accepted; also his lament over Abner (2Sa 3:33 f). In the elegy over Saul and Jonathan, David displays a magnanimity and tenderness that accord with the representations of S as to his treatment of Saul and of Jonathan. No mere rough border chieftain could have composed a poem full of the tenderest sentiment and the most exemplary attitude toward a persecutor. The moral elevation of the elegy has to be accounted for. If the author was a deeply religious man, a man enjoying the friendship of God, it is easy to account for the moral dignity of the poem. Surely it is only a step from the patriotism and magnanimity and devoted friendship of the elegy to the religious fervor of the Psalms. Moreover, the poetic skill displayed in the elegy removes the possible objection that literary art in the days of David had not attained a development equal to the composition of poems such as the Psalms. There is nothing more beautiful and artistic in the entire Psalter.
Radical critics saw the David of the Bible asunder. They contrast the rough border chieftain with the pious Psalmist. Though willing to believe every statement that reflects upon the moral character of David, they consider the references to David as a writer of hymns and the organizer of the temple choirs as the pious imaginings of late chroniclers. Robertson well says: “This habit of refusing to admit complexity in the capacities of Biblical characters is exceedingly hazardous and unsafe, when history is so full of instances of the combination in one person of qualities the most diverse. We not only have poets who can harp upon more than one string, but we have religious leaders who have united the most fervent piety with the exercise of poorly developed virtue, or the practice of very questionable policy. A critic, if he has not a single measure of large enough capacity for a historical character, should not think himself at liberty to measure him out in two halfbushels, making one man of each” (Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 332). Among kings, Charlemagne and Constantine the Great have been likened to David; and among poets, Robert Burns. There were contradictory elements in the moral characters of all these gifted men. Of Constantine it has been said that he “was by turns the docile believer and the cruel despot, devotee and murderer, patron saint and avenging demon.” David was a many-sided man, with a character often at war with itself, a man with conflicting impulses, the flesh lusting against the spirit and the spirit against the flesh. Men of flesh and blood in the midst of life’s temptations have no difficulty in understanding the David of the Bible.
(c) David was a man of deep feeling and of imperial imagination. Think of his love for Jonathan, his grateful appreciation of every exploit done in his behalf by his mighty men, his fondness for Absalom. His successful generalship would argue for imagination, as well as the vivid imagery of the elegy. (d) David was an enthusiastic worshipper of Yahweh. All the records of his life agree in representing him as devoted to Israel’s God. In the midst of life’s dangers and disappointments, “David strengthened himself in Yahweh his God” (1Sa 30:6). We should have been surprised had no trace of religious poetry come from his pen. It would be difficult to imagine Milton or Cowper or Tennyson as confining himself to secular poetry. “Comus,” “John Gilpin,” and the “Charge of the Light Brigade” did not exhaust their genius; nor did the elegy over Saul and Jonathan and the lament over Abner relieve David’s soul of the poetry that clamored for expression. The known facts of his life and times prepare us for an outburst of psalmody under his leadership. (e) The varied experiences through which David passed were of a character to quicken any latent gifts for poetic expression.
James Robertson states this argument clearly, and yet with becoming caution: “The vicissitudes and situations in David’s life presented in these narratives are of such a nature that, though we may not be able to say precisely that such and such a psalm was composed at such and such a time and place, yet we may confidently say, Here is a man who has passed through certain experiences and borne himself in such wise that we are not surprised to hear that, being a poet, he composed this and the other psalms. It is very doubtful whether we should tie down any lyric to a precise set of circumstances, the poet being like a painter who having found a fit landscape, sits down to transfer it to canvas. I do not think it likely that David, finding himself in some great perplexity or sorrow, called for writing materials in order to describe the situation or record his feelings. But I do think it probable that the vicissitudes through which he passed made such an impression on his sensitive heart, and became so inculcated withn an emotional nature, that when he soothed himself in his retirement with his lyre, they came forth spontaneously in the form of a psalm or song or prayer, according as the recollection was sad or joyful, and as his singing mood moved him” (Poetry and Religion of the Psalms, 343 f).
The Biblical writers, both early and late, agree in affirming that the Spirit of Yahweh rested upon David, empowering him for service of the highest order (1Sa 16:13; 2Sa 23:1-3; Mat 22:43;. Act 2:29-31). The gift of prophetic inspiration was bestowed upon Israel’s chief musician and poet.
(3) External Evidence for Davidic Psalms
(a) In the New Testament David is named as the author of certain psalms. Thus Psa 110:1-7 is ascribed to David by Jesus in His debate with the Pharisees in the Temple (Mat 22:41-45; Mar 12:35-37; Luk 20:41-44). Peter teaches that David prophesied concerning Judas (Act 1:16), and he also refers Psa 16:1-11 and Psa 110:1-7 to David (Act 2:25-34). The whole company of the disciples in prayer attribute Psa 2:1-12 to David (Act 4:25 f). Paul quotes Psa 32:1-11 and 69 as Davidic (Rom 4:6-8; Rom 11:9 f). The author of He even refers Psa 95:1-11 to David, following the Septuagint (Heb 4:7). From the last-named passage many scholars infer that any quotation from the Psalms might be referred to David as the chief author of the Psalms. Possibly this free and easy method of citation, without any attempt at rigorous critical accuracy, was in vogue in the 1st century AD. At the same time, it is evident that the view that David was the chief author of the Psalms was accepted by the New Testament writers. (b) In 2 Macc 2:13 (the Revised Version),in a letter purporting to have been written by the Jews of Palestine to their brethren in Egypt, about 144 BC, occurs the following: “And the same things were related both in the public archives and in the records that concern Nehemiah; and how he, rounding a library, gathered together the books about the kings and prophets, and the books of David, and letters of kings about sacred gifts.” We do not know the exact date of 2 Maccabees, but it was almost certainly in the 1st century BC. The author regards David as the author of books in the sacred library gathered together by Nehemiah. (c) Jesus the Son of Sirach, who wrote not later than 180 BC, and possibly a good deal earlier, thus describes David’s contribution to public worship: “In every work of his he gave thanks to the Holy One Most High with words of glory; with his whole heart he sang praise, and loved him that made him” (Ecclesiasticus 47:8 f the Revised Version (British and American)). David’s fame as a psalmist and the organizer of choirs for the sanctuary was well known to Ben Sira at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. (d) The author of Chronicles, writing not later than 300 BC, and probably much earlier, represents David as making provision for a service of song before the ark of God and in connection with its removal to the city of David (1 Ch 15; 16). It seems to be imagined by some scholars that the Chronicler, whose historical accuracy is severely attacked by certain critics, is responsible for the idea that David was a great writer of hymns. On the contrary, he has less to say about David as a poet and psalmist than the author of Samuel. Only in 2Ch 29:30 is there explicit mention of David as the author of praises to Yahweh. The Chronicler speaks repeatedly of the instruments of David and of his organization of the choirs. And so in the kindred books of Ezra and Nehemiah there is mention of the style of worship introduced by David (Ezr 3:10; Neh 12:24, Neh 12:36). The author of the Book of Kings refers repeatedly to David as a model king (1Ki 11:4; 2Ki 14:3; 2Ki 20:5 f, etc.). He becomes a witness for the high reputation of David for uprightness and religious zeal. (e) Amos refers incidentally to David’s great skill as an inventor of musical instruments (Amo 6:5). The same prophet is a witness to the fact that songs were sung in worship at Bethel to the accompaniment of harps or viols (Amo 5:23). (f) The earliest witness, or witnesses, if the narrative be composite, we find in 1 and 2 Samuel. David is described as a wonderful musician and as one on whom the Spirit of Yahweh rested mightily (1Sa 16:13-23). He is credited with the beautiful elegy oyer Saul and Jonathan (2Sa 1:17-27) and the brief lament over Abner (2Sa 3:33 f) . He is said to have danced with joy before the ark, and to have brought it up to Jerusalem with shouting and with sound of trumpet (2Sa 6:12 ff). He is credited with the pious wish that he might build a temple for Yahweh and the ark, and is said to have poured forth a prayer of thanksgiving to Yahweh for the promise of a perpetual throne (2 Sam 7). David dedicated to Yahweh much wealth taken from his enemies. (2Sa 8:11). Both the good and the bad in David’s life and character are faithfully set forth in the vivid narrative.
We come next to two statements that would settle the question of David’s psalms, if critics would only accept them as the work of an author living within a generation or so of the time of David. Unfortunately 2 Sam 21 through 24 is regarded by most critical scholars as an appendix to the early narrative of David’s career. There is no agreement as to the exact date of the composition of these chapters. Naturally the burden of proof is on the critic who tries to disintegrate a document, and suspicion of bias is inevitable, if by the disintegration he is able to escape the force of a disagreeable argument. Happily, we live in a free country, every man having a right to hold and to express his own opinion, for whatever it may be worth. It seems to the present writer that 2 Sam 21 through 24 may well have come from the pen of the early narrator who told the story of David’s reign in such a masterly fashion. Even if these chapters were added by a later editor as an appendix, there is no sufficient reason for putting this writer so late as the exile. His statements cannot be set aside as unreliable, simply because they run counter to the current theory as to the date of the Psalms. 2 Sam 22 purports to give the words of a song which David spake to Yahweh, when he had been delivered from Saul and from all his enemies. Ps 18 is evidently a different recension of the same poem. The differences between 2 Sam 22 and Ps 18 are not much greater than the differences in the various odd of “Rock of Ages.” Only the most advanced critics deny that David wrote this glorious song. 2Sa 23:1-7 must not be omitted, for here David claimed prophetic inspiration as the sweet Psalmist of Israel. This original and striking poem is worthy of the brilliant royal bard. (g) The titles of the Psalms are external evidence of real value for determining the date and authorship of the Psalms; and these ascribe 73 to David. A sweeping denial of all the forms of external evidence for Davidic psalms ought to be buttressed by convincing arguments from internal evidence. Unverified conjectures will not answer.
(4) Internal Evidence for Davidic Psalms
The fact that many of the psalms ascribed to David correspond in tone and temper and in historical allusions with incidents in his life, while not in itself convincing proof that David wrote them, certainly re-enforces the external evidence in favor of Davidic psalms. We must refer the reader to the commentaries of Delitzsch, Kirkpatrick, Perowne and others for the evidence discovered in individual psalms. In many psalms the evidence is strongly in favor of the superscriptions, in which David is named as the writer. See especially Psalms 18; Psa 23:1-6; Psa 32:1-11; Psa 3:1-8.
(5) Number of Davidic Psalms
Opinion varies among conservative scholars all the way from 3 or 4 to 44 or 45. It has come to pass that a critic who acknowledges even Ps 18 to be David’s is called conservative. In fact, the more radical critics regard a scholar as conservative if he assigns even a small group of psalms to the period before the exile. We must not allow ourselves to be deterred from ascribing to David any psalm that seems to us, on the basis of both external and internal evidence, to come from his pen. Delitzsch and Kirkpatrick are safer guides than Cheyne and Duhm. Maclaren also has made a close and sympathetic study of David’s life and character, and accepts the results of sane criticism. W. T. Davison (HDB, IV) speaks out clearly and strongly for Davidic authorship of Psalms 7; Psa 11:1-7; Psa 17:1-15; 18; Psa 19:1-14 (first half), 24 and a few other psalms or parts of psalms, though he makes large concessions to the present tendency to bring the psalms down to a later date. He stands firmly for a large body of pre-exilic psalms. Ewald assigned to David Psa 3:1-8; Psa 4:1-8; 7; Psa 8:1-9; Psa 11:1-7; 18; Psa 19:1-14; Psa 24:1-10; Psa 29:1-11; Psa 32:1-11; Psa 101:1-8; also Psa 60:8-11 and Psa 68:14-19. Hitzig ascribed to David Psalms 3 through 19, with the exception of Psa 5:1-12; Psa 6:1-10 and Psa 14:1-7. If one follows the titles in the Hebrew text, except where internal evidence clearly contradicts the superscriptions, it will be easy, to follow Delitzsch in attributing 44 or 45 psalms to David.
2. Psalmody After David:
(1) Psalms of Asaph (Psalms 73 Through 83, also 50).
The prophetic spirit throbs in most of the psalms ascribed to ASAPH (which see). God is pictured as a righteous Judge. He is also pictured as the Shepherd of Israel. Ps 73 holds fast to God’s righteous rule of mankind, in spite of the prosperity of the wicked. Ps 50, which is assigned by many to the time of Hosea and Isaiah, because of its powerful prophetic message, may well have come from Asaph, the contemporary of David and of Nathan. Some of the Asaph group, notably 74 and 79, belong to the period of the exile or later. The family of Asaph continued for centuries to lead in the service of song (2Ch 35:15; Neh 7:44). Inspired poets were raised up from age to age in the Asaph guild.
(2) Psalms of the Sons of Korah (Psalms 42 Through 49; Psa 84:1-12; Psa 85:1-13; Psa 87:1-7).
This family of singers was prominent in the temple-worship in the days of David and afterward. Several of the most beautiful poems in the Psalter are ascribed to members of this guild (see Psa 42:1-11; Psa 43:1-5; 45; Psa 46:1-11; 49; Psa 84:1-12). We are not to think of these poems as having been composed by a committee of the sons of Korah; no doubt each poem had an individual author, who was willing to sink his personality in the psalm that he was composing. The privileges and blessings of social worship in the sanctuary are greatly magnified in this group of psalms
(3) Psalms of Solomon (Psalms 72; Psa 127:1-5).
Even conservative critics are in doubt as to the Solomonic authorship of the two psalms ascribed to him by the titles. Perhaps assurance is not attainable in the present state of inquiry. Delitzsch well says: “Under Solomon psalmody already began to decline; all the productions of the mind of that period bear the stamp of thoughtful contemplation rather than of direct feeling, for restless yearning for higher things had given place to sensuous enjoyment, national concentration to cosmopolitan expansion.”
(4) The Era of Jehoshaphat.
Delitzsch and others regard the period of Jehoshaphat as one of literary productivity. Possibly Psa 75:1-10 and Psa 76:1-12 celebrate the deliverance from the great eastern invasion toward the close of Jehoshaphat’s reign.
(5) The Era of Hezekiah.
The latter half of the 8th century BC was one of literary vigor and expansion, especially in Judah. Perhaps the great deliverance from Sennacherib’s invasion is celebrated in Psa 46:1-11 and Psa 48:1-14.
(6) The Period of Jeremiah.
Ehrt and some other scholars are inclined to attribute to Jeremiah a considerable number of psalms. Among those which have been assigned to this prophet may be named Psalms 31; 35; 38; 40; 55; 69; 71. Those who deny the Davidic authorship of Ps 22 also assign this great poem to Jeremiah. Whether we are able to name definitely any psalms of Jeremiah, it seems thoroughly reasonable that he should have been the author of certain of the plaintive poems in the Psalter.
(7) During the Exile.
Ps 102 seems to have been composed during the exile. The poet pours out his complaint over the present distress, and reminds Yahweh that it is time to have pity upon Zion. Psa 137:1-9 pictures the distress of the captives by the rivers of Babylon. The fire and fervor of the poem bespeak an author personally involved in the distress. No doubt other psalms in our collection were composed during the captivity in Babylon.
(8) Post-Exilic Psalms
As specimens of the joyous hymns composed after the return from exile, we may name Psa 85:1-13 and Psa 126:1-6. Many of the liturgical hymns in the Psalter were no doubt prepared for use in the worship of the second temple. Certain recent critics have extended this class of hymns so as to include the greater part of the Psalter, but that is surely an extreme view. No doubt, the stirring times of Ezra and Nehemiah stimulated poets in Jerusalem to pour forth thanksgiving and praise to Israel’s God. Ewald taught, that the latest psalms in our collection were composed at this time.
(9) Are There Maccabean Psalms?
Calvin, assigned Psalms 44; 74 and Psa 79:1-13 to the Maccabean period. If there are Maccabean psalms, Calvin has perhaps hit upon three of them. Hitzig assigns to the Maccabean period all the psalms from 73 to 150, together with a few psalms in the earlier half of the Psalter. Among moderns, Duhm puts practically the whole Psalter in the period from 170 to 70 BC. Gesenius, Ewald, Hupfeld and Dillmann, four of the greatest names in Old Testament criticism, oppose the view that the Psalter contains Maccabean psalms. Most recent students admit the possibility of Maccabean psalms. The question may well be left open for further investigation.
III. Growth of the Psalter.
1. Division into Five Books:
In the Hebrew text as well as in the Revised Version (British and American), the Psalms are grouped into five books, as follows: Book I, Psalms 1 through 41; Book II, Psalms 42 through 72; Book III, Psalms 73 through 89; Book IV, Psalms 90 through 106; Book V, Psalms 107 through 150. It is possible that this division into five books may have been already made before the Chronicler composed his history of Judah (compare 1Ch 16:36 with Psa 106:48). At the end of Book II appears a subscript which is significant in the history of the Psalter. It is said in Psa 72:20: “The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended.” It would seem from this note that the editor who appended it meant to say that in his collection he had included all the psalms of David known to him. Singularly enough, the subscript is attached to a psalm ascribed to Solomon. Psalms 51 through 70, however, lie near at hand, all of which are attributed to David. Ps 71 is anonymous, and Ps 72 might possibly be considered a prayer for Solomon. There is a further difficulty in the fact that the Second Book of Psalms opens with nine poems ascribed to the sons of Korah and to Asaph. It is a very natural conjecture that these nine psalms were at one time united with Psalms 73 through 83. With these removed, it would be possible to unite Psalms 51 through 70 with Book I. Then the subscript to Ps 72 would be a fitting close to a roll made up of psalms ascribed to David. It is impossible at this late date to trace fully and accurately the history of the formation of the Psalter.
2. Smaller Groups of Psalms:
Within the Psalter there lie certain groups of psalms which have in a measure retained the form in which they probably once circulated separately. Among these groups may be named the Psalms of Ascents (Psalms 120 through 134), the Asaph group (Psalms 73 through 83), the sons of Korah groups (Psalms 42 through 49; 84 through 87, except 86), a
The Psalter has had a long and varied history. No doubt the precentor of the temple choir had his own collection of hymns for public worship. Small groups of psalms may have been issued also for private use in the home. As time went on, collections were made on different organizing principles. Sometimes hymns attributed to a given author were perhaps brought into a single group. Possibly psalms of a certain type, such as
IV. Poetry of the Psalter.
For general discussion of the form of Hebrew poetry, see POETRY. In the Psalms almost all known varieties of poetic parallelism are exemplified. Among moderns, C.A. Briggs has made extensive research into the poetical structure of the Psalms. In summing up the result of his study of the various measures employed in the Psalms, he classes 89 psalms or parts of psalms as trimeters, that is, the lines have three main accents; 22 psalms or parts he regards as tetrameters, each of the lines having four accented syllables; 25 psalms or portions are classed as pentameters, and an equal number as hexameters. He recognizes some variety of measure in certain psalms. There is coming to be agreement among Hebrew scholars that the rhythm of Hebrew poetry is largely determined by the number of accented syllables to the line. Some critics insist rigorously on perfect regularity, and therefore are compelled to resort to conjectural emendation. See POETRY, HEBREW.
Nine psalms are known as alphabetical poems, namely, Psalms 9; 10; 25; 34; 37; Psa 111:1-10; Psa 112:1-10; 119; 145. The most elaborate of these is Ps 119, which is divided into 22 sections of 8 verses each. Each letter of the Hebrew alphabet occurs 8 times in succession as the initial letter of the verses in its section.
As to strophical structure or stanza formation, there is evidence in certain psalms of such organization of the poems. The refrains with which strophes often close form an easy guide to the strophical divisions in certain psalms, such as Psa 42:1-11; Psa 43:1-5; Psa 46:1-11; 107. Among English commentators, Briggs pays most attention to strophical structure. There is some evidence of antiphonal singing in connection with the Psalter. It is thought by some that Psa 20:1-9 and Psa 21:1-13 were sung by responsive choirs. Psa 24:1-10 and 118 may each be antiphonal.
V. The Speaker in the Psalms.
Smend, in ZATW, 1888, undertook to establish thesis that the speaker in the Psalms is not an individual, but a personification of the Jewish nation or church. At first he was inclined to recognize an individual speaker in Psa 3:1-8; Psa 4:1-8; Psa 62:1-12 and 73, but one year later he interpreted these also as collective. Thus, at one stroke individual religious experience is wiped out of the Psalter, A few scholars have accepted Smend’s thesis; but the great majority of critics of every school have withheld their assent, and some of the best commentators have shown that theory is wholly untenable.
Perhaps the best monograph on the subject, for the German student, is one by Emil Balla, Das Ich der Psalmen. Balla’s thesis is that the “I” psalms, both in the Psalter and in the other books of the Old Testament, are always to be understood as individual, with the exception of those in which from plain data in the text another interpretation of the “I” is necessary. Of 100 psalms in which “I” occurs, Balla classes 80 as easy to interpret; in the remaining 20 there might be reasonable room for difference of opinion whether the psalm was individual or collective.
Personification is largely used in all parts of the Old Testament. There is no room for doubt that Psa 129:1-8, though using “I,” “my” and “me,” is the language of Israel as a people. The same is true of Psa 124:1-8. The author of Psa 126:1-6 likewise associates himself with his brethren. The author of Psa 122:1-9, however, is evidently speaking for himself individually, when he says in Psa 122:8, “For my brethren and companions’ sakes, I will now say, Peace be within thee.” The intelligent reader usually has no difficulty in deciding, after a careful reading of a psalm, whether the “I” refers to an individual Israelite or to the congregation of Israel. Sane views on this subject are important, inasmuch as Smend’s theory does violence to the strength and power of the individual religious experience of Old Testament believers. In many portions of the Old Testament, national duties are urged, and Israel is addressed as a whole. At the same time, it would be easy to exaggerate the relatively small place that individual religion occupies in the prophetic writings and in the Law. The Psalter absolutely refuses to be shut up in the molds of a rigid nationalism.
VI. The Gospel in the Psalms
Christians love the Psalter as much as the ancient Jew could possibly have done. On every page they discover elements of religious life and experience that are thoroughly Christian. In this respect the earlier dispensation came nearer to the perfection of Christian standards than in political and social organization. Along with the New Testament, the aged Christian saint desires a copy of the Psalms. He passes easily from the Gospels to the Psalter and back again without the sense of shifting from one spiritual level to another. Religious experience was enjoyed and was portrayed by the ancient psalmists so well that no Christian book in the apostolic period was composed to displace the Psalter.
1. The Soul’s Converse with God:
(1) The Psalmists Are Always Reverent in Their Approach to Deity.
Yahweh is infinitely holy (Psa 99:3, Psa 99:5, Psa 99:9). Psalms 95 through 100 are models of adoration and worship.
(2) Thirsting for God.
Psa 42:1-11 and Psa 43:1-5, which were originally one psalm, voice the longing of the individual soul for God as no other human composition has been able to express it. Psa 63:1-11 is a worthy companion psalm of yearning after God.
(3) Praising God.
More than 20 psalms have for their keynote praise to God. See especially Psa 8:1, Psa 8:9; Psa 57:7-11; Psa 71:22-24; Psa 95:1-7. The first three verses of Psalms 33; 34; 40; Psa 92:1-15 and 105 reveal a rich vocabulary of praise for stammering human lips.
(4) Joy in God’s House.
Psa 84:1-12 and Psa 122:1-9 are classic hymns expressive of joy in public worship in the sanctuary. Religious patriotism has never received a more striking expression than is found in Psa 137:5 f.
(5) Practicing the Presence of God.
In Psalms 91 and Psa 23:1-6 the worshipping saint delights his soul with the sense of God’s protecting presence. The Shepherd, tender and true, is ever present to shield and to comfort. The shadow of the Almighty is over the saint who dwells in the secret place of the Most High.
(6) God in Nature.
The Psalmist did not go “through Nature up to Nature’s God”; for he found God immanent in all things. He heard God’s voice in the thunder; felt His breath in the twilight breeze; saw the gleam of His sword in the lightning’s flash, and recognized His hand in every provision for the wants of man and the lower animals. See Ps 104, “Hymn of Creation”; Psa 29:1-11, “Yahweh, the God of the storm”; and the first half of Psa 19:1-14, “the heavens are telling.”
(7) Love for God’s Word.
Ps 119 is the classic description of the beauty and power and helpfulness of the Word of God. The second half of Psa 19:1-14 is also a gem. Ps 119 was happily named by one of the older commentators “a holy alphabet for Zion’s scholars.” The Psalmist sings the glories of God’s Word as a lamp to guide, as a spring of comfort, and as a fountain of hope.
(8) God’s Care of All Things.
Faith in Divine Providence - both general and special - was a cardinal doctrine with the psalmists; yea more, the very heart of their religion. Psa 65:1-13 sings of God’s goodness in sunshine and shower, which clothes the meadows with waving grain. The river of God is always full of water. Psa 121:1-8, “Yahweh thy Keeper,” was read by David Livingstone at family worship on the morning when he left home to go out to Africa as a missionary.
(9) God Our Refuge.
The psalmists were fond of the figure of “taking refuge in God.” Yahweh was to them a rock of refuge, a stronghold, a high tower, an impregnable fortress. Psa 46:1-11; Psa 61:1-8 and Psa 62:1-12 exalt God as the refuge of His saints. His help is always easy to find. The might and wisdom of God do not overwhelm the inspired singers, but become a theme of devout and joyous contemplation.
Our Lord Jesus found in the Psalms prophecies concerning Himself (Luk 24:44-47).
2. The Messiah:
(1) The Suffering Saviour.
While hanging on the cross, the mind of our Lord turned to the Psalter. He voiced the terrible anguish of His soul in the opening words of Ps 22, and breathed out His spirit at the end with the trustful words of Psa 31:5. He also invited the fulfillment of a Messianic prediction in Psa 69:21 by saying, “I thirst.” Isa and the Psalms did not fail Him in the hour of His shame, when reproach broke His heart, and there was none to comfort Him. Only Isa 52:13 through 53:12 surpasses Ps 22 as a picture of Calvary and an interpretation of the significance of the cross. Whether Ps 22 is a direct prophecy of Christ, or only a typically Messianic psalm, is in dispute. Every sentence can be applied to Jesus without straining its meaning. If David or some other sufferer took up his harp to sing of his own sorrows, the Spirit of God guided him to describe those of a greater.
Rationalistic critics insist that to apply part of a psalm to David and part to Christ introduces confusion. They ridicule theory of a “double sense,” and contend that the language refers to the Psalmist and to him alone, and that the application of certain verses to our Lord Jesus is only by way of accommodation. This theory ignores the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit altogether; and when men talk of “psychological impossibilities,” they may be talking nonsense; for who of us can us can understand fully the psychological experience of men while receiving revelations from God? The real author of inspired prophecies is the Holy Spirit. His meaning is that which the reverent interpreter most delights to find; and we have evidence that the Old Testament writers did not fully comprehend their own predictions concerning Christ (1Pe 1:10-12). We ought not to be surprised that we should be unable to explain fully the method of the Holy Spirit’s activity in guiding the thought of prophets and psalmists in their predictions of the sufferings of Christ and the glories that should follow them.
(2) The Conquering King.
Psa 2:1-12 and Psa 110:1-7 (with which Ps 72 may be compared) describe the Messiah as Yahweh’s Son, a mighty. Conqueror, who shall overwhelm all foes and reign supported by Yahweh. Some will oppose the Messiah, and so perish; others will enter His army as volunteers, and in the end will enjoy the fruits of victory. “It is better to sit on His throne than to be His footstool.”
(3) The Growing Kingdom.
There is room in the earth for no god other than Yahweh, the Creator and Redeemer of mankind. Psa 47:1-9; Psa 67:1-7; 96 through 100 and Psa 117:1-2 are proofs of the glorious missionary outlook of the Psalter. All nations are exhorted to forsake idols and worship Yahweh. Psa 47:1-9 closes with a picture of the whole world united in the worship of the God of Israel. Psa 67:1-7 is a bugle call to all nations to unite in the worship of the true God. Psalms 96 through 100 paint the character of Yahweh as a basis of appeal to all nations to turn from idols and worship the God of Abraham. Psa 96:1-13 and Psa 98:1-9 exalt His righteousness; Psa 97:1-12 His power and dominion; Psa 99:1-9 His holiness and His fidelity to Israel, while Psa 100:1-5 tells of His goodness. Idols will finally go down before a God worthy of men’s reverence and love.
3. Problem of Sin:
The Psalter deals with man as a sinner. Seven of the best known poems in the collection are so charged with a sense of sin and of its deadly fruits that they have been known for centuries as the Penitential Psalms (Psa 6:1-10; Psa 32:1-11; 38; 51; 102; Psa 130:1-8; Psa 143:1-12). Besides these poems of penitence and confession, there are many passages elsewhere in the Psalter which depict the sinfulness of men. And yet there are assertions of personal innocence and righteousness in the Psalter that sound like the claims of self-righteous persons (Psa 7:3-9; Psa 17:1-5; Psa 18:20-24; Psa 35:11-17; Psa 44:17-22). The psalmists do not mean to affirm that they are sinless before God, but rather that they are righteous in comparison with their foes who are seeking to destroy them. Sometimes they plead for mercy in the same context. The honest exegete does not find the Pharisaic temper in these noble hymns, though he is quite willing to admit that the Christian cannot well employ some of the expressions concerning his own experiences. Jesus requires a humility deeper than that which was attained in Old Testament times.
(1) Confessing Sin.
(a) Individual confession: Psa 32:1-11 and 51 are notable examples of individual confession. The cries of the penitent in Ps 51 have been repeated by thousands on bended knee as the best expression of their own sense of sin and yearning for forgiveness. (b) National confession (see especially 78; Psa 95:1-11and 106). Ps 105 celebrates the praises of Yahweh for His unfailing kindness to Israel; Ps 106 tells the tale of Israel’s repeated rebellion.
(2) Seeking Forgiveness.
Ps 51 is the penitent’s cry for mercy. Never did the soul of man plead more powerfully for forgiveness. God cannot despise a heart broken and crushed with the sense of sin and pleading like a lost child for home and mother.
(3) Conquering Sin.
Psa 130:1-8 begins with a cry out of the depths and ends with a note of joy over redemption from sin. The plenteous redemption of which the poet speaks includes triumph over sin in one’s heart and life. The cries of the Old Testament saints for victory over sin were not unheeded (Psa 139:23 f; Psa 19:13; Psa 119:133). The author of Psa 84:1-12 truthfully depicts the life of Yahweh’s worshippers, “They go from strength to strength.” Victory over sin is sure in the end.
4. Wrestling with Doubts:
The ancient Hebrew seems to have had no temptation to atheism or pantheism. The author of Ecclesiastes felt the pull of agnosticism and materialism (Ecc 3:19-21; Ecc 9:2-10), but in the end he rejected both (Ecc 12:7, Ecc 12:13 f). The ancient Hebrew found in the world about him one difficulty which seemed almost insuperable. He believed in the wisdom and power and justice of God. How then could it be possible, in a world over which a wise and just God presides, that the wicked should prosper and the righteous suffer? This is the question which is hotly debated by Job and his three friends. A partial solution of the difficulty may be seen in Ps 37, theme of which is ’the brevity of godless prosperity, and the certainty that well-doing will lead to well-being.’ A better solution is attained in Ps 73, which depicts God’s attitude toward the wicked and toward the righteous. The wicked will be suddenly overthrown, while the righteous will live forever in the enjoyment of communion with God. Not even death can sever him from God. The fleeting pleasures of proud scoffers pale into insignificance before the glories of everlasting fellowship with God.
5. Out of the Depths:
(1) Out of the depths of persecution and slander the author of Ps 31 climbed into his refuge, as he exclaimed, “In the covert of thy presence wilt thou hide them from the plottings of man: Thou wilt keep them secretly in a pavilion from the strife of tongues.” (2) Ps 77 is a stairway out of depths of suspense and the anxiety. The experience of the author well illustrates Maclaren’s epigram, “If out of the depths we cry, we shall cry ourselves out of the depths.” (3) The author of Ps 116 looked into the jaws of death. Perhaps no other psalm has so much to say of physical death. The singer is filled with gratitude as he reviews the deadly peril from which Yahweh has saved him. (4) Ps 88 is unique, because it is sad and plaintive from beginning to end. The singer has long cried for deliverance from bodily weakness and from loneliness. (5) Out of the depths of disaster and defeat the authors of Psa 60:1-12; 74; Psa 79:1-13 and 89 cry to God. The Babylonian exile was a sore trial to patriotic Jews. They mourned over the destruction of their beautiful temple and the holy city in which their fathers had worshipped. The author of Psa 60:1-12 closes with hope and confidence (Psa 60:12).
6. Ethical Ideals:
“Unquestionably in the Psalms we reach the high-water mark of Old Testament practical piety, the best that, the Old Testament can exhibit of heart-religion.”
(1) What Sort of Man, Then, Would the Psalms Acclaim as Good?
Psa 1:1-6 opens with a vivid contrast between the righteous and the wicked. Psa 15:1-5 is the most complete description of a good man to be found in the Psalter. The picture is drawn in answer to the question, What sort of man will Yahweh receive as an acceptable worshipper? The morality of the Bible is rooted in religion, and the religion of the Bible blossoms and bears fruit in the highest ethics known to man. Psa 131:1-3 makes humility a prime quality in real goodness. Psa 133:1-3 magnifies the spirit of brotherly love. The social virtues had a large place in the psalmists’ ideals of goodness. Humility and brotherly love are a guaranty of peace in the home, the church and the nation. Psa 24:4 is a compend of ethics in a single sentence.
(2) The Ethics of Speech.
Even a casual reading of the Psalms must impress one with the fact that the psalmists felt very keenly the lies and slanders and boastings of the wicked. Stirred with righteous indignation, they call upon God to awake and confront the blatant foes of truth and righteousness (see especially Psa 12:1-8; Psa 52:1-9 and Psa 120:1-7).
(3) Ministering to the Needy.
Bible readers are familiar with the ideal of the good man in Job 29:12-16; Job 31:13-22. Psa 82:1-8 is a plea for justice. Venal judges are one day to confront the great Judge. Men need fair play first. Perhaps there will then be no occasion for the exercise of almsgiving. Psa 41:1-13 is a plea for kindness. The Christian reader is reminded of the words of Jesus, “Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy.” The Ideal Ruler is both just and beneficent (Psa 72:2, Psa 72:12-14).
7. Praying Against the Wicked:
To be a good lover one must know how to hate. The excitement of battle throbs in many of the Psalms. The enemies of righteousness are victorious and defiant. Their taunts drive the psalmists to importunate prayer. Yahweh’s honor is at stake and His cause in peril. More than 20 psalms contain prayer for the defeat and overthrow of the wicked. Warlike imagery of the boldest kind is found in many of the imprecatory psalms. To the Christian reader some of the curses pronounced against the wicked are startling and painful. Many are led to wonder how such imprecations ever found a place in the Bible. The most severe curses are found in Psalms 35; 69 and 109. Maclaren’s words are well worth reading as an introduction to Ps 109: “For no private injuries, or for those only in so far as the suffering singer is a member of the community which represents God’s cause, does he ask the descent of God’s vengeance, but for the insults and hurts inflicted on righteousness. The form of these maledictions belongs to a lower stage of revelation; the substance of them, considered as passionate desires for the destruction of evil, burning zeal for the triumph of truth, which is God’s cause, and unquenchable faith that He is just, is a part of Christian perfection.” Two remarks may be made, as suggestions to the student of the Psalter: (1) We ought to study the psalms of imprecation in the light of their origin. They are poetry and not prose; and De Witt reminds us that the language of oriental poetry is that of exaggerated passion. Some of these imprecations pulse with the throb of actual battle. Swords are drawn, and blood is flowing. The champion of Yahweh’s people prays for the overthrow of His foes. The enemies cursed are men who break every moral law and defy God. The Psalmist identifies himself with Yahweh’s cause. “Do not I hate them, O Yahweh, that hate thee? And am not I grieved with those that rise up against thee? I hate them with perfect hatred: They are become mine enemies” (Psa 139:21 f). Thus the psalmists pray with God’s glory in view. (2) We ought to use the imprecatory psalms in the light of our Lord’s teaching. We cannot pronounce curses on our personal enemies. This heavenly artillery may be turned upon the saloon, the brothel and the gambling hell, though we must not forget to pray for the conversion of the persons who are engaged in these lines of business.
8. The Future Life:
“If a man die, shall he live again?” What answer do the Psalms give to Job’s cry for light? There are expressions in the Psalter which seem to forbid hope of a blessed immortality (Psa 6:5; Psa 30:9; Psa 39:13; Psa 115:17). The psalmists are tempted to fear that fellowship with God would cease at death. Let this fact, however, be borne in mind, that not one of the poets or prophets of Israel settled down to a final denial of immortality. Some of them had moments of joyous assurance of a blessed life of fellowship with God in the world to come. Life everlasting in the presence of Yahweh is the prospect with which the author of Psa 16:1-11 refreshes himself (Psa 16:8-11). The vision of God’s face after the sleep of death is better than worldly prosperity (Psa 17:13-15). The author of Ps 73 wins rest for his distressed mind in the assurance of a fellowship with God that cannot be broken (Psa 73:23-26). God will finally take the singer to Himself. It has been well said that Ps 49 registers the high-water mark of Old Testament faith in a future life. Death becomes the shepherd of the wicked who trusted in riches, while God redeems the righteous from the power of Sheol and takes the believing soul to Himself.
Literature.
One of the most elaborate and informing articles on the history of the exposition of the Psalms is found in the Introduction to Delitzsch’s Commentary (pp. 64-87, English translation). Among the Fathers, Jerome, Chrysostom and Augustine are most helpful. Among the Reformers, Calvin, the prince of expositors, is most valuable. Among modern commentators, Ewald and Delitzsch are scholarly and sane. Their commentaries are accessible in English translation Hupfeld is strong in grammatical exegesis. Baethgen (1904) is very thorough. Among recent English and American commentators, the most helpful are Perowne (6th edition, 1866), Maclaren in Expositor’s Bible (1890-92), and Kirkpatrick in Cambridge Bible (1893-95). Briggs in ICC (1906) is learned; Davison, New Century Bible, is bright and attractive. Spurgeon, Treasury of David, is a valuable compilation, chiefly from the Puritan divines. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms (1888) and The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter (1891), is quite radical in his critical views. Binnie, The Psalms: Their Origin, Teachings and Use (1886), is a fine introduction to the Psalter. Robertson, The Poetry and Religion of the Psalms (1898), constructs an able argument against recent radical views.
A psalm is a hymn of praise to God designed to be sung to the accompaniment of music. The book of Psalms is a collection of 150 such hymns.
One hymn book for all
The collection of the various psalms into one volume seems to have taken place gradually over a long time. Although each psalm is a unit in itself, not necessarily connected with those before or after it, certain psalms have been grouped together. They may have come from smaller collections already in existence (e.g. those of the ‘sons of Korah’; see Psalms 44; Psalms 45; Psalms 46; Psalms 47; Psalms 48; Psalms 49), and may have been arranged in a certain order (e.g. Psa 120-134). Five groups (or books) make up the collection. The five books are . The five books are Psalms 1-41, 42-72, 73-89, 90-106 and 107-150.
At the end of each of the first four books, an expression of praise has been added to mark the close of the book. The very last psalm, the 150th, has been placed where it is to form a climax to the entire collection.
Within the hymn book there are psalms for all occasions. Some were written specifically for use in public worship and temple festivals (e.g. Psalms 38); others were adapted from personal psalms (e.g. Psalms 54). Some were written for use on great national occasions such as coronations, victory celebrations and royal weddings (e.g. Psalms 2; Psalms 18; Psalms 45); others arose from circumstances in the lives of private individuals (e.g. Psalms 3; Psalms 75). The psalms may have expressed joy and confidence on the one hand, or terror and uncertainty on the other.
Writers of the psalms
Many of the psalms have titles that give the name of the writer or the name of the person(s) from whose collection they were taken (e.g. Psalms 41; Psalms 42). David is named as the author of 73 psalms, which is almost half the collection. He was a gifted musician and writer (1Sa 16:23; 2Sa 23:1), and was the person who established the various groups of singers and musicians for the temple services (1Ch 15:16-28; 1Ch 16:7; 1Ch 16:37-42).
David arranged the singers and musicians into three groups under the leadership of three men taken from the three family groups that made up the tribe of Levi. The three men were Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun) (1Ch 6:31-48; 1Ch 15:17-19; 1Ch 16:5; 1Ch 16:42), and between them they wrote a number of psalms that have been included in the book of Psalms (e.g. Psalms 50; Psalms 73; Psalms 74; Psalms 75; Psalms 76; Psalms 77; Psalms 78; Psalms 88; Psalms 89). The book also contains two psalms credited to Solomon (Psalms 72; Psalms 127) and one to Moses (Psalms 90).
Language of the psalms
Hebrew poetry has certain characteristics that the reader needs to know if he is to interpret the psalms correctly. The rhythm in Hebrew poetry comes not from metre and rhyme as in English poetry, but from the balanced arrangement of words and sentences. For this reason, Hebrew poetry can retain some of its style even when translated.
The balanced arrangement of Hebrew poetry is well demonstrated in the book of Psalms. Often the writer expresses one central idea by making parallel statements that have virtually the same meaning (Psa 7:16). Sometimes only one or two words are changed (Psa 118:8-9). The writer may make further emphasis by giving an application of his central idea (Psa 37:7), by contrasting two truths (Psa 68:6), or by otherwise developing his theme through a careful arrangement of related statements (Psa 4:3-5).
In some psalms the writer may repeat a verse to provide a refrain (Psa 42:5; Psa 42:11; Psa 46:7; Psa 46:11). In others he may begin successive verses with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet (‘from A to Z’, so to speak). This produces a kind of verse known as an acrostic (e.g. Psalms 25; Psalms 34; Psalms 119). (See also POETRY.)
The titles of the psalms, though not necessarily written by those who wrote the psalms, often include directions for those in charge of the music. The directions may indicate the kind of instruments to be used (Psalms 4; Psalms 5) and the tune to which the song is to be sung (Psalms 53; Psalms 56; Psalms 58). Words such as Shiggaion (Psalms 7), Miktam (Psalms 16) and Maskil (Psalms 55) are Hebrew words of uncertain meaning. They may indicate the kind of hymn or the occasion on which it should be sung. ‘Selah’ is probably a musical term used to indicate a variation in the music, such as a pause, the repetition of a line, or a change in the volume or speed of the music (Psa 89:37; Psa 89:45; Psa 89:48).
Interpreting the psalms
Like all writings of the Old Testament, the psalms must be interpreted in their historical context. The present-day reader’s first responsibility is to understand each psalm as its author intended it to be understood.
However, the New Testament writers often saw meanings in the psalms that the original writers were not aware of. Jesus Christ was the fulfilment of all that God intended the nation Israel to be. The Davidic kings of Israel foreshadowed the greatest of all Davidic kings, Jesus the Messiah. When writing about the Davidic kings, the psalmists freely spoke of Israel’s ideals of triumph and glory, but those ideals found their perfect expression only in Jesus Christ (cf. Psalms 2 with Act 4:25-31; Act 13:33-34; Heb 1:5; Heb 5:5; cf. Psalms 45 with Heb 1:8-9; cf. Psalms 110 with Mat 22:41-46; Heb 7:15-17; see MESSIAH).
The failures of the Davidic kings, however, indicate how far they fell short of God’s perfect requirements. In a psalm that speaks of the ideal qualities of the Davidic king there may also be references to the king’s sins. The New Testament writers may therefore quote from one part of a psalm and apply it to Christ (cf. Psa 69:4; Psa 69:9; Psa 69:21 with Joh 2:17; Joh 15:25; Mat 27:34; Mat 27:38), though other parts of the same psalm may refer to the Davidic king’s sins and therefore could never apply to Christ (cf. Psa 69:5 with 1Pe 2:22; 1Jn 3:5).
Just as the reader must interpret each psalm according to the psalmist’s purpose, so must he interpret a New Testament application of a psalm according to the New Testament writer’s purpose. As the psalmists were concerned with suffering and victory, so are the New Testament writers as they consider the work of Christ
When the godly of the Old Testament era suffered for righteousness’ sake, they anticipated Christ’s sufferings (cf. Psa 22:1-18; Mat 27:39-46). (This may be likened to the experience of Christians who, when they suffer for righteousness’ sake, share in Christ’s sufferings; 2Co 1:5; Php 3:10.) Similarly, when godly kings of Israel won great victories, they anticipated the triumphs of Christ (cf. Psa 68:17-18; Eph 1:18-23; Eph 4:8-10).
Christ, the true embodiment of Israel, so shared his people’s sufferings that in the end he bore the full force of God’s wrath against sin. But he came out victorious, so that people can enter a kingdom greater than Israel ever imagined (cf. Psa 22:19-31 with Php 2:7-11; Rev 5:9-14).
Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title, therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.
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Authors
The Evidence of the Titles
The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively (although Ps 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also). Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon (Pss 72; 127), one to Moses (Ps 90), and one to Ethan (Ps 89), while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah (Ps 88). The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity.
The preposition “of” found in the titles (for example, “A Psalm of David”) usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.
Historical Allusions in the Titles
Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David (e.g., Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51). There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms (e.g., Ps 30) indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name (like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt) for all the Philistine kings (e.g., Gn 21:32; 26:26).
Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.
The Case for Davidic Authorship
Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:
1. The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan (2 Sm 1:19–27) is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books (2 Sm 23:1–7).
2. David had a reputation as a skillful musician at Saul’s court (1 Sm 16:16–18). Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician (Am 6:5), while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship (e.g., 1 Chr 6:31; 16:7; Ezr 3:10). The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to God in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.
3. The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.
4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah (2 Sm 11:2–12:25) and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career—shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on—find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in God.
5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the NT, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the NT text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41–45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.
In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” (2 Sm 23:1). Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David (see also Acts 4:25 and Ps 2).
Date
Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2–3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic.
The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections (Pss 90–150) lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek (the Septuagint) at the end of the third century BC, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm (as in the Septuagint), and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.
Background
As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments (Ps 55 title) and flutes (Ps 5 title) are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah, which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion (Ps 9:16) may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” (Ps 22 title), “Lilies” (Pss 45 title; 80 title) and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” (Ps 56 title) may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion (Ps 7 title) or Alamoth (conjecturally a choir of ladies, Ps 46 title), may also be in the realm of musical directions.
Structure
The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections (Pss 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150), separated by four doxologies (41:13; 72:18–19; 89:52; 106:48). While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book (Pss 86; 101; 103), suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections (e.g., Pss 14 and 53; 40:13–17 and 70) and by the use of different names for God, who is usually referred to as “Lord” in the first collection and as “God” in the second.
Canonicity
In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC.
It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the OT period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of Christians as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.
Purpose and Theology
The Doctrine of God
In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in God and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms (ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things) abound, with references to God’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day Christians. Their great value is that they make God real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe God, except in terms of their own understanding?
The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3–8; 135:15–18; 139. God is viewed as the Creator (Pss 8:3; 89:11; 95:3–5), with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations (e.g., Ps 89:10) serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as the Lord of history (Pss 44, 78, 80, 81, 105, 106) and as the sovereign controller of nature (Pss 18:7; 19:1–6; 65:8–13; 105:26–42; 135:5–7). The psalmists never tired of celebrating God’s absolute greatness.
The Human Perspective
The Psalter is a God-centered book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator (Pss 8:3–4; 145:3–4) and the limitations of their earthly life (Ps 90:9–10). By the will of God, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between God and all other created beings (Ps 8:5–8). The relationship with a righteous God is endangered by sin (Ps 106), but God is gracious and long-suffering (Ps 103), faithful and forgiving (Ps 130). While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking (Pss 20:3; 50:8–9), the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart (Ps 40:6–8). Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon God’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations (Pss 15; 24:3–5) and loyalty to the law (Pss 19:7–11; 119) are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.
The Afterlife
The Psalms maintain the traditional Hebrew view of Sheol as the abode of the departed, without distinction between the good and evil, where all but mere existence has perished. The chief complaint of the devout man was that, in Sheol, all meaningful relationship with God ceased (Pss 6:5; 88:10–12). However, it was recognized that, since God was almighty, even Sheol was not exempt from his reach (Ps 139:8). Added to this was the preciousness and strength of fellowship with God, which could not be terminated even by death. Psalms 16:9–11, 49:15, and 73:23–26 well illustrate this insight. The Psalter, therefore, witnesses to an important transitional phase in Israel’s belief.
Universal Recognition of God
Passages like Psalms 9:11; 47:1–2, 7–9; 66:8; 67; and 117:1 call upon all nations to acknowledge and praise God and show an awareness of his sovereignty over all nations. But this universalism does not appear to involve any desire to convert the heathen nations and, indeed, it is balanced by strong particularistic elements. God’s covenant relationship with his people and his mighty deeds on their behalf are the chief items for which the praise of all nations is summoned (Pss 47:3–4; 66:8–9; 126:2). As elsewhere in the OT, the role of Israel is passive; her continued existence witnesses to God’s faithfulness and brings glory to him.
Lasting Value
Whatever the emotion of the psalmists, be it bitter complaint, anguished lament, or joyous exultation, all the psalms reflect one or other of the many aspects of communion with God. The reader may look “into the heart of all the saints” (so said Luther) as they faced life’s experiences in the awareness of a God who was all-seeing, all-knowing, and all-powerful. The strength of that personal relationship with God that typified OT worship at its best is exemplified here, and the many echoes of the psalms elsewhere in Israel’s literature show the powerful influence of these testimonies on the faithful. The fact that, almost invariably, little specific detail is given of the psalmists’ actual conditions has made it easier for the Psalter to become the universal hymnbook and devotional treasury of God’s people, in both public and private worship, until and including the present day. Modern life, materially, is vastly different from that of ancient Israel, but God remains unchanged and so do the basic needs of the human heart. The Holy Spirit, therefore, can still use this spiritual treasury as a means of revelation and communication between God and man. Few books in the Bible have exercised so profound an influence or been so widely used.
Content
Introduction
It is more helpful to describe the psalms in categories than to explain them one by one in canonical order. The psalms can be categorized as follows:
Psalms of praise
Royal, messianic psalms
Passion psalms
Psalms about Zion
Laments
Imprecatory psalms
Penitential psalms
Wisdom psalms and historical psalms
Psalms of trust
Psalms of Praise
The Hebrew title, “Praises,” defines accurately a large part of the contents of the book. Each of the first four sections concludes with a doxology, while the fifth section concludes with five psalms, each of which begins and ends with one or two “Hallelujahs.” The last of these, Psalm 150, sounds the call to total praise. God is to be praised for his being, for his great acts in creation, nature, and history on both the individual and the communal level.
1. Individual praise. In comparison with the number of individual laments, there are relatively few psalms in this category. Those normally included are Psalms 9, 18, 32, 34, 116, and 138. This may, in part, be due to the universal tendency to complain rather than to express thanks. But a number of the laments do, in fact, include the note of thanksgiving for the anticipated deliverance, and the normal round of congregational thanksgiving would allow the individual to express his personal praise. However, it was customary in temple worship to give a verbal act of thanksgiving before the whole assembly whenever a vow offering or a thank offering was made. Such public testimony, and the communal meal associated with this type of sacrifice, is indicated in Psalms 22:22–26; 66:13–20; 116:17–19. The inclusion of such opportunities for personal praise and testimony must have added warmth and significance to worship. Each act of deliverance and every experience of God’s mercy became part of salvation history, which was a cumulative, ongoing concept, not simply a recital of God’s deeds in earlier centuries.
2. General communal praise. This is sometimes entitled “hymns” or “descriptive praise,” its main feature being linked to a particular act of deliverance. God is usually referred to in the third person, not directly. Psalm 103 may be taken as representative of this group. It begins and ends with individual references (vv 1–5, 22b), but the central section (esp. vv 6–14) shows that the psalmist was part of a worshiping community. There is first of all the imperative call to praise God for the full range of his mercy to each individual, including physical and spiritual deliverance and his sustaining and satisfying grace. Then the focus changes to his great works in history (vv 6–7). This forms a natural basis for the recital of those gracious qualities revealed so consistently during the course of the national history, especially his tender, fatherly care (vv 8–14). The frailty of humanity contrasts with God’s constancy (vv 15–18), and his rule, being universal and absolute (v 19), merits the praise of all things, living and inanimate, in heaven and on earth (vv 19–22). There is, however, a great number of possible variations in the way in which God is celebrated, as Psalms 113 and 136, which come within this class, illustrate.
3. Specific communal praise. Occasionally termed “declarative praise,” this type of psalm connects with a particular outstanding evidence of God’s mercy and would most naturally follow soon after the event itself. Deliverance from an enemy provides the occasion for most of the psalms in this category (e.g., Pss 124, 129). Psalm 66:8–12, now the nucleus of an expanded recital of God’s goodness, was possibly once complete in itself. Psalms 46–48 may form a trilogy connected with the remarkable deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennacherib’s Assyrians in 701 BC (2 Kgs 18:17–19:37). Psalm 67 was probably composed in gratitude for a particular harvest. It is easy to see how psalms of this type could, in the process of time, acquire a more general usage.
4. Praise for the God of nature. The first part of Psalm 19 pictures the praise of God sounding from the heavens; Psalm 29 celebrates him as the God of the thunderstorm, which, sweeping in from the Mediterranean near Lebanon, pursues its awe-inspiring path southward into the wilderness of Kadesh, with the result that “in his temple” (the created world?) all are praising, “Glory, glory to the Lord” (v 9). His sovereignty and self-sufficiency in this world are celebrated in Psalm 50:10–12; he is the God of growth and harvest (Ps 65:9–13); in Psalm 104, often called the “Hymn of Creation,” he sustains and supplies everything on the earth and in the seas and is the absolute Lord of all life (vv 29–30). There is no confusion between God and his creation; even the seemingly permanent heaven and earth will perish, but “you go on forever” (Ps 102:25–27). Nature’s role is to proclaim the glory of God (Ps 19:1) and to praise him (Ps 148). People see themselves as insignificant when set against those forces of nature, which are themselves dwarfed by God—hence, the awareness of the immeasurable gulf between God and people that God has bridged by his grace (Ps 8).
5. Praise for God’s kingship. A relatively small group of psalms (Pss 47, 93, 96–99) celebrate the kingship of God in a way that goes beyond the ascription of praise noted in the foregoing groups. They are marked by acclamation, by both shouting and clapping when God “ascends.” Presumably, the reference is to his throne (Ps 47:1–5; cf. 99:1–2). “The Lord reigns” (Pss 93:1; 97:1; 99:1) is the frequent cry, and the nature of his reign is extolled (Ps 99:4–5).
Royal, Messianic Psalms
Psalms 2, 18, 20, 21, 45, 61, 72, 89, 101, 110, 132, and 144 are usually included as the royal psalms. They do not form a literary category, since psalms of various types are included, but they all have some reference to the king, the nature of his rule, and his relationship to God. Since the Davidic monarchy was terminated in 586 BC, these psalms, almost certainly, were composed before that date. The language in these psalms often shows the king as being God’s vice-regent. For example, Psalm 45, a royal marriage psalm, contains the assertion “Your throne, O God, endures for ever and ever” (45:6). But this is best understood in terms of the throne being regarded as the Lord’s, occupied by the king as his representative. Similarly, the wording in Psalm 110:1, “Sit at my right hand,” indicates the privileges and prerogatives that the king enjoys as God’s vice-regent. The balance of the OT evidence concerning the king shows that the monarchy in Israel was qualified by the nature of God’s covenantal relationship with his people; the king did not enjoy the absolutism claimed by most of the rulers of surrounding kingdoms.
Most of the royal psalms can also be called messianic psalms. They were interpreted as such in the early Christian church, as witnessed in Jesus Christ’s general statement that the psalmists wrote of him (Lk 24:44) and by particular NT quotations. The main psalms concerned, and the NT references, are the following:
1. Psalm 2 (Acts 13:33; Heb 1:5; 5:5), while linked with the Davidic king, nevertheless speaks of a universal vindication and rule, which far transcended even David’s rule. Further, the picture of the Davidic king, anointed to rule on the earth as the representative of God, who is enthroned in heaven, strongly suggests Christ’s mediating, incarnate ministry.
2. Psalm 45 (Heb 1:8–9), a marriage psalm for one of the Davidic kings, possibly Solomon, speaks not only of love and marriage but also a permanence and quality of rule. In the most obvious translation of verse 6, the writer addresses God, “Your divine throne endures for ever and ever.” The writer to the Hebrews clearly accepted this interpretation (Heb 1:8–9) and used it in contrast to the exalted status of even the angels, reinforcing it with two other quotations from the psalms that originally applied to God (Ps 97:7; 102:25–27; cf. Heb 1:6, 10–12).
3. Psalm 110 is the most frequently quoted messianic psalm (Mt 22:43–45; Acts 2:34–35; Heb 1:13; 5:5–10; 6:20; 7:21). The language, speaking of the privileges, universal victory and continuing priesthood of David and his successors, would be considered hyperbolic and possibly misleading except for its fulfillment in “great David’s greater Son.” In contrast to the angels, who are privileged to stand in God’s presence (Lk 1:19), Christ the Son sits in the place of power and authority (Heb 1:13).
Other psalms that could also be designated messianic but are not specifically included among the royal psalms are Psalm 8 (1 Cor 15:27); Psalm 40 (Heb 10:5–10); Psalm 72, with its idealized picture of the nature, consequences, and extent of the rule of God’s representative; Psalm 118:22–23; and Psalm 132 (Acts 2:30).
Passion Psalms
The four psalms in this group (Pss 16; 22; 40; 69; some scholars would also include Pss 102; 109) may also be regarded as messianic. They connect with that line of OT prophecy that interprets the Messiah’s ministry in terms of the Suffering Servant who features prominently in Isaiah (e.g., Is 42:1–9; 52:13–53:12). Of these four, Psalm 22 is the most remarkable. Jesus recited part of it when he was on the cross (Ps 22:1; cf. Mt 27:46), and other connections with the crucifixion scene are noteworthy (e.g., Ps 22:6–8, 14–18). Some further considerations are even more significant: there is no suggestion of any awareness of sin; the suffering of the psalmist appears completely unjustified; there is no imprecatory element, even in the face of bitter persecution. This connects with the sinless Christ (2 Cor 5:21), who could even pray for his executioners (Lk 23:34). Psalm 16:10 anticipates the triumph of the incorruptible Christ over the grave (cf. Acts 2:24–31). Psalm 40:6–8 foreshadows the Incarnation and self-giving redemptive work of Christ (Heb 10:5–10). Psalm 69 refers to the isolation resulting from a commitment to God’s cause (Ps 69:8–9) and anticipates the part played by Judas in what was fundamentally God’s work in Christ (Ps 69:25–26; cf. Ps 109:8; Is 53:10; Acts 1:20).
Psalms about Zion
This group could have been classified as a subsection of communal praise, but due to the close historical connection between God’s choice of the house of David and Jerusalem (Pss 78:68–72; 132:11–13), and their subsequent interrelated fortunes, we consider them at this point. There was a biting satire in the request of the Babylonians to the refugees of a shattered city to “Sing us one of the songs of Zion!” (Ps 137:3, niv), but it witnesses to the existence of such a collection. Praise of Zion was, in fact, almost synonymous with the praise of the Lord who dwelt there. Jerusalem’s continued survival, in spite of its difficulties, was ample demonstration of God’s enduring greatness (Ps 48:11–14) and peculiar affection for the city that housed his temple (Ps 87:1–3). Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87 and 122 are the main psalms in this category, but the theme itself appears widely throughout the psalms (e.g., 102:16; 125:1; 126:1–3; 133:3; 147:2). The basis of the NT concept of a heavenly Jerusalem, the spiritual home of the regenerate of all nations, finds its origin in this concept, especially in Psalm 87.
Laments
These are associated with specific occasions of distress and are of two types:
1. National. The prophetic and historical books give several examples of the kind of occasion, such as drought, locust infestation, or enemy attack, that could prompt national laments, and also the inward and outward attitudes that accompanied them (e.g., Jgs 20:23, 26; Jer 14:1–12; 36:9; Jl 1:13–14; 2:12–17; Jon 3:5). There is a regular structure in the psalms of this class: the distressing situation is first described; God is petitioned to come to the aid of his people, often with the reminder of his past mercies for Israel; finally, there is often an expression of confidence that God would heed their cry. Israel’s adversaries are clearly in mind in Psalms 14, 44, 60, 74, 80, and 83, while Psalms 58, 106, and 125 reflect situations less critical.
2. Individual. There are so many of this type (approximately 50) that it is frequently described as the backbone of the Psalter. Their most obvious features are the sharpness of complaint and the bitterness of attack upon those responsible. As in the national laments, there is often complaint against God, especially for his lack of attention or his tardiness in intervening. The basic components of this type are almost identical to the national laments, except that they often conclude with the avowal to praise God in anticipation of deliverance (e.g., Ps 13:5–6). Frequently, the lament is accompanied by thanksgiving for the deliverance sought and experienced, as illustrated in the two sections of Psalms 22:1–21 and 28:1–9.
Imprecatory Psalms
Approximately 20 psalms contain passionate pleas for the overthrow of the wicked, in language that is often shocking. Any instant condemnation of this attitude must, however, be tempered by certain relevant considerations:
The cry for vengeance was not purely personal; it was firmly believed that God’s honor was at stake (e.g., Ps 109:21). In an age where there was a less developed view of an afterlife, it was axiomatic that rewards and punishments resulting from obedience or disobedience to God, must be observable within this lifetime. Whenever this was not apparent, it would seem that no righteous God existed, and the name of God was dishonored (e.g., Ps 74:10). This burning desire for the eradication of evil and evil men sprang from a consciousness of a moral God and virtually demanded the triumph of truth.
The poetic language is also prone to hyperbole—a feature not confined to the psalms (e.g., Neh 4:4–5; Jer 20:14–18; Am 7:17). Such language is startling; indeed, part of its function was probably to startle—to express and promote a sense of outrage.
In the pre-Christian period, therefore, such outbursts were not completely unjustifiable. But in the light of the fuller revelation in the NT, such an attitude cannot be condoned. The Christian is to love as Christ loved (Jn 13:34), to pray for his enemies and to forgive them (Mt 5:38–48; Col 3:13). The theme of judgment continues into the NT and is indeed heightened there, since Christ’s coming has left people without excuse to live in sin (Jn 16:8–11), but there can be no place for purely private vengeance.
Penitential Psalms
Psalms 32, 38, 51, and 130 are the clearest examples of penitential psalms, although traditionally the church has also included Psalms 6, 102, 143, where there is no explicit confession of sin. In an age when adversity in its various forms was seen as God’s judgment for wrongdoing, the admission of distress was tantamount to a confession of guilt. In the four main examples there is an intensity of feeling and a deep sense of the enormity of sin in God’s sight, although, as elsewhere, there is no indication of specific sin, even in Psalm 51, which is surely to be connected with David’s sin against Bathsheba (2 Sm 11–12). Significantly, David bypasses the sacrificial system, which was totally inefficacious in his case, casting himself entirely on the mercy of God (Ps 51:1, 16). The burden of unconfessed sin is clearly revealed in Psalm 32, and sin’s searing and corrupting effect in Psalm 38.
Wisdom Psalms and Historical Psalms
While it is accepted that prophets, priests, and wise men all functioned at the major sanctuaries, some overlap in their modes of expression is to be expected. Proverbial forms are not infrequently found in the psalms (Pss 37:5, 8, 16, 21–22; 111:10; 127:1–5). Psalm 1, probably an introduction to the whole Psalter, contrasts the diverging paths of the righteous and ungodly (cf. Ps 112), while Psalms 127 and 128 concentrate on the blessings given to the godly. Psalm 133 is written in praise of unity. The problem of explaining the sufferings of a righteous person and the apparent prosperity of evil people, dealt with in the Wisdom Literature in the book of Job and in the prophets also (e.g., Jer 12:1–4), is taken up in Psalms 37, 49, and 73.
The historical psalms should be included in this category, since they underscore the lessons arising from the favored nation’s often bitter experience. It is apparent that Israel delighted in the recital of salvation history. The main psalms, and the periods covered are Psalm 78, from the exodus to the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (note the declared intention to teach in vv 1–4); Psalm 105, from Abraham to the conquest of Canaan; Psalm 106, from Egypt to the judges; and Psalm 136, from the Creation to the Promised Land.
Psalms of Trust
While some of these may also be classified as laments, the dominant feature of this group is the serene trust in God revealed, which makes them particularly suitable for devotional use. Many of these psalms begin with an affirmation of gratitude to and affection for God. Psalms 23 and 27 are the outstanding examples of this type, which could also include Psalms 11, 16, 62, 116, 131, and 138.
Conclusion
The difficulties in any precise categorization of psalms are obvious; many do not neatly fall into one group—hence, the occasional overlap. What is clearly evident is a pulsating, vital devotional life that has found its clearest expression in the book of Psalms. To say that it expresses the worship and devotion of the ordinary person is a simplification; kings and priests, wise men and prophets all contributed to this remarkable collection. Yet there remains the truth that, in God’s sight, all people, regardless of human achievement or privilege, are “ordinary,” for all are sinners in need of God’s grace and goodness. So the worshiping community of ancient Israel, and the saints of every succeeding generation, in the vastness of their diversity, have found the expression of their own hearts’ condition, desires, and devotion in this unique treasury—the Psalms.
See also David; Messiah; Music; Poetry, Biblical; Singers in the Temple; Tabernacle; Temple; Wisdom; Wisdom Literature.
Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.