[Josh’ua]
This book gives the history of Israel in crossing the Jordan, their conquests over the nations, and the division of the land among the twelve tribes. It is typical of the believer’s entering, in the power of the Spirit, into the purpose of God, as quickened together with Christ; of his conflict with the spiritual powers of wickedness in the heavenlies; and of his enjoyment of the promises of God. Joshua was commissioned by God Himself. Courage and obedience, under God, would ensure success. He is exhorted to be strong and God would not fail him. Israel had a title to all that was promised to Abraham, but they would possess that whereon the soles of their feet trod, and thus it would become theirs. So the Christian must make his calling and election sure, entering into the possession of his heavenly privileges.
Joshua 2. The spies learned that the fear of Israel had fallen upon the people of the land, and the faith of Rahab saved her and her family. A Gentile gets a place in the promised possession by faith. See RAHAB.
Joshua 3, Joshua 4. For the passage into the land see JORDAN.
Joshua 5. The first thing on entering the land was that the males must be circumcised: this was done at Gilgal, and the reproach of Egypt was rolled away. What answers to this with the Christian is found in Col 2:11 - Col 3:3-5; the renunciation of the life of flesh through Christ having been cut off on the cross; of those it can be said, "Ye are dead . . . . mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth." The Passover was also kept, a type of the peaceful remembrance by the believer of that death which has enabled him to enjoy the promise; and they ate of the old corn of the land (type of a heavenly Christ), and the manna ceased: cf. 2Co 5:16. This was all fitting them to take their place as the Lord’s host. Then Jehovah was manifested to Joshua as Captain of the host, with a drawn sword in His hand. Joshua fell to the earth and worshipped.
Joshua 6, Joshua 7. Jericho (type of the world antagonistic to the Lord’s rights ranged under Satan) was the first city taken, and the manner of its destruction showed plainly that power for conquest was really in Jehovah. God said the whole was accursed and must be destroyed, and a curse should rest upon the man who should rebuild the city. All was not however destroyed, for Achan had taken of the accursed things. Unconscious of this sin and confiding in their own strength, they attacdked Ai in vain. The sin of Achan was accounted as a sin of the people: ’Israel hath sinned,’ God said; and there could be no power or blessing until the evil was put away (as in the action enjoined upon the church at Corinth).
Joshua 8. The evil being judged, Ai was destroyed, and in this case the cattle and spoil were taken. An altar was built unto Jehovah, and the law was written upon stones, the whole of it being read before all the congregation: cf. Deu 27:2-8. This shows the conditions on which they were to possess the land, namely, obedience to the word.
Joshua 9, Joshua 10. When the kings in the south heard of the destruction of Jericho and Ai, they conspired together to oppose Israel. But the Gibeonites wrought deceitfully, saying they had come from very far. Type of the devices of Satan, against which the Christian is warned. Prayer was overlooked, and there was confidence in human wisdom. Five kings attacked Gibeon for making the league with Israel, but were totally defeated by Joshua, and the kings were hanged. To lengthen the day for conquest the sun and moon stood still, for it was Jehovah who fought for Israel. Thus the confederacy of the south was overthrown, and the country of the south was conquered, and Joshua returned to Gilgal . Type of the Christian abiding in the place of renunciation of self, and mortifying the deeds of the flesh in the power of resurrection.
Joshua 11, Joshua 12. From Gilgal Joshua went again in strength against the confederacy of the north, being encouraged by Jehovah, and conquered everywhere, cutting off the Anakims from the mountains, and "so Joshua took the whole land according to all that the Lord said unto Moses." The Gibeonites and their allies from three other cities (Jos 9:17) were the only ones that made a league with Israel. The names then are given of the two kings conquered by Moses on the east of Jordan and thirty-one kings on the west smitten by Joshua.
Joshua 13. Chapter 12 closes the first part of the book, which says that the whole land had been taken; but Joshua 13 opens with the statement that there remained "yet very much land to be possessed." In one sense they had taken all from north to south, so that they could divide the land among the tribes; but all their enemies were not destroyed, and they did not really possess all the land promised unto Abraham. This is typical of the Christian having all things, and yet failing to enter into his full heavenly position. The tribe of Levi had a peculiar standing: "the Lord God of Israel was their inheritance;" and "the sacrifices of the Lord God of Israel made by fire" were their inheritance. These are a type of Christians as priests, who do not belong to earth, but to heaven. There were minor conquests in taking possession, and mention is made of Balaam the soothsayer being slain: God’s judgement had reached the wicked man.
Joshua 14 - Joshua 17. In dividing the land Caleb had a privileged portion. Of Joseph it was said, "Thou art a great people, and hast great power:" in Ephraim and Manasseh Joseph had two portions. The details are given as to the boundaries of the tribes.
Joshua 18, Joshua 19. The tabernacle was set up at Shiloh, which was fairly central, 32° 3’ N, and the allotment of the possessions of the tribes was made in Shiloh before the Lord, at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. Type of the Christian getting his position from heaven. To Joshua was given an inheritance, Timnath-serah in mount Ephraim.
Joshua 20. Six cities of refuge were appointed to which the man-slayer could flee. See REFUGE.
Joshua 21. Forty-eight cities were appointed for dwelling places for the Levites. Then it is repeated that "Jehovah gave unto Israel all the land which he sware to give unto their fathers; and they possessed it, and dwelt therein." They had rest, and not any good thing that Jehovah had promised failed them. Yet, as we have seen, there were parts that they had not made their own, and in which there dwelt those who were ready to seduce them on the one hand, and to oppress them on the other.
Joshua 22. The warriors of the two and a half tribes, who had crossed the Jordan to aid in the conquest of the land on the west, were dismissed to their possessions on the east of Jordan, with the blessing of Joshua. These tribes staying on the east led to difficulty. By the border of the Jordan they built a great altar ’to see to;’ which they afterwards described as a witness that they had part in Jehovah. They were beginning to feel the consequences of having fallen short of God’s calling, and of taking lower ground. The tribes on the west feared that the altar had been built in separation from the worship of Jehovah, and sent princes with Phinehas the priest to protest against it, but on hearing the explanation given, they were satisfied that the tribes on the east were faithful in heart.
Joshua 23, Joshua 24. In conclusion Joshua rehearses the dealings of the Lord with their ancestors, and the great things He had done for them. There were blessings for them if they were obedient; but curses if they forsook the Lord. The people, not knowing their own weakness, declared that they would serve the Lord. They thus still remained under law, their obedience being the condition of their living in peace, and being blessed by Jehovah. Thus a covenant was made with the people that day, a statute, and an ordinance in Shechem. A great stone was set up as a witness of the covenant. Joshua, the faithful servant of the Lord, died, being 110 years old. To this is added the testimony that "Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord, that he had done for Israel."
By: Emil G. Hirsch
—Biblical Data:
The first book of the second greater division in the Hebrew canon, the "Nebi'im," and therefore also the first of the first part of this division, the "Nebi'im Rishonim." It bears in Hebrew the superscription 
; in the Septuagint, using the post-exilic form of the name (
; Neh. viii. 17),
The book, which comprises twenty-four chapters, readily falls into two main parts and an appendix, which may be summarized thus: (1) the events following Moses' death; the invasion and capture of the land; (2) the division of the country; (3) the conduct of the Reubenites, etc.; two hortatory addresses by Joshua shortly before his death, followed by a brief gloss on his burial-place and the disposition made of the bones of Joseph. In detail the contents are as follows:
Part I., ch. i-xii.
i.: After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses' successor, receives from Yhwh the command to cross the Jordan. In execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge given to Moses to help their brethren.
ii.: Joshua sends out from Shittim two spies to explore the city of Jericho. They are saved from falling into the hands of the king by the shrewd tactics of Rahab. The spies return and report.
Crossing of Jordan.
iii.-iv.: Camp is broken at Shittim. A halt is made at the Jordan. Joshua addresses the people; assuring them that Yhwh, the living God, is in the midst of them, that He will drive out the Canaanites, and that the Ark will cross the Jordan, whereupon a miraculous change will be worked in the waters of the river. The predicted miracle takes place as soon as the priests with the Ark wade into the water. In commemoration of the event, Joshua orders two monuments to be erected: one in the river-bed; the other on the west bank, at Gilgal. The Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half of Manasseh number 40,000 warriors. The priests are bidden to come up out of the river's bed after the people have crossed over. This happens on the tenth day of the first month; and the camp is pitched at Gilgal.
v.: Joshua is bidden to make flint knives wherewith to circumcise the Israelites, for those born in the desert had not been circumcised. This is done; Pesaḥ is celebrated; and the manna ceases. Joshua in front of Jericho receives the visit of a "captain of the host of the Lord" in the guise of a man, who declares that the soil on which Joshua is standing is holy ground.
vi.: The siege and capture of Jericho; after thirteen circuits—one every day for six days, and seven circuits on the seventh day—with seven priests blowing seven rams' horns and the people shouting, the walls cave in. Jericho is put under the ban; but Rahab is excepted. A curse is pronounced against any one who should rebuild the city. Joshua becomes famous throughout the whole land.
vii.: The miscarriage of the expedition against Ai, undertaken, upon the counsel of spies, with a very small force, strikes terror into the heart of the people and brings Joshua to the verge of despair. But Yhwh announces that the people have sinned. As stated in the first verse, Achan has not respected the ban. The people must be reconsecrated. The sinner must be discovered by the casting of Yhwh's lot. This is done. By a process of elimination the guilt is limited to the tribe of Judah, then to the clan of the Zarhites, then to the sept of Zabdi; the individual members of Zabdi are then brought forward, man by man, and finally Achan is detected as the culprit. He admits having taken a costly Babylonian garment, besides silver and gold; and his confession is verified by the finding of the treasure buried in his tent. Achan is taken into the valley of Achor, and there stoned to death.
viii.: Expedition against Ai, this time with the whole army. The city is taken by clever strategy, 30,000 men being placed overnight in an ambush. The attacking force feigning flight, the King of Ai is drawn far away from the city; Joshua points with his lance toward the city; whereupon the men in ambush rush into it, while Joshua and the army with him face about. Thus the pursuing enemy is taken between the two sections of Israel's array. Not one man escapes; the city is burned; 12,000 inhabitants are killed, and the spoils are taken. The King of Ai is hanged to a tree until nightfall, when his body is thrown into a pit, where on a stone heap is raised. Joshua erects an altar on Mount Ebal as Moses had commanded, offering to Yhwh holocausts and sacrificing peace-offerings.On the stones of the altar he engraves a copy of the law of Moses; the people being ranged in two sections—one facing Ebal; the other, Gerizim—while the blessings and curses are read as ordained by Moses.
The Confederacy Against Joshua.
ix.: Confederacy of the native kings to fight Joshua. The Gibeonites by craft obtain a treaty from the Israelites, which even after the detection of the fraud practised upon the invaders is not abrogated. They are, however, degraded to be "hewers of wood and drawers of water" for the altar of Yhwh.
x.: Adoni-zedek brings about an alliance between the kings of Jerusalem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon, and they ("the five kings of the Amorites") besiege Gibeon. In their distress the Gibeonites implore Joshua's help. Joshua, assured by Yhwh of victory, comes up from Gilgal by a forced night march and attacks the allies suddenly. Thrown into confusion, the Amorites flee as far as the ascent of Beth-horon. To this battle is referred a song from the Book of Jashar, commanding the sun to be still at Gibeon and the moon in the valley of Ajalon. The five kings are captured, first being incarcerated in the cave where they had hidden for safety, then, after the pursuit had been discontinued,—scarcely one of the enemies escaping—being by order of Joshua humiliated and hanged. Then follows a detailed enumeration of the cities captured and put under ban. Joshua becomes master of the whole land—the hill-country, the southland, the lowland, and the slopes—leaving not one king alive, and banning all men from Kadesh-barnea unto Gaza, and all the district of Goshen unto Gibeon. After this expedition he returns to Gilgal.
xi.: Jabin, King of Hazor, and his allies rendezvous at Merom. Joshua is assured by Yhwh of their total defeat, which in fact is brought about by a sudden attack on the part of Joshua. Pursuing them to a great distance (the cities are named), he hamstrings their horses and burns their chariots, capturing Hazor, killing all of its people, and burning the town. Other royal residences he takes by the sword, putting them under the ban. The spoils are taken, and the men are put to death. The cities on the hill are allowed to stand. Joshua drives the Anakim from the mountains, from Hebron, and from other places. Only in Gaza some remain. Finally the land has peace.
xii.: Recapitulation of Joshua's conquests, with statistical details of the number of the kings (30) captured and subdued.
Part II., ch. xiii.-xxi.
xiii.: After an enumeration of the places still unconquered (mainly the coast districts of the Philistines) Joshua is bidden to apportion the land, the unconquered as well as the conquered (verse 6b), among nine and one-half tribes of Israel, the other two and one-half tribes having under Moses been given their portion on the east of the Jordan (verses 14b-32).
xiv.: Résumé of the foregoing reference to Reuben, Gad, and the half of Manasseh, with a gloss concerning Levi's non-inheritance save as regards detached cities, while Joseph receives a double heritage (verses 1-5). Caleb's claim to Hebron is allowed.
xv.: The "lot" of Judah (verses 1-12). Caleb's share (13). Expulsion by him of the three Anakim (14). Story of Kirjath-sepher (16). Othniel takes it and wins, as promised, Caleb's daughter for wife (17). Her successful plea for the gift of wells (18). Catalogue of the heritage of Judah (20 et seq.). Gloss on the continued dwelling of the Jebusites in Jerusalem (63).
xvi.: Lot of the Josephites (1-3). The Ephraimites own cities in the territory of Manasseh (9). Gloss to the effect that the Canaanites dwelling in Gezer had not been driven out, but had been reduced to slavery (10).
xvii.: Lot of Manasseh, Machir as a warrior taking for his prize Gilead and Bashan (1). Delimitation of Manasseh (7). Manasseh's assignments in Issachar and Asher (11). Gloss stating that these cities had not been captured (12). Protest of the Josephites against receiving one share only (14). Joshua advises them to conquer the wooded hill-land (15). Plea on their part that the mountain is not extensive enough, while the plains are held by Canaanites equipped with iron chariots (16). Joshua's consolatory encouragement (17).
xviii.: Erection of the Tabernacle at Shiloh (1). Seven tribes without allotment. Joshua urges these to appoint commissions of three men out of each tribe to go and take the land and to report to him, when, after dividing it into seven portions, he will cast the lot (2-7). The commissions carry out the errand and lay their book of record before Joshua, who then casts the lot (8-10). Benjamin's share (11). The boundaries (12-20). List of the cities (21-28).
xix.: Simeon's share, in the territory of Judah. List of the cities (1-8). Reason why Simeon's lot was in Judean territory (9). Zebulun's share; its boundaries (10-14). Twelve cities not specified (15b). Issachar's share; its cities and boundaries (17-23). Asher's lot; its boundaries; summary gives twenty-two as the number of its cities (24-31). Naphtali's share; its boundaries and fortified cities (32-39). Dan's share; its cities enumerated (40-46). Why the Danites took Leshem = Dan (47). Joshua receives as his own share Timnath-serah (49-50). Eleazar and Joshua had assigned the lots before Yhwh at the gate of the Tabernacle at Shiloh (51). Cities of refuge established (51b-xx.).
xxi.: The Levites' assignment (1-8). Concluding paragraph, emphasizing God's fulfilment of His promise to the fathers (43-45).
Appendix, ch. xxii.-xxiv.
xxii.: Dismissal to their homes of Reuben, Gad, and the half of Manasseh with Joshua's blessing and an admonition to take heed of Yhwh's Law as commanded by Moses. Now that they have become rich in cattle, silver, gold, iron, and garments they are to divide the booty with their brethren (1-8). Return of the east-Jordanic tribes; they build an altar at the stone-heap on the bank of the Jordan; the Israelites desire to punish them for this act; but they first send Phinehas and ten princes to the Reubenites, etc., to censure them, recalling the Peor episode and advising them to remove to Palestine. The Reubenites explain that in building the altar their intention was to show their fidelity to Yhwh,that their descendants might not be taunted with being untrue to Him. The delegation rejoices at the explanation, and upon their report the Israelites abandon the projected punitive expedition (9-34).
xxiii.: Joshua, now old, calls an assembly of all Israel, at which he admonishes the people to remain loyal to the Torah of Moses.
xxiv.: An account of a gathering of Israel at Shechem, at which Joshua delivers an impressive address, reviewing the past, and makes the people vow to remain faithful. He erects a great stone as a witness to the promise (1-28). Joshua dies (29). Joseph's bones are buried in Shechem (32). Eleazar dies and is buried (33).
—Critical View:
The Rabbis ascribe the authorship of the book, as of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy, to Joshua (B. B. 14b); the account of Joshua's death (Josh. xxiv. 29-32) was added, according to them, by Eleazar, the son of Aaron (B. B. 15a), and that of Eleazar's demise (Josh. xxiv. 33) by Phinehas (B. B. l.c.). But this view has been rejected by Isaac Abravanel (see preface to his commentary on the Earlier Prophets), who correctly observes that the use of the phrase 
= "unto this day" (Josh. iv. 9, vii. 26, ix. 27, xiv. 14, xv. 62, xvi. 10) controverts this assumption, and that certain events mentioned in the Book of Joshua are recorded in the Book of Judges (xix. 45) as occurring "long after the death of Joshua" (Abravanel, "Comm. in Prophetas Priores," pp. 2b, col. 2; 3a, col. 1; Leipsic, 1686).
Views as to Authorship.
Christian commentators have for similar reasons contended that the book was by a later author, who had access to documents composed by Joshua or by contemporaries of his (Theodoret, "In Josue Quæst." xiv.). In the "Synopsis Sacræ Scripturæ" (xxviii., col. 309), attributed to St. Athanasius, the title of the book is explained not as the name of the author, but as indicating the hero of the events. Alphonsus Tostat ("Opera," Cologne, 1613; "In Josue I. Quæst." xiii.) rejects the authorship of Joshua, and advances the theory that the book is the work of King Solomon, while Maes ("Josue Imperatoris Historia," Antwerp, 1574) ascribes it to Ezra, who had access to ancient Hebrew archives. These and modern Catholic critics also (Cardinal Meignan, "De Moïse à David," Paris, 1896) thus make the book posterior to the time of Joshua, but, for the greater part, pre-exilic and always based on documents coeval with the events reported.
Among modern Jewish critics L. Wogue ("Histoire de la Bible," Paris, 1881) defends the traditional view, with reference to B. B. 14b and 15a. More recently the passage in Ecclus. (Sirach) xlvi. 1 has been invoked in proof of the authorship of Joshua; 
(see Israel Lévi, "L'Ecclésiastique," Paris, 1898), but this has also been construed, with reference to II Chron. ix. 29, where 
means "book," as supporting the traditional view.
Keil in his commentary has endeavored to defend this view by urging the force of 
= "until we had passed over" (Josh. v. 1) as demonstrating that the narrative must have been written by an eyewitness; but the ancient versions show this reading to be erroneous. Nor is xviii. 9 conclusive: at the utmost it proves that the catalogue of cities (xviii. 11-xix. 46) was abstracted from a document contemporary with Joshua. In the same way xxiv. 26 may be taken as evidence only that xxiv. 1-25 is by him, though upon closer inspection even this passage is seen to be merely the honest opinion of a later writer. The objections by Abravanel have not been answered.
Comparison with Judges.
Later Biblical books exhibit incidents which demonstrate that the situation assumed in Joshua could not have been that of the period of invasion. For instance, Jericho, represented in Joshua as completely overthrown and upon the rebuilding of which a solemn curse is invoked, is found to exist at a much later date, even as a city of the Prophets (see Elisha; comp. Josh. vi. 2-27, xvi. 1; Judges iii. 12-30; II Sam. x. 5; II Kings ii. 5, 15; v. 19-22; I Chron. xix. 5; for the curse see I Kings xvi. 34). Ai, reported burned, is known to Isaiah (as "Aiath"; Isa. x. 28). Gezer (Josh. xvi. 10), described as being reduced to vassalage, is not rendered tributary until the time of Solomon (I Kings ix. 16). But a comparison with the Book of Judges suffices to discredit the theory that the Book of Joshua is an autobiography of its eponymous hero. The narrative in Judges reveals the fact that the invasion was not directed by a general-in-chief, nor undertaken at one time by the tribes united under a national commander, nor accomplished in the lifetime of one man, much less in two decades.
Nor is the book the work of one man. Contradictions abound, e.g., in the chronology: in iii. 1 the crossing is set for the next day; iii. 2, three days intervene; iii. 5, the start is again delayed one day; comp. v. 10 with iv. 19 and v. 2-9. In xi. 21 the Anakim are expelled by Joshua, while in xv. 13 Caleb is reported as having performed this feat. Double and variant versions are given, as, for instance, the explanation of the name Gilgal (iv. 20; comp. v. 9 and xiv. 6 et seq. with xv. 13 et seq.).
The Book of Joshua must be regarded as a compilation; and analysis of its contents makes it certain that its sources are of the same character as those of the Pentateuch. This, to a certain degree, was the impression of the Rabbis. According to Mak. 11a, the chapter (xx.) concerning the cities of refuge was taken from the Pentateuch. The Book of Joshua was regarded by them as written in the light of the Deuteronomic legislation (Gen. R. vi. 14). At all events, Joshua and the Pentateuch are treated as of one character in the saying that the sins of Israel alone necessitated the adding of other books to these (Ned. 22b). Joshua is often compared with Moses (Ta'an. 20a; Soṭah 36a; B. B. 75a; Sanh. 20a; Mak. 9b).
While modern critics generally are agreed that the Book of Joshua is a compilation from sources that have been utilized in the Pentateuch (J, E, JE, D, and P), with additions by the editor (R = Redactor), they differ very widely as regards the details. According to Steuernagel ("Joshua," in Nowack's"Hand-Kommentar"), Albers' attempt in his "Die Quellenberichte in Josua," i-xii., 1891, to separate the components of J from E in part i. (i.-xii.) is unsatisfactory. In fact, Steuernagel assumes that J and E combined as JE never were accessible to the compiler of Joshua, the two being then still uncombined. A few fragments from J (after Budde, in Stade's "Zeitschrift," vii.), parallel with passages in Judges i., and others somewhat more numerous from E, are all that he finds in Joshua. He insists that for i.-xii. another work, D, was the main source. This D is not identical with the author of Deuteronomy, but is rather D2 (= the author of Deut. i.-iii.), and is on the whole an independent elaboration of E. The few fragments of J and E in Joshua he concedes were added by R, and only after D2 had been combined with P (mostly in part ii.).
Steuernagel's analysis has not been accepted by Holzinger ("Josua," in Marti's "K. H. C."), who rejects D2 and works out a scheme on the basis of J, E, and JE, with a pronounced Deuteronomic coloring: Deuteronomist, Priestly Code, and Redactor. Contrary to the Pentateuchal R, who makes P the original document, in Joshua JED is the basis, supplemented by extracts from P. Still later additions are noticeable as well as changes in phraseology (e.g., the use of 
in vii. 13, 19 et seq.; viii. 30; ix. 18, 20; x. 40, 42; xiii. 14, 33; xiv. 14; xxii. 16, 24; xxiii.; xxiv. 2, 23). For a detailed analysis on this basis see Holzinger, "Das Buch Josua," pp. xvii.-xxi.
Steuernagel in his translation prints the different sources in different types. W. H. Bennett in "The Book of Joshua" (in "S. B. O. T." 1895) indicates the various documents by the use of different colors.
Redaction.
Summing up, these various analyses have certainly demonstrated that, on the whole, in the narrative portion of the book (i.-xii.) the introduction (i.) is Deuteronomic, as is the conclusion of the whole book (xxi. 43-xxii. 6, xxiii.), and that Deuteronomic coloring is to be found in both parts, naturally in a greater degree in the narrative chapters. The basis of the book was a Deuteronomic history of Joshua, founded on material from J and E perhaps not as yet combined as JE, thus excluding Rje (=Redactor of JE). The main current of the narrative is not originally Deuteronomic, the Deuteronomic editor heightening its coloring, and dwelling on the moral and religious implications of the story. The narrative is not always consistent. In xiii.-xix. many fragments are for the most part parallels to Judges i., which make it appear that the conquest was a slow, laborious process, the tribes acting without concerted plan and nowhere under united central command. These belong to J.
But even in the narrative portion, strictly so-called, as distinct from the statistical, a twofold account is almost always discernible: one apparently older and more prosy; the other, with a clear tendency to magnify the importance of the events and the absolute annihilation of the inhabitants (though this may be set down as by Rd), and to emphasize the miraculous. The older recalls the method of J in the Pentateuch; the younger, that of E. P's share in the narrative section is very limited. Additions of a few verses may be ascribed to it. In xiii.-xxii. the contributions from P are much more extensive. The boundaries and the lists of the cities of refuge and of the Levitical towns belong to it. The combining of the Deuteronomic Joshua (Rd, J, E, perhaps JE [Rje]) with P was the work of R, who made verbal changes to suit his ends. But even after this additions were made, e.g., xxii. 9-24 (comp. Num. xxxii.-xxxiii.; Judges xx.). Ch. xvi. and xvii. have come down in mutilated form. When they were abridged can not be determined. The duplication of Joshua's farewell also is by a later hand; or it is possible that one account of it (xxiv.) is from E, while the other is clearly Deuteronomistic, resembling Deut. iv. 29-30.
Historical Character of the Book.
After eliminating the pragmatic elements and toning down the Deuteronomic coloring, the critical study of the Book of Joshua penetrates to a bed of traditions that in a more or less confused way reflect actual occurrences; but these did not take place in the sequence here assumed, nor in the manner detailed. The division of the land is, on the whole, the work of a theorist who utilizes actual conditions to a certain extent, but always to bring into prominence his priestly program. Local legends, snatches of folk-lore and folk-songs, the tendency to concentration in one man of the experiences of tribes and generations (always characteristic of legend), have had a decisive share in the shaping of the original material. Explanations of names (Achor, Gilgal), old local shrines, and reminiscences of former religious usages are also detectable as the raw data upon which popular fancy had been at work long before the various literary sources had leaped into existence. To deny in toto, with Eduard Meyer (in Stade's "Zeitschrift," i.), the historical character of the book is dogmatic. It may, however, be noticed that, in contrast with Judges, the Book of Joshua has no chronological scheme (comp. xi. 18, xiv. 10, xxiii. 1, xxiv. 31).
The Hexateuch.
In view of the identity of its sources, and also of the fact that throughout the Pentateuch the conquest of the land is presupposed and emphasized as the goal (Gen. xiii. 14-17, xv. 13-16, xxvi. 3, xxviii. 13-15; Ex. iii. 8, 17; xxxii. 13; xxxiii. 1-3; Num. xiii. 17 et seq., xiv., xxxii.; Deut. i. 38, iii. 21, xxxi. 3-6; P Gen. xvii. 6-8, xxviii. 3; Num. xxvii. 18-23, xxxiii. 50-54, xxxiv., xxxv.; Deut. xxxiv. 9), critics have held that Joshua at one time formed with the Pentateuch the so-called Hexateuch. If this was the case, it must have been at a time anterior to the separation of the Samaritans from the Jews, as the Samaritans have only the Pentateuch; but the books of Ezra and Nehemiah give no intimation of the existence of a hexateuch. In all probability the sources J, E, as well as D and P, carried the narrative to the conquest of the land; but in their present forms the Pentateuch and Joshua were never combined. Volck (in Herzog-Hauck, "Real-Encyc." ix. 390), assuming that P is older than JE and D, argues that before D was incorporated into the present Pentateuch, Joshua (i.-xxiv.) formed a part of a work composed of P, JE, and Deut. xxxi. 14-23, xxxii. 1-44, 48-52, xxxiii., xxxiv.1-9, and that it was when Deut. v.-xxviii. was incorporated that Joshua was made a separate book. This theory, while not convincing, helps to make plain that the sources must have contained the story of the conquest. That Hosea, Amos, and Micah knew this Hexateuch (minus Deuteronomy) is not proved by such passages as Micah vi. 5 et seq. (or Hosea ix. 10, xii. 4 et seq., and Amos ii. 10, v. 25, vii. 4). The traditions at the base of the histories were known to these early prophets. More than this can not be inferred from their references to Shittim and Gilgal (e.g., in Micah vi. 5 et seq.).
The Text.
The fact that in Joshua the Pentateuchal archaic forms (
for 
or 
for 
) are not found is not evidence against the Hexateuchal hypothesis. This circumstance merely indicates that at the time (post-exilic) when the consonantal text was fixed Joshua was not one work with the Pentateuch. Jericho is pointed 
for Pent. 
. The text is in fairly good condition. The Septuagint is without some of the glosses (v. 4-7, vi. 3-5, xx. 4-6). The omissions in the Hebrew (in xv. 59, names of eleven cities; in xxi., a passage between verses 35 and 36) are supplied in the Greek. At the end of xxiv. the Septuagint presents additions of interest.
The Samaritan Book of Joshua.
The Samaritan Book of Joshua, an extracanonical book written in Arabic, pretends to be a translation from the Hebrew ("Chronicon Samaritanum CuiTitulus Est Liber Josuæ," ed. Juynboll, Leyden, 1848). It relates the consecration of Joshua (Deut. xxxi.), the Balaam episode, and the war under Joshua as general against the Midianites; then, with a new title ("Book of Joshua the Son of Nun"), the conquest of the land and its division, continuing the story from Joshua's demise to Eli's death. Interpolations (xxvi.-xxxvii.) deal with other personages, and in the concluding chapters Nebuchadnezzar, Alexander, and Hadrian are the heroes. This book is a medieval compilation of the time when the Samaritans were under Mohammedan rule, but contains also old haggadic material (see Shobach).
Bibliography:
The introductions of Driver, Cornill, König, Baudissin, Reuss, Bleek-Wellhausen, Schrader-De Wette, and Kuenen;
the histories of Israel by Guthe, Stade, Piepenbring, Kittel, Winckler;
the Bible dictionaries of Cheyne and Black, Hastings, Riehm (2d ed.), Schenckel, Hamburger, Winer (3d ed.);
Herzog-Hauck, Real-Encyc. viii.;
Vigouroux, iii.;
L. König, Alttest. Studien, i.;
idem, Die Authentie des Buches Josua, Meurs, 1836;
Keil, Kommentar über das Buch Josua, Erlangen, 1847;
J. Hollenberg, Die Deuteronomischen Bestandtheile des Buches Josua, in Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874;
idem, Die Alexandrinische Uebersetzung des Buches Josua, Meurs, 1876;
Wellhausen, Die Komposition des Hexateuchs (originally in Jahrbuch der Theologie, 1876-77);
Budde, Richter und Josua, in Stade's Zeitschrift, 1877, pp. 93 et seq.;
J. S. Black, The Book of Joshua, Cambridge, 1891;
E. Albers, Die Quellenberichte in Josua (Josh. i.-xii.), Bonn, 1891;
Dillmann, Numeri, Deuteronomium, und Josua, in the Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch, Leipsic, 1886;
Oettli, commentary to the book in Deuteronomium, Josua, Richter (Strack-Zöckler, Komment. zum A. T. 1893);
Wellhausen, Prolegomena, 4th ed.;
Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, 1893;
idem, Das Buch Josua, Tübingen and Leipsic, 1901;
Steuernagel, Das Buch Josua, 1900;
W. H. Bennett, The Book of Joshua, in S. B. O. T. Leipsic and Baltimore, 1895.
The sixth book of the Bible, treating of the conquest of Chanaan by the Israelites under Josue. After crossing the Jordan and capturing Jericho the Israelites defeated the Chanaanites and divided the conquered territory among the twelve tribes. Before his death Josue addressed the assembled people urging them to remain faithful to their God. The book itself was written in great part by an eye-witness, probably Josue himself. The precise knowledge of lesser details, the ancient names of Chanaanite towns, the treating of Rahab as a living contemporary, and the mention of memorial stones as still in the Jordan (4:9), justify this view, which both the Jews and the Fathers upheld. A later writer is responsible for the account of Josue’s death, for additional explanatory glosses, and, in general, for the editing of the book. The historical value of the narrative is substantiated by its fidelity to older geographical names and to some circumstances of the time which archaeology is able to control. No Catholic exegete will regard the miracles recorded in Josue as an objection to its historical veracity. Saint Paul, Saint James, and Saint Stephen accepted the facts narrated as history, and this has ever been the opinion in the Catholic Church.
I. TITLE AND AUTHORSHIP
II. CONTENTS
1. Invasion and Conquest of Western Palestine
2. Allotment of the Country to the Tribes of Israel
III. HISTORICAL CHARACTER AND CHRONOLOGY
1. The Book of Joshua as History
2. Chronology
IV. SOURCES OF THE WRITTEN NARRATIVE
V. RELATION TO THE BOOK OF JUDGES
1. Parallel Narratives
2. Omissions in the History
VI. PLACE OF JOSH IN THE HED CANON
VII. GREEK AND OTHER ANCIENT VERSIONS
1. The Greek
2. Other Ancient Versions
VIII. RELIGIOUS PURPOSE AND TEACHING
LITERATURE
I. Title and Authorship.
The name Joshua signifies “Yahweh is deliverance” or “salvation” (see JOSHUA). The Greek form of the name is Jesus (
II. Contents.
With regard to the contents of Joshua, it will be found to consist of two well-marked divisions, in the first of which (Joshua 1-2) are narrated the invasion and gradual conquest under the command of Joshua of the land on the West of the Jordan; while the 2nd part describes in detail the allotment of the country to the several tribes with the boundaries of their territories, and concludes with a brief notice of the death and burial of Joshua himself.
1. Invasion and Conquest of Western Palestine:
Joshua 1: Renewal of the Divine promise to Joshua and exhortation to fearlessness and courage (Jos 1:1-9); directions to the people to prepare for the passage of the river, and a reminder to the eastern tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half and Manasseh) of the condition under which they held their possession beyond Jordan; the renewal by these tribes of their pledge of loyalty to Moses’ successor (Jos 1:10-18).
Joshua 2: The sending of the two spies from Shittim and their escape from Jericho through the stratagem of Rahab.
Joshua 3: The passage of Jordan by the people over against Jericho, the priests bearing the ark, and standing in the dry bed of the river until all the people had crossed over.
Joshua 4: Erection of 12 memorial stones on the other side of Jordan, where the people encamped after the passage of the river (Jos 4:1-14); the priests with the Ark of the Covenant ascend in their turn from out of the river-bed, and the waters return into their wonted course (Jos 4:15-24).
Jos 5:1-15: Alarm excited among the kings on the West of Jordan by the news of the successful crossing of the river (Jos 5:1); circumcision of the people at Gilgal (Jos 5:2-9); celebration of the Passover at Gilgal in the plains of Jericho (Jos 5:10, Jos 5:11); cessation of the supply of the manna (Jos 5:12); appearance to Joshua of the captain of the Lord’s host (Jos 5:13-15).
Joshua 6: Directions given to Joshua for the siege and taking of Jericho (Jos 6:1-5); capture of the city, which is destroyed by fire, Rahab and her household alone being saved (6:6-25); a curse is pronounced on the man who rebuilds Jericho (Jos 6:26).
Joshua 7: The crime and punishment of Achan, who stole for himself part of the spoil of the captured city (Jos 7:1, Jos 7:16-26); incidentally his sin is the cause of a disastrous defeat before Ai (Jos 7:2-12).
Joshua 8: The taking of Ai by a stratagem, destruction of the city, and death of its king (8:1-29); erection of an altar on Mt. Ebal, and reading of the Law before the assembled people (Jos 8:30).
Joshua 9: Gathering of the peoples of Palestine to oppose Joshua (Jos 9:1-2); a covenant of peace made with the Gibeonites, who represent themselves as strangers from a far country (9:3-26); they are, however, reduced to a condition of servitude (Jos 9:27).
Joshua 10: Combination of 5 kings of the Amorites to punish the inhabitants of Gibeon for their defection, and defeat and rout of the kings by Joshua at Beth-horon (Jos 10:1-14); return of the Israelites to Gilgal (Jos 10:15); capture and death by hanging of the 5 kings at Makkedah (Jos 10:16-27); taking and destruction of Makkedah (Jos 10:28), Libnah (Jos 10:29, Jos 10:30), Lachish (Jos 10:31, Jos 10:32), Gezer (Jos 10:33), Eglon (Jos 10:34, Jos 10:35), Hebron (Jos 10:36, Jos 10:37), Debir (Jos 10:38, Jos 10:39), and summarily all the land, defined as from Kadesh-barnea unto Gaza, and as far North as Gibeon (Jos 10:40-42); return to Gilgal (Jos 10:43).
Joshua 11: Defeat of Jabin, king of Hazor, and allied kings at the waters of Merom (Jos 11:1-9); destruction of Hazor (Jos 11:10-15); reiterated summary of Joshua’s conquests (Jos 11:16-23).
Joshua 12: Final summary of the Israelite conquests in Canaan, of Sihon and Og on the East of the Jordan under the leadership of Moses (Jos 12:1-6); of 31 kings and their cities on the West of the river under Joshua (12:7-24).
2. Allotment of the Country to the Tribes of Israel:
Joshua 13: Command to Joshua to allot the land on the West of the Jordan, even that which was still unsubdued, to the nine and a half tribes (Jos 13:1-7); recapitulation of the inheritance given by Moses on the East of the river (Jos 13:8-13, Jos 13:32); the border of Reuben (Jos 13:15-23), of Gad (Jos 13:24-28), of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Jos 13:29); the tribe of Levi alone received no the landed inheritance (Jos 13:14, Jos 13:33).
Jos 14:1-15: Renewed statement of the principle on which the division of the land had been made (Jos 14:1-5); Hebron given to Caleb for his inheritance (Jos 14:6-15).
Joshua 15. The inheritance of Judah, and the boundaries of his territory (15:1-20), including that of Caleb (Jos 15:13-19); enumeration of the cities of Judah (15:21-63).
Jos 16:1-10: Inheritance of the sons of Joseph (Jos 16:1-4); the border of Ephraim (Jos 16:5-10).
Joshua 17: Inheritance of Manasseh and the border of the half-tribe on the West of the Jordan (Jos 17:1); complaint of the sons of Joseph of the insufficiency of their inheritance, and grant to them by Joshua of an extension of territory (Jos 17:14-18).
Joshua 18: The land yet unsubdued divided by lot into 7 portions for the remaining 7 tribes (Jos 18:1-10); inheritance of the sons of Benjamin and the border of their territory (Jos 18:11-20); enumeration of their cities (Jos 18:21-28).
Joshua 19: Inheritance of Simeon and his border (Jos 19:1-9); of Zebulun and his border (Jos 19:10-16); of Issachar and his border (Jos 19:17-23); of Asher and his border (Jos 19:24-31); of Naphtali and his border (Jos 19:32-39); and of Dan and his border (Jos 19:40-48); inheritance of Joshua (Jos 19:49, Jos 19:50); concluding statement (Jos 19:51).
Jos 20:1-9: Cities of Refuge appointed, three on each side of the Jordan.
Joshua 21: 48 cities with their suburbs given to the Levites out of the territories of the several tribes (21:1-41); the people had rest in the land, their enemies being subdued, according to the Divine promise (Jos 21:43-45).
Joshua 22: Dismissal of the eastern tribes to their inheritance, their duty to their brethren having been fulfilled (Jos 22:1-9); the erection by them of a great altar by the side of the Jordan aroused the suspicion of the western tribes, who feared that they intended to separate themselves from the common cause (Jos 22:10-20); their reply that the altar is to serve the purpose of a witness between themselves and their brethren (Jos 22:21-34).
Joshua 23: Joshua’s address of encouragement and warning to the people.
Joshua 24: Second address of Joshua, recalling to the people their history, and the Divine interventions on their behalf (24:1-23); the people’s pledge of loyalty to the Lord, and formal covenant in Shechem (Jos 24:24, Jos 24:25); the book of the law of God is committed to writing, and a stone is erected as a permanent memorial (Jos 24:26-28); death and burial of Joshua (Jos 24:29-31); burial in Shechem of the bones of Joseph, brought from Egypt (Jos 24:32); death and burial of Eleazar, son of Aaron (Jos 24:33).
III. Historical Character and Chronology.
1. The Book of Joshua as History:
As a historical narrative, therefore, detailing the steps taken to secure the conquest and possession of Canaan, Joshua is incomplete and is marked by many omissions, and in some instances at least includes phrases or expressions which seem to imply the existence of parallel or even divergent accounts of the same event, e.g. in the passage of the Jordan and the erection of memorial stones (Joshua 3; 4), the summary of the conquests of Joshua (Jos 10:40-43; Jos 11:16-23), or the references to Moses’ victories over the Amorite kings on the East of the Jordan.
This last fact suggests, what is in itself sufficiently probable, that the writer or compiler of the book made use of previously existing records or narratives, not necessarily in every instance written, but probably also oral and traditional, upon which he relied and out of which by means of excerpts with modifications and omissions, the resultant history was composed. The incomplete and defective character of the book therefore, considered merely as a history of the conquest of Western Palestine and its allotment among the new settlers, would seem to indicate that the “sources” available for the writer’s use were fragmentary also in their nature, and did not present a complete view either of the life of Joshua or of the experiences of Israel while under his direction.
2. Chronology:
Within the limits of the book itself, moreover, notifications of chronological sequence, or of the length of time occupied in the various campaigns, are almost entirely wanting. Almost the only references to date or period are the statements that Joshua himself was 110 years old at the time of his death (Jos 24:29), and that his wars lasted “a long time” (Jos 11:18; compare Jos 23:1). Caleb also, the son of Jephunneh, companion of Joshua in the mission of the spies from Kadesh-barnea, describes himself as 85 years old, when he receives Hebron as his inheritance (Jos 14:10; compare Jos 15:13 ff); the inference would be, assuming 40 years for the wanderings in the desert, that 5 years had then elapsed since the passage of the Jordan “on the tenth day of the first month” (Jos 4:19). No indication, however, is given of the chronological relation of this event to the rest of the history; and 5 years would be too short a period for the conquest of Palestine, if it is to be understood that the whole was carried out in consecutive campaigns under the immediate command of Joshua himself. On the other hand, “very much land” remained still unsubdued at his death (Jos 13:1). Christian tradition seems to have assumed that Joshua was about the same age as Caleb, although no definite statement to that effect is made in the book itself; and that, therefore, a quarter of a century, more or less, elapsed between the settlement of the latter at Hebron and Joshua’s death (Jos 14:10; Jos 24:29). The entire period from the crossing of the Jordan would then be reckoned at from 28 to 30 years.
IV. Sources of the Written Narrative.
The attempt to define the “sources” of Joshua as it now exists, and to disentangle them one from another, presents considerably more difficulty than is to be encountered for the most part in the Pentateuch. The distinguishing criteria upon which scholars rely and which have led serious students of the book to conclude that there may be traced here also the use of the same “documents” or “documentary sources” as are to be found in the Pentateuch, are essentially the same. Existing and traditional accounts, however, have been used apparently with greater freedom, and the writer has allowed himself a fuller liberty of adaptation and combination, while the personal element has been permitted wider scope in molding the resultant form which the composition should take. For the most part, therefore, the broad line of distinction between the various “sources” which have been utilized may easily be discerned on the ground of their characteristic traits, in style, vocabulary or general conception; in regard to detail, however, the precise point at which one “source” has been abandoned for another, or the writer himself has supplied deficiencies and bridged over gaps, there is frequent uncertainty, and the evidence available is insufficient to justify an absolute conclusion. The fusion of material has been more complete than in the 5 books of the law, perhaps because the latter were hedged about with a more reverential regard for the letter, and at an earlier period attained the standing of canonicity.
A detailed analysis of the sources as they have been distinguished and related to one another by scholars is here unnecessary. A complete discussion of the subject will be found in Dr. Driver’s LOT6, 105 ff, in other Introductions, or in the Commentaries on Joshua. Not seldom in the ultimate detail the distinctions are precarious, and there are differences of opinion among scholars themselves as to the precise limit or limits of the use made of any given source, or at what point the dividing line should be drawn. It is only in a broad and general sense that in Joshua especially the literary theory of the use of “documents,” as generally understood and as interpreted in the case of the Pentateuch, can be shown to be well founded. In itself, however, such a theory is eminently reasonable, and is both in harmony with the general usage and methods of ancient composition, and affords ground for additional confidence in the good faith and reliability of the narrative as a whole.
V. Relation to the Book of Judges.
1. Parallel Narratives:
A comparison moreover of the history recorded in Joshua with the brief parallel account in Judges furnishes ground for believing that a detailed or chronological narrative was not contemplated by the writer or writers themselves. The introductory verses of Judges (1:1 through 2:5) are in part a summary of incidents recorded in Joshua, and in part supply new details or present a different view of the whole. The original notices that are added relate almost entirely to the invasion and conquest of Southern Palestine by the united or allied tribes of Judah and Simeon and the destruction of Bethel by the “house of Joseph.” The action of the remaining tribes is narrated in a few words, the brief record closing in each case with reference to the condition of servitude to which the original inhabitants of the land were reduced. And the general scheme of the invasion as there represented is apparently that of a series of disconnected raids or campaigns undertaken by the several tribes independently, each having for its object the subjection of the territory assigned to the individual tribe. A general and comprehensive plan of conquest under the supreme leadership of Joshua appears to be entirely wanting. In detail, however, the only real inconsistency between the two narratives would appear to be that in Jdg (Jdg 1:21) the failure to expel the Jebusites from Jerusalem is laid to the account of the Benjamites, while in Jos 15:63 it is charged against the children of Judah. The difficulties in the way of the formation of a clear conception of the incidents attending the capture of Jerusalem are perhaps insuperable upon any hypothesis; and the variation of the tribal name in the two texts may be no more than a copyist’s error.
2. Omissions in the History:
A perhaps more striking omission in both narratives is the absence of any reference to the conquest of Central Palestine. The narrative of the overthrow of Bethel and Ai (Josh 6:1 through 8:29) is followed immediately by the record of the building of an altar on Mt. Ebal and the recitation of the Law before the people of Israel assembled in front of Mts. Ebal and Gerizim (Jos 8:30 ff). Joshua then turns aside to defeat at Beth-horon the combination of the Amorite kings, and completes the conquest of the southern country as far south as Kadesh-barnea (Jos 10:41). Immediately thereafter he is engaged in overthrowing a confederacy in the far north (Jos 11:1-15), a work which clearly could not have been undertaken or successfully accomplished, unless the central region had been already subdued; but of its reduction no account is given. It has been supposed that the silence of the narrator is an indication that at the period of the invasion this district was in the occupation of tribes friendly or even related to the Israelite clans; and in support of the conjecture reference has been made to the mention of Israel on the stele of Merenptah, the Egyptian ruler in whose reign, according to the most probable view, the exodus took place. In this record the nation or a part thereof is regarded as already settled in Palestine at a date earlier by half a century than their appearance under Moses and Joshua on the borders of the Promised Land. The explanation is possible, but perhaps hardly probable. The defects of the historical record are irremediable at this distance of time, and it must be acknowledged that with the available material no complete and consistent narrative of the events of the Israelite conquest of Palestine can be constructed.
VI. Place of Joshua in the Hebrew Canon.
In the Hebrew Canon Joshua is the first in order of the prophetical books, and the first of the group of 4, namely, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, which form the “Earlier Prophets” (
VII. Greek and Other Ancient Versions.
1. The Greek:
In the ancient versions of Joshua there is not much that is of interest. The Greek translation bears witness to a Hebrew original differing little from the Massoretic Text. In their renderings, however, and general treatment of the Hebrew text, the translators seem to have felt themselves at liberty to take up a position of greater independence and freedom than in dealing with the 5 books of the Law. Probably also the rendering of Joshua into Greek is not to be ascribed to the same authors as the translation of the Pentateuch. While faithful to the Hebrew, it is less constantly and exactly literal, and contains many slight variations, the most important of which are found in the last 6 chapters.
Joshua 19: The Septuagint transposes Jos 19:47, Jos 19:48, and, omitting the first clause of Jos 19:47, refers the whole to the sons of Judah, without mention of Dan; it further adds Jos 19:47, Jos 19:48 on the relation between the Amorites and Ephraim, and the Amorites and the Danites respectively. With Jos 19:47 compare Jos 16:10 and Jdg 1:29, and with Jos 19:48 compare 19:47 (Hebrew) and Jdg 1:34.
Jos 20:4-6 inclusive are omitted in B, except a clause from Jos 20:6; A, however, inserts them in full. Compare Driver, LOT6, 112, who, on the ground of their Deuteronomic tone, regards it as probable that the verses are an addition to the Priestly Code (P), and therefore did not form part of the original text as used by the Greek translators.
Jos 21:36, Jos 21:37, which give the names of the Levitical cities in Judah, are omitted in the Hebrew printed text although found in many Hebrew manuscripts. Four verses also are added after Jos 21:42, the first three of which repeat Jos 19:50 f, and the last is a reminiscence of Jos 5:3.
Jos 24:29 f which narrate the death and burial of Joshua are placed in the Greek text after Jos 24:31; and a verse is inserted after Jos 24:30 recording that the stone knives used for the purposes of the circumcision (Jos 5:2 ff) were buried with Joshua in his tomb (compare Jos 21:42). After Jos 24:33 also two new verses appear, apparently a miscellany from Jdg 2:6, Jdg 2:11-15; Jdg 3:7, Jdg 3:12, Jdg 3:14, with a statement of the death and burial of Phinehas, son and successor of Eleazar, of the idolatrous worship by the children of Israel of Astarte and Ashtaroth, and the oppression under Eglon, king of Moab.
2. Other Ancient Versions:
The other VSS, with the exception of Jerome’s translation from the Hebrew, are secondary, derived mediately through the Greek. The Old Latin is contained in a manuscript at Lyons, Cod. Lugdunensis, which is referred to the 6th century. Of the Coptic version only small portions are extant; they have been published by G. Maspero, Memoires de la mission archeologique frantsaise, tom. VI, fasc. 1, le Caire, 1892, and elsewhere. A Sam translation also is known, for parts of which at least an early origin and an independent derivation from the Hebrew have been claimed. The ancient character of the version, however, is contested, and it has been shown that the arguments on which reliance was placed are insufficient to justify the conclusions drawn. The translation appears to be in reality of quite recent date, and to have been made originally from the Arabic, perhaps in part compared with and corrected by the Massoretic Text. The subject was fully and conclusively discussed by Dr. Yehuda of Berlin, at the Oriental Congress in the summer of 1908, and in a separate pamphlet subsequently published. It was even stated that the author of the version was still living, and his name was given. Dr. Gaster, the original discoverer of the Sam MS, in various articles and letters maintains his contention that the translation is really antique, and therefore of great value, but he has failed to convince scholars. (See M. Gaster in JRAS (1908), 795 ff, 1148 ff; E. N. Adler, ib, 1143 ff. The text of the manuscript was published by Dr. Caster in ZDMG (1908), 209 ff, and a specimen chapter with English rendering and notes in PSBA, XXXI (1909), 115 ff, 149 ff.)
VIII. Religious Purpose and Teaching.
As a whole, then, Joshua is dominated by the same religious and hortatory purpose as the earlier writings of the Pentateuch; and in this respect as well as in authorship and structure the classification which assigns to it a place by the side of the 5 books of Moses and gives to the whole the title of Hexateuch is not unjustified. The author or authors had in view not merely the narration of incident, nor the record of events in the past history of their people of which they judged it desirable that a correct account should be preserved, but they endeavored in all to subserve a practical and religious aim. The history is not for its own sake, or for the sake of the literal facts which it enshrines, but for the sake of the moral and spiritual lessons which may be elucidated therein, and enforced from its teaching. The Divine leading in history is the first thought with the writer. And the record of Israel’s past presents itself as of interest to him, not because it is a record of events that actually happened, but because he sees in it the ever-present guidance and overruling determination of God, and would draw from it instruction and warning for the men of his own time and for those that come after him. Not the history itself, but the meaning and interpretation of the history are of value. Its importance lies in the illustrations it affords of the controlling working of a Divine Ruler who is faithful to His promises, loving righteousness and hating iniquity, and swaying the destinies of men in truth. Thus the selection of materials, and the form and arrangement of the book are determined by a definite aim: to set forth and enforce moral lessons, and to exhibit Israel’s past as the working out of a Divine purpose which has chosen the nation to be the recipient of the Divine favor, and the instrument for the carrying forward of His purposes upon earth.
Literature.
A Complete bibliography of the literature up to date will be found in the dictionaries, under the word “Joshua,” DB2, 1893, HDB, II, 1899, EB, II, 1901; compare W. H. Bennett, “The Book of Josh,” in SBOT, Leipzig, 1895; W.G. Blaikie, “Joshua,” in Expositor’s Bible, 1893; A. Dillmann, Nu, Dt u. Josua2, Leipzig, 1886; H. Holzinger, “Das Buch Josua,” in Kurzer Hand-Comm. zum A T, Tubingen, 1901; C. Steuernagel, “Josua,” in Nowack’s Handcommentar zum Altes Testament, 1899; S. Oettli, “Deuteronomy, Josua u. Richter,” in Kurzgef. Komm, Munchen, 1893; W.J. Deane, Joshua, His Life and Times, in “Men of the Bible Series,” London.
The subject of the book of Joshua is the conquest and division of the land of Canaan. Moses, who had led the people for the previous forty years, died before the people entered Canaan (his death having been recorded in the final chapter of the previous book, Deuteronomy). He was succeeded by the man from whom the book of Joshua takes its name.
Authorship, style and purpose
There is no statement in the book of Joshua telling us who wrote it, though some of the material may have been based on what Joshua himself wrote (e.g. Jos 24:25-26). The writer probably also used other historical books of that era (Jos 10:13), along with national and tribal records (Jos 18:8-9).
Although it outlines the conquest of Canaan, the book of Joshua does not give a detailed record of events. The battle for Canaan lasted a long time (Jos 11:18), at least five years (Jos 14:7; Jos 14:10), yet some of the more extensive battle campaigns are passed over in a few verses. By contrast, events of apparently little military importance are sometimes given in considerable detail.
The reason for this unevenness of treatment is that the book was intended to be not a chronological record of facts, but a prophetical interpretation of an important era of Israel’s history. The writer’s main concern was to show how God was revealing himself and his purposes through the experiences of his people Israel. (For the prophetical significance of the group of books to which Joshua belongs, the Former Prophets, see PROPHECY.)
Summary of contents
Chapters 1 to 5 deal with Israel’s entry into Canaan. From the outset the emphasis is on the fact that God is giving the land to Israel. Nevertheless, the people, and particularly Joshua, must be courageous, trusting and obedient to God if their invasion is to be successful (1:1-18).
After spying out the land in order to plan the invasion intelligently (2:1-24), the Israelites crossed the Jordan River and set up camp at Gilgal. To impress upon people the religious significance of the invasion, the narrative emphasizes such matters as the ritual cleansing of the people, the leadership of the priests, the prominence of the ark of the covenant, the miraculous crossing of the Jordan, and the obedience to the covenant commands by those who were till then uncircumcised. The appearance of the angel of the Lord further demonstrated that the entire operation was divinely directed (3:1-5:15; see also JOSHUA THE SON OF NUN).
The overthrow of Jericho gave more examples of the religious significance of Israel’s conquest: the role of the priests and the ark, the repeated use of the symbolic number ‘seven’ in the proceedings, and the judgment that followed disobedience to God’s commands (6:1-7:26). Only after the leaders dealt with the sin, did Israel make further advances into central Canaan (8:1-29). The people then reaffirmed their obedience to the covenant by which God had given Canaan to them (8:30-35).
Having split Canaan by their drive through the central region, the Israelites then conquered the south (9:1-10:43) and the north (11:1-15). The summary that follows emphasizes again that Israel’s occupation of Canaan was in fulfilment of God’s promises (11:16-12:24). (For a map showing towns that the Israelites conquered and regions that the Israelite tribes subsequently occupied see JUDGES, BOOK OF.)
With Canaan now the possession of Israel, Joshua, together with the high priest and the tribal leaders, began the task of dividing the land between the twelve tribes. The area west of Jordan (Canaan itself) was divided between nine and a half tribes; the other two and a half tribes (Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh) received their inheritance in the land east of Jordan that Israel had conquered in the time of Moses (13:1-14:5). Of the area west of Jordan, the largest and best portions went also to two and a half tribes – Judah (14:6-15:63) and the remainder of the Joseph tribes, Ephraim and the other half of Manasseh (16:1-17:18). The seven smaller tribes then received their tribal allotments (18:1-19:51). The Levites, who had no tribal area of their own, were given towns in all the other tribes (20:1-21:45).
Apart from the story of an early misunderstanding between the eastern and western tribes (22:1-34), nothing more is recorded of the era till the time of Joshua’s final address to the nation many years later (23:1-16). Before he died, Joshua called Israel’s leaders to assemble for another covenant renewal ceremony. Through them he reminded the people that if they wanted to enjoy the blessings of the covenant, they had to be obedient to its requirements (24:1-33).
First of the historical books in the English Bible and the first of the Former Prophets (including Judges, the books of Samuel, and the books of Kings) in the Hebrew Bible. It begins with the Lord’s commission of Joshua (Jos 1:1–9) and concludes with the burial of Joshua, Eleazar, and the bones of Joseph (24:29–33). The purpose of the book is to show how Joshua continued in the footsteps of Moses, how the Lord gave the land to Israel, and how Israel might prosper in the land.
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Author and Date
According to the Talmud, Joshua wrote the book. This ancient tradition is possibly based on the brief statement that Joshua “recorded these things in the Book of the Law of God” (24:26, nlt). However, this applies only to the renewal of the covenant (ch 24). The issue of authorship is tied up with the dating of the book. Since the book has no unambiguous markers on date and authorship, neither critics nor conservative scholars have been able to come to any agreement on these issues. According to a conservative analysis of Joshua, the book was written between 1375 BC and 1045 BC (premonarchic). The argument is based on the references to the migration of Dan (19:47; cf. Jgs 18:27–31), to Jerusalem as a Jebusite city (Jos 15:8, 63; 18:16, 28), to Sidon rather than Tyre as the prominent Phoenician city (11:8; 13:4–6; 19:28), and also on the eyewitness style (5:1, 6—in the MT). But critical scholars have raised issues that they considered could best be resolved by positing a seventh-century BC or even an exilic date.
Problems of Interpretation
Holy War
The morality of the Conquest may be explained by the concept of holy war. The holy war motif would explain why Israel was to destroy the indigenous population (Dt 7:16; 20:16–18; Jos 6:21; 8:24–26; 10:10, 28–30, 35–42; 11:11). The justification may lie in the concept that Israel was God’s instrument of judgment on the Canaanite nations. This argument is related to the mention of the wickedness of the Canaanites (Gn 15:16; Dt 7:2–5, 25–26; 12:30–31; Jos 23:7; Jgs 2:11). However, the canonical narrative of the progression of the Conquest puts the responsibility on the Canaanites. They marched and fought against Israel (Nm 21:21–35; Jos 7:4–5; 8:5, 16–17; 9:1–2; 10:1–6; 11:1–5; 24:11). Therefore, it could be argued that in the process of war a sincere invitation to make peace was given to the kings (cf. Nm 21:21–22; Dt 20:10–11) but was refused. Instead, the kings took the initiative in battle. The responsibility for the destruction of the native population thus lay with the leadership. Yet all this was evidence of God’s working in human affairs, which the Bible simply states, “For it was the Lord himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the Lord had commanded Moses” (Jos 11:20, niv). Even as Pharaoh, whose heart the Lord hardened, was responsible for the plagues in Egypt, so the Canaanite rulers were responsible for the extermination of their populations. The biblical account of the Conquest affirms the mystery of human responsibility and divine sovereignty without explaining it.
Nature of the Conquest
Various explanations of the nature of the Conquest have been given. The traditional view of a blitzkrieg type of conquest, which resulted in a complete occupation of the whole land (cf. Jos 10:40; 11:1–3, 16–19), does not fit within the whole picture of the book. The book presents a realistic description of the areas that still had to be conquered (13:1–7) and of the military strength of the indigenous population (cf. 13:13; 15:63; 16:10; 17:12–18; 19:47). Moreover, Joshua promised that the Lord would continue to help Israel to occupy the land, as its population and needs developed (23:5). The occupation of Canaan was in two stages: conquest and gradual occupation (cf. Ex 23:29–30; Dt 7:22).
Purpose
The role of the final (canonical) form of the book is to present Joshua’s obedience to the law of Moses. Victory and defeat are illustrations of obedience and disobedience. Of course, there is tension in this because the descriptions of the Conquest are complete and yet incomplete. The tension is a dynamic device to show that the Conquest and enjoyment of the land depend wholly on obedience. The period of Joshua is viewed as a paradigm of obedient Israel. Thus, a holistic reading of the book presents an appeal to covenant loyalty directed to future generations.
Content
Conquest of the Land, 1:1–12:24
The Lord’s Commission of Joshua, 1:1–9
With the death of Moses (Jos 1:1), the Lord himself confirms Moses’ ordination of Joshua (Dt 34:9). He charges him with leadership in the conquest of Canaan (Jos 1:2–3), defines the geographical boundaries of the land (v 4), encourages him with his continued presence (vv 5, 9), and expects him to devoutly follow in “the law of Moses” (i.e., the law given in Dt; cf. Dt 31:9, 24–26; Jos 23:6), so that he may succeed in his mission (1:7–8). The original mission, as well as the ministry of Moses, find their continuity in Joshua.
Crossing the Jordan, 1:10–5:12
The first stage calls for the preparation of Israel. As their leader, Joshua must demonstrate to the people that he follows in the footsteps of Moses. He does this by reminding the Transjordan tribes to demonstrate loyalty to the command of Moses by joining with the other tribes in the conquest of Canaan (1:13–15; cf. Nm 32:20–27). They submitted to Joshua’s authority as to Moses’ (Jos 1:16–18). He demonstrates his military leadership in sending the two spies to Jericho (ch 2). His authority is accepted by priests (3:6; 4:10) and people (3:5–9) as they cross the Jordan. The crossing of the Jordan marks the public recognition of Joshua as a leader like Moses (4:14).
The account of the crossing marks an important transition from the era of the exodus/wilderness to the era of the Conquest. On the one hand, the story of Rahab illustrates how the Canaanites had heard about the Lord’s mighty acts (2:10–11) and reacted with great fear (cf. Ex 15:15; 23:27–28; Dt 2:25; 7:23; 11:25; 32:30). Rahab’s expression of faith in Israel’s God (2:11) anticipates the inclusion of the Gentiles in the covenant community as promised to the patriarchs (Gn 12:3). By faith Rahab was included in the covenant and was richly rewarded by the inclusion of her name in the lineage of Jesus (Mt 1:5).
The Israelites crossed the Jordan with the knowledge that the fear of God had come on the Canaanites (Jos 2:24). However, they were also instructed to show their reverence for the Lord by keeping a safe distance between themselves and the ark of the covenant (3:4) and by consecrating themselves (v 5). The “living God” was among them and required holiness and reverence from his people (v 10). He, in turn, would demonstrate his loyalty in the marvelous passage through the Jordan River (v 13) and in the conquest of the land (3:10). After the tribes had crossed the river (4:1), each leader of the 12 tribes took up a stone out of the dried-up riverbed and set up a memorial at Gilgal (vv 1–9, 20). Thus, Israel was to remember that the stones, taken from the place where the priests who carried the ark had stood, were reminders of the majestic presence of God. Future generations who were to hear this report (vv 21–24) were hereby encouraged because the fear of God would fall on all the peoples of the land (v 24).
The consecration before the conquest of Jericho is also symbolized by the act of circumcision (5:1–9) and by the celebration of the Passover (vv 10–12). The events are not necessarily chronologically related but were selected as examples of Israel’s responsiveness to Joshua’s ministry. Moses’ appeal to the new generation had its effect (cf. Dt 4:4–14; 6:1–5). The new generation served the Lord as long as Joshua and the elders were alive (Jos 24:31). Physical circumcision, neglected during the wilderness journey (5:5) due to unbelief, was a sign of spiritual responsiveness. The responsive nation received the external sign of the covenant with the anticipation that the Lord of the covenant would bless his people in giving them victory and the fruit of the land. Their reproach was rolled away (v 9). The covenant continuity is also brought out in the brief mention of the Passover celebration. The newness is their eating the fruit of the land. With the taste of the food of Canaan, the manna stopped. The desert experience was over. A new era was ushered in with their presence in the Promised Land (vv 11–12).
Conquest of Jericho, 5:13–6:27
The victory is the Lord’s. This is the message with which the battle of Jericho begins. The holy God who appeared to Moses in the burning bush (Ex 3:2–4:17) appeared to Joshua as the commander of the Lord’s army (Jos 5:14–15) with a message from the Lord (6:2). The city of Jericho will fall without a siege and ensuing battle. Israel’s response to Jericho’s preparedness for war (cf. 24:11) was strange, but the presence of the ark and the blowing of the trumpets symbolized that the Lord would fight for Israel, even as he had promised. However, Israel could not take any of the spoil. Because Yahweh fought for Israel, everything was to be devoted to him (6:17). The Lord honored the vow to Rahab, made by the spies, so that she and her family were kept alive (vv 17, 25), but they were temporarily placed outside the camp (v 23). The valuable metals were placed into the treasury (vv 19, 24), whereas everything else was burned by fire (v 24). Nothing was to be taken for personal gain; otherwise God’s judgment would rest on Israel (v 18). In order to emphasize God’s absolute ownership of Jericho, Joshua put a curse on anyone who would attempt to rebuild the city (6:26; cf. 1 Kgs 16:34). The rumors of Jericho’s destruction spread, and the peoples of Canaan knew that the Lord was with Joshua (Jos 6:27; cf. 1:5, 9).
Tragedy and Triumph at Ai, 7:1–8:29
Victory was short-lived because Achan defied God’s “ban,” took some of the objects, hid them in the ground under his tent (7:21), and brought God’s wrath on all of Israel (v 1). Israel was stunned by their defeat at Ai (vv 2–5). Joshua and the elders responded to the disaster by fasting and lamenting (vv 6–9). What a contrast between the reports of victory spread through the land and the anguished cry of God’s servant, fearful that the Canaanites would amass strength and wipe out Israel (v 9). Only after the people had consecrated themselves (v 13) and Achan was exposed and his memory removed (vv 25b-26) could they renew the attack on Ai with the encouraging promise of God’s presence and victory (8:1–2). Ai, too, was taken (vv 3–19) and the population execrated (vv 20–26), but Israel enjoyed the spoils by direct permission from the Lord (v 27). The ruins of Ai, the pile of stones covering the body of Ai’s king (vv 28–29), and the heap of rocks over Achan’s body were sobering reminders to Israel that God’s faithfulness requires absolute loyalty from his people.
Renewal of the Covenant, 8:30–35
Joshua led Israel in a ceremonial covenant renewal at Shechem, as Moses had instructed (Jos 8:31; cf. Dt 11:29; 27). Joshua took care in the proper preparation of the altar (cf. Ex 20:25) on which dedicatory and communal offerings were presented. He copied the law as a symbol of his royal leadership and his devotion to the Lord (Jos 8:32; cf. Dt 17:18). All Israel (officers and people, aliens and native-born Israelites) together presented themselves for the reading of the blessings and the curses (Jos 8:33–35). The whole book of Deuteronomy (i.e., “the Book of the Law,” cf. Dt 31:26) was read in their presence. Half the tribes stood on Mt Gerizim and said “Amen” to the blessings, and the other six stood on Mt Ebal, saying “Amen” to the curses (cf. Dt 27:9–26).
Covenant with the Gibeonites, 9:1–27
The rumors of God’s mighty acts had brought fear on the Canaanite kings (cf. Jos 2:8–11, 24; 5:1; 6:27). The first defeat at Ai had given them a ray of hope that Israel could be put down. Rather than submit themselves to Israel and suffer from humiliation as servants of Israel, they joined forces against Joshua and Israel (9:1–2).
The Hivites from Gibeon, Kephirah, Beeroth, and Kiriath-jearim (9:7, 17) did not join with their fellow Canaanites. Instead, they developed an intricate plan to deceive Israel and to sue for full treaty status. The purpose of the treaty was that of friendship (namely, “peace”), promising each other to be of mutual assistance in case of attack. The concern was with the preservation of life (vv 15, 24). Their deception included a ruse about the great distance they had traveled (vv 11–14) and a false report of Israel’s victories in Transjordan with no mention of their crossing the Jordan (9:9–10; cf. 5:1). The law permitted the submissive city to subject its population to a type of suzerainty treaty, in which Israel defined the terms and expected the subjugated populace to serve as its forced laborers (Dt 20:11; cf. Jgs 1:28–35; 1 Kgs 9:15–21). However, the treaty permitted the Hivites to maintain their way of life with the advantage of Israel’s military protection.
The Southern Campaign, 10:1–43
The king of Jerusalem, Adoni-zedek, led the cities of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon in an alliance against Gibeon as a military ploy to take a stand against Israel (Jos 10:1–5). The Gibeonites appealed to Israel for help based on their covenantal relationship (v 6). Joshua led Israel on a 25-mile (40-kilometer) hike through the wilderness from Gilgal up to Gibeon during one night (vv 7–9). The Israelite attack surprised the Canaanites, who were already frightened of the Israelites. The camp of the Canaanites was thrown into confusion, and the soldiers fled the hill country via the road of Beth-horon to Azekah and Makkedah (v 10). But while running, they were tormented with large hailstones (v 11). The victory was the Lord’s. Miraculously, Israel could push the Canaanites farther from the hill country because of the long day (vv 12–14). The marvel of this day was long remembered in the Book of Jashar (cf. 2 Sm 1:18), because on it the Lord listened to a man, namely Joshua (Jos 10:14).
The five kings hidden in a cave at Makkedah were discovered, killed, hanged on trees, and buried in the cave (10:16–27). Their foolish attempt to make war on Israel came to a quick end. Since the coalition of large cities had been put down, Joshua led Israel in a rapid campaign of the other southern cities (vv 29–43). The region was taken in one campaign with the Lord’s help (v 42).
The Northern Campaign, 11:1–15
The Israelites were again forced into battle, this time by the leadership of Jabin, king of Hazor. Jabin rallied the kings of the northern cities who assembled their troops and horses by the waters of Merom for battle against Israel (11:1–5). The similarity to the southern campaign is a literary way to demonstrate that the kings of the south and north initiated the war and were consequently defeated. So it was with the northern kings, who were routed as far as the region of Sidon in Phoenicia (v 8). Their horses were hamstrung and their chariots burned (v 9), as the Lord had instructed (v 6). Israel was to depend on the Lord (cf. Ps 20:7). Hazor, the great and ancient city, the center of Canaanite power in the north, was completely destroyed (Jos 11:10–13). The burning of Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were exceptions, because Israel had been promised Canaanite houses, wells, and cities (Dt 6:10–11; cf. Jos 24:13). The campaign narrative stresses again the absolute loyalty of Joshua to the Lord and to Moses, the servant of the Lord (Jos 11:9–15).
Summary of the Campaigns, 11:16–12:24
Joshua led Israel in victory and rest because of his careful adherence to the Lord’s directions to Moses. Moses had described the land to be conquered in detail (Dt 1:7), and Joshua took the regions of which Moses had spoken. Though the cities could have sued for a peaceable arrangement under which they would have been forced laborers (Dt 20:11), none of the cities recognized Israel. In fear they plotted and schemed how to destroy Israel. They were the aggressors. God had hardened their hearts (Jos 11:20). The theological reason is a mystery, as it was in the case of Pharaoh. But the net result was that Canaan was conquered and the population exterminated, except for the Hivites at Gibeon and their surrounding cities (vv 19–20). Even the Anakites, who had brought fear on Israel some 40 years before (Nm 13:33; cf. Dt 2:10, 21), were execrated (Jos 11:21). Yet it is already apparent that not every square mile of land was taken (v 22), even though in a sense the entire land was Israel’s, because major centers of Canaanite resistance had been broken. The tension between fulfillment and complete fulfillment is apparent in these verses.
The listing of defeated kings (ch 12) includes the victories over Sihon and Og under Moses’ leadership. Their juxtaposition with the list of kings conquered under Joshua demonstrates the continuity of leadership and purpose—two leaders, many campaigns, but one battle. The Land of Promise is now a fulfillment. Through the campaigns the borders of the land of inheritance were now more apparent. In Transjordan the limits are from the Arnon to Mt Hermon (vv 2–5). In Canaan the boundary extends from the region south of Sidon to the Negev (vv 7–8).
The Division of the Land, 13:1–22:34
The Command to Divide the Land, 13:1–7
Because of Joshua’s advanced age, the “whole” land was not taken. Moses had forewarned Israel that the inheritance would result from conquest as well as from gradual extension of Israel’s narrow boundaries. Slowly Israel was to inherit the whole land, lest it be overwhelmed by the size and be unable to use it properly (Ex 23:29–30; Dt 7:22). The areas still to be occupied were: the region to the north of Galilee, Mt Hermon (east of the Sea of Galilee), the area occupied by the Philistines, and regional Canaanite enclaves (Jos 13:2–7; cf. Jgs 1). Israel was not to be concerned with the future rights of occupation, because the Lord promised to help them (Jos 13:6).
Division of Transjordan, 13:8–33
Joshua did not alter the Mosaic arrangement concerning the allotments to the tribes of Manasseh, Reuben, and Gad (Jos 13:8, 32–33; cf. Nm 32; Dt 3:12–17). Their territory also excluded certain regions still occupied by Canaanites (Jos 13:13). The clans of Reuben had received the territory from the Arnon River north to Heshbon (vv 15–23). The clans of Gad had received the territory of Gilead, south of the Jabbok River to Heshbon (vv 24–28). Several clans of Manasseh received the region south of the Wadi Yarmuk to the Jabbok (vv 29–31). The Levitical towns are not listed here, but a reference is made to them as not receiving a patrimony, because they were to live off the offerings and sacrifices made to the Lord (Jos 13:14; cf. Nm 18:20–24; 35:1–8).
The Tribal Divisions in Canaan, 14:1–19:51
Eleazar, the high priest, and Joshua together cast lots to determine the boundaries, size, and allocation for the remaining nine and a half tribes. Again the exclusion of the tribe of Levi is mentioned (Jos 14:4), because their cities will be dealt with in chapters 20–21. Another literary device is special mention of the inheritance of Caleb in the beginning (14:6–15) and of Joshua at the conclusion (19:49–50). These two were the only ones who had left Egypt as adults, had been faithful spies, and had entered into the Promised Land (Nm 14:24, 30; Dt 1:36–38).
Judah, 15:1–63 (cf. Jgs 1:10–15, 20)
The boundaries of Judah extended from the Dead Sea westward to the Mediterranean (Jos 15:2–12). The cities of Judah are listed in its four regions: 29 in the Negev (vv 21–32), 42 cities in the Shephelah (or western foothills) and coastal plains (vv 33–47), 38 cities in the hill country (15:48–60), and 6 cities in the desert (vv 61–62). Judah was unable to take Jerusalem (v 63) until David made it his capital (cf. Jgs 1:21; 2 Sm 5:6–16).
Ephraim and Manasseh, 16:1–17:18
These two tribes, descended from Joseph, were richly blessed (cf. Gn 48; 49:22–26; Dt 33:13–17) and had obtained prominence among the tribes. They received one allotment as “the allotment for Joseph” (Jos 16:1). Part of Manasseh had already received a patrimony east of the Jordan (13:29–31). The limits for Ephraim and the west half of Manasseh were from Bethel to Mt Gilboa in the north and from the Jordan to the Mediterranean (16:1–3). Ephraim received the smaller portion in the south (vv 5–9) but was unable to drive the Canaanites out of Gezer. The clans of Manasseh are given, including Zelophehad (17:3–6; cf. Nm 27:1–11; 36:1–12), in order to clearly distinguish them from the clans of Manasseh in Transjordan. The region of west Manasseh extended from Shechem to Mt Gilboa (Jos 17:7–11); but Manasseh, also, was incapable of driving out the Canaanites completely (vv 12–13).
Though they had received the largest portion of the land (more than a third), the tribes of Joseph complained. They knew that the Lord had blessed them (17:14), and they expected to get more cultivable land. But Joshua urged them to use the available land by cutting down the forests (vv 15–18). When they expressed realistic concern about Canaanite military power, Joshua called on them to do their share in occupying the land.
Seven Tribes, 18:1–19:51
The Israelites assembled at Shiloh to set up the tabernacle (cf. 1 Sm 1). At that point seven tribes had not yet received their patrimony. Joshua called for each tribe to commission three men to survey the land. When they returned, Joshua cast lots at the tabernacle in Shiloh and divided the land (Jos 18:3–10). The territory of Benjamin was between Judah and Ephraim (vv 11–28). Simeon’s allotment was in southern Judah (19:1–9), resulting in its absorption into Judah (cf. Gn 49:7). Zebulun (Jos 19:10–16), Issachar (vv 17–23), Asher (vv 24–31), and Naphtali (vv 32–39) received a portion north of Manasseh in the region of Galilee. Dan received the seventh lot and suffered subsequently, when it could not maintain the allotted territory because of the pressure of Judah on the east and the Philistines to the west (vv 40–48). They migrated northward and found the sources of the Jordan to be a fruitful region (Jos 19:47; cf. Jgs 18).
Conclusion, 19:49–51
The conclusion is symmetric with the beginning (Jos 14:1–14) in that Joshua also received a gift. Again, mention is made that all divisions were in the presence of the Lord, witnessed to and executed by the high priest Eleazar and Joshua (19:51; cf. 14:1).
Cities of Refuge and the Levitical Cities, 20:1–21:45
According to the instructions of Moses, six Levitical cities were set apart, three on each side of the Jordan, as cities of refuge (Nm 35:9–34; Dt 4:41–43; 19:1–10). The purpose was to provide “refuge” (asylum) for those who were guilty of manslaughter but had not intentionally killed someone. This practice was not to provide a way out for someone who was guilty, but to allow for the legal process to be completed (Jos 20).
The Levites received by clan a total of 48 cities, six of which also served as cities of refuge (21:1–42). The Levites could not cultivate the soil because they were dependent on the tithes of the people (Nm 18:21–24), but they were permitted to have land for grazing. The dimensions of the land are given in Numbers 35:4–5. A special allocation is made to the descendants of Aaron (Jos 21:9–19), because they served as priests and their 13 cities were in the Judah-Simeon region, in proximity to the Jerusalem temple of the Solomonic era.
With the allocation of the Levitical cities, the division of the land is concluded. The promise of the land is fulfilled (21:43–45). God is faithful! This section emphasizes the fulfillment, the power, and the grace of God, by which Israel entered into its rest. However, the book of Joshua also hints of the struggle that is still ahead of the Israelites and of the test that ultimately they will fail (cf. Ps 95:11; Heb 3:7–11).
Return of the Transjordan Tribes, 22:1–34
Joshua dismissed the two and a half tribes with a commendation for their loyalty to the other tribes and to the Lord (Jos 22:1–4), with a warning not to succumb to idolatry but to love the Lord in accordance with the Deuteronomic law, and with a blessing (vv 5–8). However, as they returned they set up a large altar by the Jordan on the western side. The other tribes heard about it and met at Shiloh (v 12). They wisely commissioned Phinehas, the son of the high priest, with ten representatives of the tribes, to investigate the matter. The commission charged the Transjordan tribes with treachery (Jos 22:15–20; cf. Nm 25; Jos 7).
The response of the Transjordan tribes demonstrated their concern for the unity of the tribes and for the worship of God. These tribes feared being excluded from the fellowship of God’s people and had purposefully constructed an altar, identical to that prescribed in the law, in order to demonstrate their common heritage (Jos 22:21–30). The altar was not for sacrifice or worship but functioned as a symbol of the covenantal unity of the people of God.
Phinehas and the tribal representatives were pleased with the response and left with the assurance of God’s presence (22:30–31). Their report to the tribes led to reconciliation of all the tribes on this matter. The narrative concludes with a mention of the name given to the altar: “A witness between us and them that the Lord is our God, too” (v 34, nlt).
Epilogue: The Land Is a Sacred Trust, 23:1–24:33
The last two chapters contain Joshua’s farewell speeches to all the leaders and to all Israel.
Address to the Leaders, 23:1–16
Joshua reviews what the Lord has done for Israel in giving the land to the tribes. He has demonstrated his loyalty. And he will continue to be with his people so that no enemy can stand against them. He will fulfill every outstanding promise, even as he had already fulfilled promises. However, they must persevere in their loyalty to the Lord. Loyalty to the Lord is not apart from loyalty to the law of Moses. Apostasy will be severely punished, first by leaving the nations to ensnare Israel, and then by consuming them in his wrath.
Address to Israel, 24:1–28
The address ends with a covenant renewal at Shechem (Jos 24:1, 25–28; cf. 8:30–35). In the ancient Near East it was common when making a treaty (covenant) to give a brief historical summary of the relationship of the parties involved. Joshua reviewed Israel’s history from the patriarchs to their generation: patriarchs (24:2–4), exodus (vv 5–7), and conquest (vv 8–13).
The goodness, presence, and loyalty of Yahweh was evident to them. Yahweh also expected “faithfulness” from his people in the form of whole allegiance, without any form of idolatry (Jos 24:14–15). As the head of his family, Joshua vowed to be loyal (v 15). The people responded by giving reasons for being loyal to the Lord (vv 16–18). But Joshua pushed them to a deeper commitment by challenging their profession (vv 19–20), then recording their vow and setting up a stone of witness against them (vv 25–27).
End of an Era, 24:29–33
The book began with a reference to the death of Moses (1:1–2) and concludes with the death and burial of Joshua (24:29–30) and of Eleazar the high priest (v 33). This marks the end of an era. The burial of Joseph’s bones (Jos 24:32; cf. Gn 50:25; Ex 13:19) in a plot purchased by Jacob (Gn 33:19) brings together the hope characteristic of the epoch of Moses and Joshua.
See also Cities of Refuge; Conquest and Allotment of the Land; Israel, History of; Joshua (Person) #1; Levitical Cities.
Aquifer Open Bible Dictionary © 2026 Mission Mutual, an adaptation of the Tyndale Open Bible Dictionary © 2023 Tyndale House Publishers. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0.