04.08. II. Affecting the Sense (Figures of Rhetoric)

II. AFFECTING THE SENSE
(FIGURES OF RHETORIC)

WE now pass from figures more closely affecting Grammar and Syntax to those which relate to Rhetoric. Figures, which not merely affect the meaning of words, but the use and application of words.

These are figures of repetition and addition of sense rather than of words: and are used in reasoning.

Sometimes the same sense is repeated in other words.

Sometimes the words themselves are repeated, but always by way of amplifying the sense for purposes of definition, emphasis, or explanation.

We have endeavoured to embrace them all under six great divisions, where the sense is added to by way of:

1.    Repetition for Definition, REPETITIO.

2.    Amplification, AMPLIFICATIO.

3.    Description, DESCRIPTIO.

4.    Conclusion, CONCLUSIO.

5.    Parenthesis, INTERPOSITIO.

6.    Reasoning, RATIOCINATIO.

1. Repetitio Addition by way of Repetition for various reasons as follows:

-------- Prosapodosis; or, Detailing A Returning for Repetition and Explanation

Pros-a-pod´-o-sis, a giving back to, or return. It is from πρός (pros), to, and ἀπόδοσις (apodosis), a giving back; (from ἀποδίδωμι (apodidomi), to give back, return). The figure is so called because after the mention of two or three words or subjects together, there is a return to them again, and they are repeated separately for purposes of definition or explanation. The Latins called it REDITIO (from redire), which means the same thing, a going or returning back; or REDDITIO (from reddire), a giving back. They called it also SEJUGATIO, a disjunction or separation, from sejungo, to unyoke (jugum, a yoke), or disjoin, because of the separation of the words or subjects which takes place: first being mentioned or yoked together, and then unyoked and mentioned separately. For the same reason they called it DISJUNCTIO, disjunction. The Greeks used a similar descriptive word when they called the figure DIEZEUGMENON (Di-e-zeug´-me-non), from zeugma, a yoke, i.e., an unyoking, or disjunction.

John 16:8-11.-“And when he is come, he will reprove (marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] , convince) the world of sin, and of righteousness, and of judgment:- “Of sin, because they believe not on me;

“Of righteousness, because I go to my Father, and ye see me no more;

“Of judgment, because the prince of this world is judged.”

Here, after the mention of the three words together, “sin,” “righteousness,” and “judgment,” the Lord returns to them again, and repeats them separately, for the purpose of explaining and more particularly defining them. Thus we learn that the mission and work of the Holy Ghost with regard to the world was to bring it in guilty (for that is the meaning of the word) concerning these three important facts.

(1) “Sin” is not, as man regards it, some mere yielding to the lusts of the flesh, but a refusal to believe God’s Gospel concerning His Son, the Lord Jesus Christ. That is sin in God’s sight.

(2) “Righteousness.” Seeing they rejected Christ, and would not believe on Him, He was, in righteousness, removed from the earth, and is returned to the Father, until He comes again in

(3) “Judgment.” For the prince of this world has been judged, sentence has been passed upon him, and ere long it will be put into execution.

Rom 11:22.-“Behold therefore, the goodness and severity of God: on them which fell, severity; but toward thee, goodness, if thou continue in his goodness; otherwise thou also shalt be cut off.”

Here, the return to the two words is not direct, as in John 16:8-11, but in an Epanodos (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). aGoodness. bSeverity. bSeverity. aGoodness. The statement refers to the Gentiles as such (see Rom 11:13, “I speak to you, Gentiles”), and cannot refer to the Church of God; for, of the members of Christ’s Body it has been already stated and declared in Rom 8:1-39, that there is no condemnation, and no separation. To interpret Rom 11:1-36 of the Church, and not of the Gentiles as Gentiles is not only to miss the whole teaching conveyed by the structure (see page 385) as to the separate Doctrinal and Dispensational sections of the Epistle, but it is to make the grace of God of no effect, and to destroy the standing of the Christian, and his eternal preservation in Christ.

Php 1:15-17.-“Some indeed preach Christ even of envy and strife; and some also of good will: The one preach Christ of contention, not sincerely, supposing to add affliction to my bonds: But the other of love, knowing that I am set for the defence of the Gospel.”

Here, after having first stated the two classes, he returns to them to explain his meaning further.

-------- Epidiegesis; or, Re-Statement A Repetition in order to restate in full

Ep´-i-di´-e-ge´-sis, a repetition of the statement of a case or narration of facts: from ἐπί (epi), upon, and διήγησις (dieegeesis), the statement of a case (from διηγέομαι, dieegeomai, to describe or narrate in detail). This is a kind of Prosapodosis: and it is so called when the repetition is for the purpose not of explanation, but of kindling emotion, provoking indignation, or evoking comparison.

-------- Epexegesis; or, Fuller Explaining A Repetition for the purpose of explaining more fully

Ep-ex´-e-gee´-sis, a returning to explain. It is from ἐπί (epi), upon, ἐξ (ex), out, and ἡγεῖσθαι (heegeisthai), to lead or guide. The figure is so called because the repetition is for purposes of explanation.

It has several names. It is called EXEGESIS (ex´-e-gee´sis), an explanation.

ECPHRASIS (ec´-phra-sis), from ἐκ (ek), out, and φράζω (phrazo), to give to know, cause to understand, intimate, point out. Hence the figure is called Ecphrasis, which means an explaining, recounting.

It is also called EPLCHREMA (epi-chree´-ma), from ἐπί (epi), upon, and χρῆμα (chreema), a furnishing, from χράομαι (chra´-o-mai), to furnish what is needful. The figure is thus called because upon what has been said less clearly the needful information is added or furnished. This figure Epexegesis may be divided into three parts: (1) where what is added is a working out and developing what has been previously said (Exergasia); (2) where what has been said is dwelt upon to deepen the impression (Epimone); and (3) where what is added is by way of interpretation (Hermeneia). For these three Figures see the following:

-------- Exergasia: or, Working Out A Repetition, so as to work out or illustrate what has already been said

Ex-er-ga´-si-a. Greek, ἐξεργασία, which means a working out (from ἐξ (ex), out, and ἐργάζομαι (ergazomai), to work. In this figure the same thought, idea, or subject is repeated in other words, and thus worked out and developed. It, therefore, resembles Synonymia; but differs from it in that not merely synonymous words are repeated, but synonymous expressions or sense.

It is sometimes called EPEXERGASIA, i.e., the addition of the preposition ἐπί (epi), upon, to the word exergasia and implies a working out upon. Words of the same signification are repeated to make plainer the previous statement: or to illustrate the sense of what has been mentioned before. The Latins called it EXPOLITIO, a polishing up; because by such repetition the meaning is embellished as well as strengthened and not merely explained or interpreted as in other repetitions. This figure necessarily implies that the separate repetitions must be placed in parallel lines.

It is of frequent occurrence, and therefore we can give only a few examples.

Psa 17:1.- “Hear the right, O Lord, Attend unto my cry, Give ear unto my prayer.”

Psa 18:1-2.- “I will love thee O Lord, my strength. The Lord is my rock, and my fortress, and my deliverer: My God (El), my strength, in whom I will trust; My buckler, the horn of my salvation, and my high tower.”

Psa 35:1-3.- a¹“Plead my cause, O Lord, with them that strive with me; b¹Fight against them that fight against me. a²Take hold of shield and buckler, and stand up for my help. b²Draw out also the spear, and stop the way against them that persecute me: a³Say unto my soul, I am thy salvation. b³4-8. Let them, etc.” And so the Psalm goes on. In a¹, a², and a³, we have prayer for himself (Defensive), and in b¹, b², and b³, prayer against his enemies (Offensive). In each case the meaning is further developed.

Psa 35:4.- “Let them be confounded and put to shame that seek after my soul:

Let them be turned back and brought to confusion that devise my hurt.

Let them be as the chaff before the wind: And let the angel of the Lord chase them, etc.” In Psa 35:4-8 we have: cPsa 35:4. Prayer against those who devise evil. dPsa 35:5. The angel of the Lord. dPsa 35:6. The angel of the Lord. cPsa 35:7-8. Prayer against those who devise evil.

Jon 2:2 (Jon 2:3).- a“I cried by reason of mine affliction unto the Lord, band he heard me: aOut of the belly of hell (Sheol) cried I, band thou heardest my voice.”

Jon 2:3 (Jon 2:4).- cFor thou hadst cast me into the deep, din the midst of the seas; dand the floods compassed me about: call thy billows and thy waves passed over me.”

Here, in a and a we have Jonah’s affliction: and in b and b Jehovah’s respect to him. In c and c we have the deep as a whole, and in d and d the waters which make it up.

Zec 6:12-13.-

“Thus speaketh the Lord of hosts, saying:
Behold, the man whose name is the BRANCH;
And he shall grow up out of His place,
And He shall build the temple of the Lord:
Even He shall build the temple of the Lord:
And He shall bear the glory,
And shall sit and rule upon His throne;
And He shall be a priest upon His throne:
And the counsel of peace shall be between them.”

Here, the figure is enhanced by Polysyndeton (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ).

-------- Epimone; or, Lingering Repetition in order to dwell upon for the sake of Impressing

E-pim´-o-nee. Greek, ἐπιμονή, a staying on, or dwelling upon, from ἐπί (epi), upon, and μένω (menō), to remain, or dwell. In Latin COMMORATIO. This figure is so called because the repetition is not of words, but of sense, by way of dwelling upon the principal point of a subject, so that it may be well understood, and remain with due weight upon the mind of the hearer or reader.

Zec 1:3-6 is referred to Epimone; because the solemn fact is dwelt upon and emphasized that the people had brought all this trouble upon themselves, because they had neglected to hear the words of Jehovah.

Mat 7:21-23.-Here, the one thought is dwelt upon by being expressed in several different ways.

Mat 12:31-32.-Here, the one truth in Mat 12:31 is dwelt upon by a further statement of it, in another form, in Mat 12:32. It is clear from Mat 12:24 that the sin against the Holy Ghost was the attributing of the Lord’s work to Beelzebub, or the Evil Spirit. See Mat 12:28, and page 384.

Mat 15:18-20.-Here, after the statement that “those things which proceed out of the mouth come forth from the heart; and they defile the man,” the Lord goes on to impress the important fact by dwelling upon it, and explaining that “out of the heart proceed evil thoughts, etc. …” and adding “these are the things that defile a man. And not to eat with unwashed hands. He shows that it is “not that which goeth into the mouth” (Mat 15:11): these things do not defile a man.

Mark 7:20-23.-The solemn fact of Mark 7:20 as to what really defiles is dwelt upon in the following verses, in order to impress its truth upon the mind.

John 21:15-17.-Peter’s threefold restoration is dwelt upon in these verses, to assure him that his threefold denial had not cut him off; and that though he failed, the prayer of his great Advocate was heard and answered, so that his faith did not fail.

Col 2:14-15.-Here the blessed effect of Christ’s death is dwelt upon in the enumeration of some of its triumphant results.

-------- Hermeneia; or, Interpretation Repetition for the Purpose of Interpreting what has been already said

Her-mee´-neia, ἑρμηνεία, interpretation, explanation. This figure is so-called because, after a particular statement the explanation follows immediately to make more clear what has been said less clearly. The Latins consequently called it INTERPRETATIO, or Interpretation.

Psa 7:1-17, where Psa 7:13 (Psa 7:14) explains Psa 7:12 (Psa 7:13).

Psa 77:19.-After saying “Thy way is in the sea, And thy path in the great waters,” the interpretation is added:

“And thy footsteps are not known.”

Isa 1:23.-After the words “Thy silver is become dross, Thy wine mixed with water,” the interpretation is added:

“Thy princes are rebellious, etc.”

Isa 34:6.-Here the statement about the sword of the Lord in the former part of the verse is explained in the latter part.

Isa 44:3.- “I will pour water upon him that is thirsty, And floods upon the dry ground.” This is immediately explained to mean:

“I will pour my spirit upon thy seed, And my blessing upon thine offspring.”

Isa 51:1-23, where Isa 51:2 explains Isa 51:1.

Hos 7:8-9.-Here Hos 7:9 is the interpretation of Hos 7:8.

Amo 3:8.-Here we have first “The lion hath roared, Who will not fear?” and then the interpretation:

“Adonai Jehovah hath spoken, Who can but prophesy?”

Mat 6:24 and Luk 16:13.-Here the last clause interprets the first. This is on account of, and is shown by the structure:

A“No servant can serve two masters, BaFor either he will hate the one, band love the other;

Bbor else he will hold to the one, aand despise the other.

A    Ye cannot serve God and Mammon.

Here A interprets A, showing that the two masters meant are God and Mammon; while, in B and B, the two-fold reason is given in the form of an Epanodos (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ).

John 7:39 is added in order to interpret what had been said in said in John 7:38.

2Ti 4:6.-“I am now ready to be offered” is explained by what follows: “the time of my departure is at hand.”

All the passages which commence, “which being interpreted means, etc.,” come under this figure Hermeneia.

-------- Battologia; or, Vain Repetition

Bat-to-log´-i-a, βαττολογία, vain repetitions. These are repetitions, of course, which are vain, meaningless, and senseless.

None of these is to be found in the word of God. Indeed, we are exhorted not to use them as the heathen do, who think that by using them in their prayers they shall be “heard for their much speaking.” The verb in Mat 6:7 is βαττολογήσητε (battologee´-seete) use not vain repetitions. The Holy Spirit therefore does not use them: so that we have no examples to give for this figure which man has named and so frequently uses.

Examples of man’s use of Battologia may easily be found, e.g., 1Ki 18:26. Acts 19:34, etc. Also in the Prayer Book.

2. Amplificatio By way of addition or amplification (Pleonastic figures)

-------- Pleonasm; or, Redundancy When more Words are used than the Grammar requires

Ple´-o-nasm. Greek, πλεονασμός (pleonasmos): from πλέονάζειν (pleonazein), to be more than enough. This is from πλέος (pleon), or πλεῖον (pleion), more, and πλέος (pleos), full. We have it in our words complete, plenitude, replete, etc. The figure is so called when there appears to be a redundancy of words in a sentence; and the sense is grammatically complete without them. Sometimes the substantive appears to be redundant when its idea is already implied in the adjective; or when two nouns are used where one appears to be sufficient. But this redundancy is only apparent. These words are not really superfluous when used by the Holy Spirit, nor are they idle or useless. They are necessary to fill up the sense, which without them would be incomplete and imperfect. This figure is used to set forth the subject more fully by repeating it in other, sometimes in opposite, terms. What is first expressed affirmatively is sometimes repeated negatively, and vice versa. It is also used for the purpose of marking the emphasis; or, for intensifying the feeling; or, for enhancing in some way what has been already said. The term pleonastic may therefore be applied to all similar figures of repetition or addition. But we have endeavoured to classify them according to the object in view in the repetition; whether it be definition, or interpretation, or for mere emphasis by amplification, etc.

We have reserved the term pleonasm for this latter class, where what is said is immediately after put in another or opposite way to make it impossible for the sense to be missed; and thus to emphasize it. The figure may affect words, or sentences. We have therefore arranged the examples as follows:- I.Words.

1.    Certain idiomatic words.

2.    Other words.

    II.    Sentences.

1.    Affirmative.

2.    Negative.

I. Words 1. Certain idiomatic words

According to the Hebrew idiom (see under Idiom), two nouns are often used together, one of which appears to be redundant. Glassius^{* [Note: Philol. Sac., Lib. i., Tract 1, Can. 38.]} gives a list of certain words, which are thus commonly used to enhance and emphasize the force of the other noun. Not as an adjective; for in that case the figure would be Enallage instead of Pleonasm. Some of these come under the figures Synecdoche and Idiom (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) The ten words are as follows:- 1. פָּנִים (Pahneem), faces. The word is always in the plural on account of the various features of the face.

Gen 1:2.-“And darkness was upon the faces of the deep,” i.e., upon the deep. But how much more forcible and emphatic the expression becomes by the pleonasm.

Gen 11:8.-“So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth:” i.e., all over the earth.

Gen 16:8.-“I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai,” instead of “from my mistress.”

Gen 23:3.-“And Abraham stood up from before his dead.” Lit., from the face of his dead, i.e., from the presence of his dead wife.

Sometimes the word is omitted in translation:

Exo 7:10.-“And Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh,” Lit., before the face of Pharaoh, i.e., before his very eyes.

Lev 23:40.-“And ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God.” Lit., before the face of the Lord your God, i.e., in His very presence.

Jdg 11:3.-“Then Jephthah fled from his brethren.” Here the A.V. [Note: The Authorized Version, or current Text of our English Bible, 1611.] has again omitted the word “face,” but in this case has put it in the margin.

1Sa 14:25.-“And there was honey upon the ground.” Lit., upon the face of the ground, i.e., spread out.

Isa 14:21.-“That they do not rise, nor possess the land, nor fill the face of the earth with cities.”

Isa 19:8.-“And they that spread nets upon the waters.” Lit., upon the face of the waters.

Hos 10:7.-“As the foam upon the water.” See margin, “the face of the water.”

Amo 5:8.-“And poureth them out upon the face of the earth.” In the N.T., though we have Greek words, we have the same Hebrew idiom.

Luk 21:35.-“As a snare shall it come on all them that dwell on the face of the whole earth.” Here the Pleonasm emphasizes the universal character of the events connected with “the great Tribulation.”

Acts 3:19.-“That so there may come (R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] ) times of refreshing from the presence (face) of the Lord.”

Acts 5:41.-“And they departed from the presence of the council.” Lit., the face of.

Acts 17:26.-“For to dwell on all the face of the earth.”

Rev 12:14.-“From the face of the serpent,” i.e., a great way off from the serpent.

2. פֶה (Peh), mouth. This word seems to be redundant when used with the word “sword”: “the mouth of the sword.” But this use of the Figure is to emphasize the fact that it is not a mere sword, but a sword with its sharp devouring edge, which is thus compared to a mouth.

Gen 34:26.-“And they slew Hamor and Shechem his son with the edge (marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] , Heb., mouth) of the sword.” So also Exo 17:13. Deu 13:15. Eze 6:11. Amo 7:11. Luk 21:24. Heb 11:34. A sword with two mouths is a sword which devoured exceedinglyand slew large numbers; Jdg 3:16. Rev 1:16; Rev 3:13. Heb 4:12.

Other uses of the word are seen in

Gen 43:7.-“We told him according to the tenor (Heb., the mouth) of all these words”: i.e., all those things concerning which they had been interrogated.

Num 26:56.-“According to the (mouth of the) lot”: i.e., according to what the lot shall say or determine.

Pro 22:6.-“Train up a child in the way he should go.”

Heb., in the mouth of his way: i.e., at the very mouth or entrance on life, so that it may be determined in a direction of justice and honesty, etc.

3. בָּנִים (Bahneem), sons or children.

Gen 11:5.-“The Lord came down to see the city and the tower, which the children of men builded”: i.e., men viewed as the descendants of Adam; the human race.

1Ki 8:39.-“Thou … knowest the hearts of all the children of men”: i.e., of all men, with emphasis on the “all.”

Ecc 3:18.-“I said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of men.”

R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] : “I said in mine heart, It is because of the sons of men, that God may prove them, etc.”

Here, the figure shows that the emphasis is on “men” in contrast to “beasts.” “Yet I said in my heart respecting MEN, God hath chosen them to show that they, even they, are like beasts.”

Psa 36:7.-“How excellent is thy lovingkindness, O God! therefore the children of men put their trust under the shadow of thy wings,” i.e., men in all ages-not merely men, as such, but men in all their successive generations. So also in the New Testament we find the same usage:

Mark 3:28.-“All sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men,” i.e., men in all ages, as in Mat 12:31.

Eph 3:5.-“Which (i.e., the Mystery) in other ages was not made known unto the sons of men:” i.e., to any human being.

It is according to this Figure or Hebraism that Christ is called “the Son of Man,” as the man, the representative man, the man who had been long promised as the seed of the woman; the man prophesied. Therefore this title used of Christ usually has reference to that aspect of His work as the appointed Judge of men (Acts 17:31). “The Son of Man” is therefore an emphatic dispensational title of Christ. It means merely “man,” but with emphasis on all that the word means as used of Christ and his dominion in the earth. See Mat 10:23; Mat 16:13; Mat 16:27-28. Mark 2:28. Luk 6:5. John 3:14. etc., etc.

Ezekiel is often thus addressed by God (Eze 2:1-10, Eze 1:1-28, Eze 11:1-25, etc.), as “son of man,” but in his case without the article.

See also Psa 8:4 (the first occurrence); Psa 144:3, etc. In Psa 127:4 (Psa 127:5) we have “children of the youth,” i.e., young children.

Joe 3:6.-“The sons of Greece,” i.e., Greeks.

Deu 9:2.-“Sons of the Anakim”: i.e., Anakim. The word in the plural means simply the name of the nation viewed as descended from some progenitor: e.g., “children of Israel”: i.e., Israelites, “children of Ammon, Moab, etc.”

4. שֵׁם (Shem), name.

(a) This word appears to be redundant in the phrase “the name of God.” It means God Himself, and has greater emphasis than if the simple word God were used.

Isa 30:27.-“Behold, the name of the Lord cometh from far”: i.e., Jehovah Himself.

Jer 44:26.-“Behold, I have sworn by my great name, saith the Lord”: i.e., by myself, by my own majesty, by all that my name implies.

Mic 5:4.-“And he shall stand and feed in the strength of the Lord, in the majesty of the name of the Lord his God”; i.e., in the majesty of Jehovah Himself.

Psa 20:1 (Psa 20:2).-“The Lord hear thee in the day of trouble: the name of the God of Jacob defend thee:” i.e., Jacob’s God Himself. So also Psa 20:7 (Psa 20:8), etc.

Psa 113:1.-“Praise the name of the Lord”: i.e., “Praise Jehovah Himself.”

(b) When used with the verb קָרָא (karah), to call, it means emphatically to name.

See Gen 11:9; Gen 19:22; Gen 27:36; Gen 41:51.

(c) The worship and profession of God is indicated by the phrases “call upon the name of the Lord:” i.e., to worship Jehovah himself (Gen 4:26. Jer 10:25).

“To love the name of the Lord;”

“To walk in the name of the Lord;”

“To praise the name of the Lord.”

All these expressions mean, by the figure of Pleonasm, to worship and fear Jehovah Himself as opposed to self, and all other gods.

We have the same figure in the New Testament:-

Mat 6:9 and Luk 11:2.-“Hallowed be thy name”: i.e., “Let thy holy majesty-thyself alone-be worshipped.”

Rev 15:4.-“Who shall not fear Thee, O Lord, and glorify thy name?”: i.e., fear and worship Thee Thyself.

Mat 1:21.-“Thou shalt call his name JESUS”: i.e., shall call Him that holy one Himself. So Luk 1:13; Luk 2:21.

Rom 10:13.-“Whosoever shall call upon the name of the Lord shall be saved”: i.e., not whosoever shall utter the name, but whosoever shall be a true worshipper of God in Christ shall be saved. So Heb 13:15. John 1:12; John 2:23; John 3:18, etc.

5. יָד (yad), hand. The word “hand” is used in various ways (both idiomatically and by Metonymy, q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) to express the instrument by which a thing is done; and this in order to put the emphasis on the fact that the power did not lie in the instrument, but in him who used it.

Gen 9:5.-It seems superfluous, but it is not. It emphasizes the fact that it is God who requires punishment for shedding man’s blood, and that he will use all and every instrument to accomplish His will.

Exo 4:13.-“And he (Moses) said, O Lord (Adonai), send I pray thee by the hand thou wilt send”: i.e., by any agency except me!

1Sa 17:37.-“The Lord that delivered me out of the paw (hand) of the lion, and out of the paw (hand) of the bear, he will deliver me out of the hand of this Philistine”: i.e., the power of the lion, and the bear, and Goliath. See Psa 22:20 (Psa 22:21) (= the dog); Psa 49:15 (Psa 49:16); Psa 107:2. 1Ki 11:12.

1Ki 8:53.-“Thou spakest by the hand of Moses thy servant”: i.e., by Moses. Jehovah was the speaker, Moses was only the instrument. So also 2Ki 17:13, and many other passages in which Jehovah speaks by the hand of his prophets.

1Ch 6:31 (1Ch 6:16).-“And these are they whom David set over the service of song in the house of the Lord.” Lit., “over the hands of song,” i.e., over the instruments of song, so as to minister music. So 2Ch 29:27, “the hands of the instruments (marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] ).

Isa 64:6 (Isa 64:5).-“And our iniquities.” Lit., “the hand of our iniquities”: i.e., the power of our iniquities. To this belongs Psa 7:3 (4), “If there be any iniquity in my hands.” Lit., in the hands of me: i.e., in me. A kind of Metonymy (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), or Synecdoche, by which a part of a person is put for the whole. In the New Testament we have the same use of the word χείρ (cheir), hand.

Mark 6:2.-“That even such mighty works are wrought by his hands.” Lit., “by the hands of him”: i.e., by Him.

Luk 1:71.-“From the hand of all that hate us”: i.e., not merely from our enemies, but from the power of those enemies who hate us and cause us to serve them. So also Acts 5:12; Acts 7:25; Acts 7:35. In Acts 15:23, the A.V. [Note: The Authorized Version, or current Text of our English Bible, 1611.] omits “by the hands of them,” and substitutes the word “letters” in italics. The R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] says, “They wrote thus by them” (Gal 3:19 and Rev 19:2).

6. תָּוֶךְ (tavech) and קֶרֶב (kerev), midst. The phrase “in the midst” is used phonastically when it is not to be taken literally as being equidistant from the extremes, or when it only adds emphasis to the sense.

Gen 45:6.-“These two years hath the famine been in the land.” Lit., “in the midst of the land”: i.e., all over it. Here it is not translated at all.

Num 14:13.-“Thou broughtest up this people in (or by) thy might from among them.” Lit., “out of the midst of them”: out of Egypt. See also

Jos 3:17. 2Ki 4:13. Psa 22:14 (Psa 22:15).-“My heart is like wax; it is melted in the midst of my bowels”: i.e., within me. So Psa 40:8; Psa 40:10 (Psa 40:9, Psa 40:11).

Psa 22:22 (Psa 22:23).-“In the midst of the congregation will I praise thee”: i.e., in the assembly of the People; not of the “church,” which was afterwards revealed to Paul in the New Testament Scriptures as the “Mystery.”^{* [Note: See The Mystery, by the same author and publisher.]} But wherever God’s People are assembled, there is He “in the midst of (i.e., with) them.”

Psa 40:8; Psa 40:10 (Psa 40:9, Psa 40:11).-“In the midst of my heart”: i.e., in me.

Psa 48:9 (Psa 48:10).-“In the midst of thy temple”: i.e., in thy temple.

Isa 10:23.-“In the midst of all the land.”

Hab 3:2.-“Revive thy work in the midst of the years, in the midst of the years make known”: i.e., within or during that time of Tribulation. (See also under Anadiplosis).

Zec 2:5; Zec 2:10-11 (9, 14, 15).-“In the midst of thee”: i.e., in thee.

Mat 13:49.-“And sever the wicked from among the just”: i.e., from. So Acts 17:33. 2Co 6:17. For other illustrations see Mat 13:25. Luk 17:11. Heb 2:12. (Compare Psa 22:22 (Psa 22:23), above).

7. לֵב (lev), לֵבָב (levav), heart. The word “heart” is sometimes used pleonastically by Metonymy (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) for the midst, when it does not mean literally the precise middle point.

Exo 15:8.-“In the heart of the sea.” So Psa 46:2. Pro 23:34; Pro 30:19. Eze 27:4.

Mat 12:40.-“In the heart of the earth”: i.e., in the earth.

8. דָּבָר (Davar), word, is very frequently used in the same way.

Psa 35:20.-“Deceitful matters.” Lit., “words of frauds”: i.e., frauds.

Psa 65:3 (Psa 65:4).-“Iniquities prevail against me.” Here the A.V. [Note: The Authorized Version, or current Text of our English Bible, 1611.] puts the literal meaning in the margin, “the words or matters of iniquity”: i.e., my iniquitous matters. So with Psa 105:27.-“The words of his signs.”

Psa 145:5.-“The words of thy wonders”: i.e., as rendered “thy wondrous works.”

9. קוֹל (Kōl), voice.

Gen 3:8.-“They heard the voice of the Lord God walking, etc.”: i.e., the sound, or merely Jehovah Elohim.

Psa 98:5.-“The voice of a psalm”: i.e., with a psalm.

Psa 102:5 (Psa 102:6).-“The voice of my groaning”: i.e., my groaning.

Isa 24:18.-“The noise (voice) of the fear. (See also under Paronomasia).

Jer 16:9.-“I will cause to cease out of this place in your eyes, and in your days, the voice of mirth, and the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridgeroom, and the voice of the bride.” This does not mean that there shall be any bridegrooms and brides without voices, but that marriage itself shall cease.

Jer 51:54.-“A sound of a cry.” Lit., the voice of a cry: i.e., a great clamour. So Zep 1:10, etc.

10. יָמִים (yahmeem), days. The word days joined with years, etc., is used pleonastically. See Gen 47:8, (9). Exo 13:10. Jdg 19:2 (marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] ). 2Sa 19:34 (marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] ). Psa 90:10.

Gen 29:14.-“And he abode with him the space of a month.” Marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] : “Heb., a month of days.” This, by the figure of Hypallage (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), stands for the days of a month: i.e., a full month. So Num 11:20-21.

11. וַיְהִי (vayehee), and it came to pass.

Sometimes this word appears to be redundant; as well as the Greek καὶ ἐγένετο (kai egeneto). That is to say, as the sense is complete without it, it is added for the sake of emphasis.

See the preterite. Gen 38:1; Gen 38:7; Gen 38:24; Gen 38:28; Gen 39:10; Gen 39:13; Gen 39:15, etc. Mat 7:28; Mat 9:10; Mat 11:1; Mat 13:53; Mat 19:1; Mat 26:1. Mark 1:9; Mark 2:15. Luk 1:24; Luk 1:41; Luk 2:1; Luk 2:6; Luk 5:1. So with the future; Deu 18:19. Jos 2:14. 1Ki 18:24; 1Ki 20:7. Isa 7:23. Hos 2:23. Joe 3:15. Acts 2:6; Acts 3:23. Rom 9:26.

2. Other Words Deu 33:19.-“Treasures hid in the sand.”

Here the figure is very freely rendered. Lit., it is “hidden-things hidden of the sand”: i.e., the hidden things of the earth, in contrast with the treasures of the sea.

Psa 40:7.-“Then said I, Lo, I come: in the volume of the book it is written of me” i.e., in the book, namely, Holy Scripture. (See under Synecdoche). The second noun (in regimen) being as the genitive of apposition. See Appendix B.

Isa 33:23.-“Then is the prey of a great spoil divided. Heb., עַד שָׁלְל (ad shalal), a prey of a spoil: i.e., a great spoil.

Dan 12:2.-“And some to shame and everlasting contempt.”

Rom 1:23.-“Unto an image made like.” Lit., “unto a likeness of an image.” By this figure the meaning is enhanced, so that it is as though it said, “They changed the glory of the incorruptible God actually into an image of corruptible man!

2Co 5:1.-“The earthly house of this tabernacle,” emphasizing this mortal body as being so different from the heavenly body.

Eph 4:23.-“And be renewed in the spirit of your mind”: i.e., that your whole new nature or inner man being a new creation, Divine in its origin and impeccable in its character now causes the whole course of life to flow in a different direction.

1Th 2:13.-“When ye received the word of God, which ye heard of us.” Lit., the word of hearing. λόγος ἀκοῆς (logos akoees). ἀκοῆ (akoee) which means hearing, is often used by the figure of Metonymy (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), for what is heard. See John 12:38. Rom 10:16. “Who hath believed our hearing”: i.e., what they have heard; our preaching or testimony. So here, the figure cannot be rendered literally, but the whole sense is enchanced by the fact that it was the word of God, which they heard, and not only heard but received it into their hearts.

Compare Heb 4:2; and see under Metonymy.

Rev 16:19.-“The fierceness of His wrath.”

Here, the figure is seen and beautifully translated: not literally, but according to the enhanced sense. The Greek is θυμὸς ὀργμ͂ς (thumos orgees), the anger of His wrath, the two words being synonymous. Both refer to the working of the passions of the mind, but ὀργή (orgee) is the heat of the fire, while θυμός (thumos) is the bursting forth of the flame. όργή (orgee), therefore, is the more lasting feeling of anger and wrath. θυμός (thumos) is the more sudden manifestation of it, so that “fierceness of His wrath Beautifully expresses the figure.

II. Sentences

Another kind of Pleonasm is when the sense or whole sentence is repeated in another form, and thus put in another way. This may be done either affirmatively or negatively.

1. Affirmatively When the same sense is repeated affirmatively, it is hardly to be distinguished from Synonymia (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), which it much resembles. See Psa 29:1-2; Psa 89:31-32. Isa 52:13, etc.

Gen 1:20.-“And fowl that may fly above the earth, in the open firmament of heaven.”

Instead of saying simply in the air, it first says “above the earth,” and then it is further emphasized by “the open firmament of heaven,” in order to make the distinction between these and what had been created to be in the waters, and on the earth.

Num 19:2.-“This is the ordinance of the law which Jehovah hath commanded”: i.e., the law or statute, but it is put thus to impress upon the people the importance of the special truth connected with “the red heifer.”

Deu 32:6.-“Is not he thy father that hath bought thee? Hath he not made thee? and established thee?”

John 1:22.-“Who art thou?… What sayest thou of thyself?”

John 5:24.-“He that heareth my words, and believeth on him that sent me, hath everlasting life, and shall not come into condemnation (judgment), but is passed from death unto life.”

Acts 13:45.-“But when the Jews saw the multitudes, they were filled with envy, and spake against those things which were spoken by Paul, contradicting, and blaspheming.”

Php 1:23.-“Which is far better.”

Here, the return of Christ is declared to be πολλῶ (pollō), much; μᾶλλον (mallon), more; κρεῖσσον (kreisson), better, than either living or dying; out of (ἐκ) which two he was being pressed by that third thing: viz., the great desire εἰς τὸ ἀναλῦσαι (eis to analusai) unto the return (see under Antimeria, Epanalepsis, Resumptio, and Apostasis).

Αναλύω means to return from thence hither (not from hence thither). See Luk 12:36. Job 2:1. Jdt 13:1. 1Es 3:3. Wis 2:1; Wis 5:12. Ecc 3:15. Macc. 8:25; 9:1: 12:7; 15:28. Josephus Aut. 6:41.

There is no other way of being “with Christ,” as the Thessalonian saints are told 1Th 4:17, οὕτως (houtōs), thus in this matter, shall we ever be with the Lord: i.e., by being “caught up to meet the Lord in the air”: the sleeping saints not preceding those who are alive, and the living ones not preceding those who have fallen asleep (1Th 4:15), but both sleeping and living saints raised and changed, together (ἅμα hama) caught away.

See under Epanalepsis (pp. 206, 207), where it is shown that for him to abide in the flesh is better for them-better than dying-but not better than the coming of Christ.

2. Negatively

Here the sense is first put positively and then negatively, or vice versa. This of course greatly emphasizes the original statement, and calls very special attention to it.

Gen 40:23.-“Yet did not the chief butler remember Joseph, but forgat him.”

Here the simple statement that the chief butler did not remember Joseph, would have expressed the fact simply and clearly; but in order to emphasize and forcibly mark it, it is repeated negatively:-“but forgat him,” as though to remind us that he acted after the manner of man. In this character of man lies the justification of that definition of “gratitude” which the world has given in condemnation of itself:-that it is “a lively sense of favours to come”!

Gen 42:2.-“That we may live and not die.” So Gen 43:8, etc.

Exo 9:19.-“Every man and beast which shall be found in the field, and shall not be brought home.”

Exo 12:20.-“Ye shall eat nothing leavened: in all your habitations ye shall eat unleavened bread.”

Deu 28:13.-“And the Lord shall make thee the head and not the tail: and thou shalt be above only, and thou shalt not be beneath.”

Deu 32:6.-“O foolish people, and unwise.”

Deu 33:6.-“Let Reuben live and not die.”

Thus this figure simply but emphatically reverses the pronouncement of Jacob in Gen 49:3-4.

1Sa 1:11.-“And remember me, and not forget thine handmaid.”

1Ki 6:18.-The stones within the Temple-walls were overlaid with cedar (1Ki 6:15-16), and this cedar was further overlaid with gold (1Ki 6:21). It is not, therefore, necessary to the description to add 1Ki 6:18 : “There was no stone seen”: but it was necessary to emphasize the fact, because of the important truth which these stones were afterwards to be used to typify: viz., that the “living stones” (1Pe 2:5), who are built up a spiritual house, are as completely covered with the Divine and the glorious righteousness of Christ, in which they appear in the presence of God, “perfect in Christ Jesus,” “complete in Him.” Nothing whatever in or of themselves being seen.

2Ki 20:1.-“Set thine house in order; for thou shalt die, and not live”: i.e., thou shalt surely die.

Isa 3:9.-“They declare their sin as Sodom, they hide it not.”

Isa 31:3.-“Now the Egyptians are men, and not God (El); and their horses are flesh and not spirit.” The figure is thus used to show the people how easily Jehovah could destroy them.

Isa 38:1.-“Thou shalt die, and not live”: to emphasize the certainty of his death.

Isa 45:22.-“I am God, and there is none else.” This to show that there is none that save like Him. So Isa 46:9; Isa 44:8.

Jer 20:14.-“Cursed be the day wherein I was born: let not the day wherein my mother bare me be blessed.”

Eze 18:13.-“He shall not live: he hath done all these abominations; he shall surely die.” Here, the negative is put first, and then repeated in the positive form.

Eze 28:2.-“Thou art a man, and not God.”

Eze 33:15.-“He shall surely live: he shall not die.^{* [Note: See also under Asyndeton.]} Hos 5:3.-“I know Ephraim, and Israel is not hid from me.”

Hos 11:9.-“I am God, and not man.”

Amo 5:20.-“Shall not the day of the Lord be darkness, and not light?”

See this passage also under Erotesis and Metonymy.

Hab 2:3.-“It will surely come, it will not tarry.”

Luk 18:34.- “And they understood none of these things: And this saying was hid from them, Neither knew they the things which were spoken.”

All this to enhance the fact of the utter ignorance of the disciples.

John 1:3.-“All things were made by Him, and without Him was not anything made that was made.”

John 1:20.-“And he confessed, and denied not; but confessed, I am not the Christ.”

John 3:15.-“That whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have eternal life.”

Acts 18:9.-“Be not afraid, but speak, and hold not thy peace.”

Rom 4:20.-“He staggered not at the promise of God through unbelief; but was strong in faith.”

Rom 12:11.-“Not slothful in business.” Lit., in diligence, not slothful. See under Ellipsis and Idiom.

Rom 12:14.-“Bless, and curse not.”

1Co 1:10.-“That there be no divisions among you; but that ye be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment.”

Gal 5:1.-“Stand fast therefore in the liberty wherewith Christ hath made us free, and be not entangled again with the yoke of bondage.”

1Jn 1:5.-“God is light, and in Him is no darkness at all.”

1Jn 1:8.-“If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us.” So 1Jn 2:4, etc.

-------- Periphrasis; or, Circumlocution When a Description is used instead of the Name

Pe-riph´-ra-sis, περίφρασις, from περί (peri), around or about, and φράζειν (phrazein), to speak. The figure is so called because more words than are necessary are used to describe anything: as when a thing is spoken of by a description of it, instead of simply using its name: and this for the sake of calling attention to it; and in order to emphasize and increase the effect. Or, when a person or thing is spoken of by some attribute, instead of by its proper simple name: as when, instead of saying Luther, we say “the monk that shook the world,” or “the miner’s son.” When this is done for emphasis, and to enhance the meaning, it is called Periphrasis, and by the Latins CIRCUMLOCUTIO, or CIRCUITIO: i.e., a speaking or going round about a thing. When this is done to avoid what may be indelicate or unseemly, or to hide what might in some way give offence, then it is called Euphemism (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) or smooth-speech, i.e., an elegant or refined expression for a distasteful or coarse one, or a gentle and beautiful expression instead of the strictly literal one, which might offend the ear or the persons addressed. But as this, though a kind of Periphrasis, is the change or substitution of one word or term for another, we have described and illustrated Euphemism under our third great division, viz., Figures involving Change.

Gen 20:16.-Abimelech said unto Sarah concerning Abraham, “Behold, I have given thy brother a thousand pieces of silver; behold, he is to thee a covering of the eyes unto all that are with thee, and with all other: thus she was reproved.”

“A covering of the eyes” is a periphrasis for a husband. Having said “thy brother,” Abimelech avoids calling him directly thy husband, and thus rebukes her by using this beautiful periphrasis. See Gen 24:65. 1Co 11:5, etc.

Gen 46:26.-Those that “came out of his loins”: i.e., his direct descendants-his children and grandchildren. Hence, the number of these differs from (and is smaller than) the number spoken of in Acts 7:14, which embraces “all his kindred”: i.e., all his other relations who are specifically excepted in Gen 46:26.

Jdg 5:10.-“Speak, ye that ride on white asses (i.e., princes), ye that sit in judgment (i.e., rulers), and walk by the way (i.e., merchants).”

These periphrases mean simply, “Speak, ye princes, ye rulers, and ye merchants”; but their description, instead of their names, emphasizes the classes of persons so described.

2Sa 3:29.-“That falleth on the sword”: i.e., is put to death by the public executioner.

2Ch 26:5.-Uzziah “sought God in the days of Zechariah who had understanding in the visions of God”: i.e., who was a Prophet.

2Ch 32:21.-“They that came forth of his own bowels (i.e., his own sons) slew him,” who ought to have been the very last to commit such a crime.

Pro 30:31.-The Periphrasis, here, in the Heb. (see marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] ) is well girt in the loins, which both the A.V. [Note: The Authorized Version, or current Text of our English Bible, 1611.] and R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] have rendered “greyhound”! But the figure is used of a war-horse caparisoned, mail-clad, and adorned for war.

Ecc 12:1-14 is full of the most beautiful examples. See under Euphemism and Metalepsis.

Psa 4:7.-“Thou hast put gladness in my heart, more than in the time that their corn and their wine increased”: i.e., more than in the joy of their abundant harvest and vintage.

Psa 105:18 is a Periphrasis for Joseph’s captivity, referring to Gen 39:20-23; Gen 41:12.

Psa 132:3-4.-The Periphrasis is used in order to emphasize David’s determination not to rest until he had done it.

Isa 14:15.-“Yet thou shalt be brought down to hell (Sheol), to the sides of the pit”: i.e., be dead and buried.

Jer 21:13.-“Inhabitress of the valley and rock of the plain”: i.e., Zion is spoken of by this description on account of its situation. Compare Jos 15:8.

Eze 1:22.-“The likeness of the firmament upon (or over) the heads of the living creature was as a species of ice exceedingly strong (i.e., crystal), etc.”

Eze 24:16.-“The desire of thine eyes”: i.e., thy wife, as is clear from Eze 24:18. So Eze 24:21 and Eze 24:25.

Eze 24:25.-“The lifting up of their soul”: marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] , their beloved sons and daughters.

Eze 26:9.-“Engines of war”: battering-rams.

Eze 31:14.-“The trees by the waters.” Lit., “trees drinking water.” The Periphrasis is used for trees that are watered by irrigation. Hence, trees planted in a garden.

Mic 7:5.-Here we have a double Periphrasis. “The doors of thy mouth,” by Metonymy for words, or what is said, and “her that lieth in thy bosom” for thy wife.

Zep 1:9.-“Those that leap on the threshold”: i.e., the servants of the rulers and others who were sent to enter the houses of others and take away the good things that were therein. The words that follow show this to be the correct interpretation; for such are said to fill their Masters’ homes with what they have taken by violence and deceit. It does not, as many suppose, refer to idolatrous worship, for the word דָּלַג (dalag) is not so used. On the contrary: compare 2Sa 22:30. Psa 18:29 (30). Song of Solomon 2:8. Isa 35:6.

Mat 11:11.-“Born of women”; i.e., born by natural process. See Luk 7:28. Job 14:1; Job 15:14; Job 25:4. Luk 2:23.

Mat 26:29.-“This fruit of the vine” for wine. See Metonymy.

Mat 27:62.-“The next day, that followed the day of the preparation”: i.e., the Sabbath. This seems to be one of the most striking instances in the New Testament, especially when we compare Luk 23:56. The selfsame day is meant. But mark the difference. To the holy and devout women that day was still the Sabbath. But in the case of those who had rejected “the Lord of the Sabbath,” what happens? It has been observed that, when He is on the point of leaving the Temple for the last time, our Lord, who formerly, even in that same week, before He had been finally rejected in that House, than which He was greater, had spoken of it as “My Father’s House,” now calls it “your house.” So, here again. From these rejectors of the Sabbath’s Lord, the very name of their sacred day is taken away. And the Spirit uses this long, round-about, depreciatory phrase: “the next day, that followed the day of the preparation.”

Luk 2:11.-“In the city of David”: i.e., Bethlehem.

Luk 21:35.-“All them that dwell on the face of the whole earth”: i.e., everyone. See under Pleonasm.

John 1:9.-“That was the true Light, which lighteth every man that cometh into the world.” This rendering is obtained by disregarding the figure, taking the participle “coming” as though it were the present tense, and referring it to “every man,” instead of to “the True Light.” The common Hebrew Periphrasis for man was טבא בעולם, the comer into the world.^{* [Note: In accordance with Luk 2:23.]} But this expression (the Coming One) in the New Testament (and especially in John’s writings) is used exclusively of Christ alone, and this in an exalted sense as the Coming One. Thus the verse reads, “The True Light is he who, coming into the world, lighteneth every man” (i.e., of course, every man without distinction, not without exception! which would not be true).

Thus the verse teaches: (1) that no longer was the Light to be confined to one nation or to one People, but was to enlighten all without distinction of race; and (2) that no man can be enlightened except by Christ.

2Co 5:1.-“Our earthly house of this tabernacle”: i.e., this body.

1Th 4:1-18 -In this chapter there are three examples of Periphrasis, all used for the Gentiles:- 1Th 4:5, “which know not God.”

1Th 4:12, “them that are without.”

1Th 4:13, “others which have no hope.” The description, by which the Gentiles are thus spoken of, is so much more expressive than the mere mention of the word “Gentiles.”

Heb 1:14.-“Heirs of salvation” is a beautiful Periphrasis for the elect.

2Pe 1:13.-“As long as I am in this tabernacle”: i.e., am alive.

2Pe 1:14, “Shortly I must put off this my tabernacle”: i.e., must die. This is strictly speaking Euphemy (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ): viz., a pleasant periphrasis to describe an unpleasant fact, instead of naming it plainly.

-------- Hyperbole; or, Exaggeration When more is said than is literally meant

Hy-per´-bo-le is from ὑπέρ (huper or hyper), over and above, or beyond (like Lat., super), and βολή (bolee), a casting, from βάλλειν (ballein), to throw. Hence, a casting or going beyond, overshooting, excess. The figure is so called because the expression adds to the sense so much that it exaggerates it, and enlarges or diminishes it more than is really meant in fact. Or, when more is said than is meant to be literally understood, in order to heighten the sense.

It is the superlative degree applied to verbs and sentences and expressions or descriptions, rather than to mere adjectives. The figure is known by several names. It is called EPAUXESIS (Ep´-aux-ee´-sis), growth or increase upon. HYPEROCHE (hy-per´-o-ché), excess, superabundance.HYPERTHESIS (hy-per´-the-sis), a placing or passing beyond, superlative. It was called by the Latins SUPERLATIO (su-per-la´ti-o), a carrying beyond, an exaggerating.

Gen 2:24.-“Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife.” This does not mean that he is to forsake and no longer to love or care for his parents. So Mat 19:5.

Gen 41:47.-“And in the seven plenteous years the earth brought forth by handfuls”: i.e., one grain produced a handful of grains, which is hyperbolical of a prolific increase. So Gen 41:49.

Gen 42:28.-“Their heart failed them.” Here the Hyperbole “their heart went out,” is thus beautifully rendered.

Exo 8:17.-“All the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt”: i.e., wherever in all the land there was dust, it became lice.

Deu 1:28.-“The cities are great, and walled up to heaven,” to express their great height. So Deu 9:1, etc.

Jdg 5:4-5, beautifully sets forth the Divine Majesty manifested in Jehovah’s leading the People into the Promised Land.

Jdg 20:16.-“Every one could sling stones at an hair and not miss”: to describe the wonderful proficiency which the Benjamites had attained in slinging stones. The A.V. [Note: The Authorized Version, or current Text of our English Bible, 1611.] has added breadth in italics, so as to lessen the boldness of the Hyperbole, “an hair breadth.”

1Sa 5:12.-“The cry of the city went up to heaven,” to describe the greatness of the cry.

1Sa 7:6.-“And they gathered together to Mizpeh, and drew water, and poured it out before the Lord, and fasted, etc.” This is an hyperbolical description of the intensity of their weeping and lamentation. Similar descriptions occur Psa 6:6; Psa 119:136. Jer 9:1. Lam 3:48-49.

1Sa 25:37.-Nabal’s “heart died within him, and he became as a stone”: i.e., he was terribly frightened and collapsed or fainted away.

1Ki 1:40.-“So that the earth rent with the sound of them.” A hyperbolical description of their jumping and leaping for joy.

1Ki 10:5.-“There was no more spirit in her”: i.e., she was dazed or stupefied, as we say, with astonishment.

2Ch 28:9.-“A rage that reacheth up unto heaven,” to express the intensity of the rage.

Ezr 9:6.-“Our trespass is grown up unto the heavens,” to express the enormity of their sin.

Neh 8:4.-“And Ezra the Scribe stood upon a tower (marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] ) of wood”: i.e., a high wooden structure; or, as we should say, a platform or pulpit.

Job 29:6.-“The rock poured me out rivers of oil”: i.e., I had abundance of all good things. So Job 20:17 and Mic 6:7.

Job 39:19.-“Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?”

Glassius gives this as an Hyperbole for the neighing of the horse, but it seems better to take רַעְמָה (ra’mah), of a flowing mane, from רָעַם (ra’am), to tremble, shake, wave, as in Job 39:25. The word denotes a shaking, as well as the noise caused by the shaking. See Psa 104:7. Isa 29:6. The lxx. has φόβον (phobon), fear, perhaps a mistake for φόβην (phobeen), a mane:-“Thou hast clothed his neck with a flowing mane.”

Psa 107:26.-“They mount up to the heaven, they go down again to the depths”: to express the violence of a storm; and waves, as we say, “mountain-high.”

Pro 23:8.-“The morsel which thou hast eaten shalt thou vomit up”: to express the suffering of regrets at having received benefits from such a host.

Isa 5:25; Isa 42:15.-These are hyperbolical descriptions to set forth the excessive anger and judgments of Jehovah in making the Land desolate.

Isa 14:13.-“I will ascend into heaven”: to express the pride of Lucifer.

Isa 57:9.-“Thou … didst debase thyself even unto hell (Sheol)”; to emphasize the indignity of Ahaz, king of Judah in sending to Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, to help him against Israel, saying, “I am thy servant!” (2Ki 16:7, etc.).

Jer 1:19; Jer 15:20.-“They shall fight against thee” (see below, Jas 4:1). The verb, which means to wage war, is Hyperbole when used of a single individual; but it told Jeremiah how bitter the opposition of man would be to his Divine message.

Jer 4:29.-“The whole city shall flee … they shall go into thickets.” Lit., into the clouds; to express the inaccessible places.

Jer 51:9.-“Her judgment reacheth unto heaven, and is lifted up even to the skies”: to express the magnitude of Babylon’s sin which called for such a judgment (Rev 18:5).

Jer 51:53.-“Though Babylon should mount up to heaven”; to express the pride of Babylon.

Lam 2:1.-“How hath the Lord … cast down from heaven unto the earth the beauty of Israel”: to express the degradation of Zion and the height of glory from which she had fallen.

Lam 2:11.-“My liver is poured upon the earth, etc”: to express the depth of the Prophet’s grief and sorrow at the desolations of Zion.

Eze 27:28.-“The suburbs shall shake at the sound of the cry of thy pilots.” So R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] , but both margins say waves. The root גָּרַשׁ (garash) means to drive out, drive about. When used of a city, it refers to the suburbs which are driven out from the city: but, used of the sea, it means the driving and casting about of its waves. See Isa 57:20. The figure here expresses the greatness of the terror of the defenders of Tyre in the day of its overthrow: “the waves of the sea shall lash themselves at the sound of the cry of thy pilots.”

Dan 9:21.-“Gabriel … being caused to fly swiftly.” Lit. (see marg. [Note: arg. Margin.] ), with weariness: i.e., with such swiftness as to cause weariness.

Mat 11:23.-“And thou, Capernaum, which art exalted unto heaven, shall be brought down to hell.” Or, as in the R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] , “And thou Capernaum, shalt thou be exalted unto heaven? thou shalt go down (or be brought down) unto Hades.”

Mat 21:13.-“My house shall be called a house of prayer, but ye have made it a den of thieves.” The Lord thus emphasizes the fact which is plainly stated in Mal 3:8 : “Ye have robbed me.”

Luk 14:26.-“If any man come to me and hate not his father and mother”: i.e., does not esteem them less than me. So the verb to hate is used (Gen 29:31. Rom 9:13).

“Anger” is used for displeasure (Deu 3:26).

“Save” is used for preserve (Job 2:6. Eze 18:17).

“Lose the life” is used of esteeming it as a small matter (Mat 10:39; Mat 16:25. Mark 8:35. Luk 9:24; Luk 17:33, as is clear from Rev 12:11). To mar is used for hurting (Ruth 4:6): i.e., for his heirs. To rob is used of receiving wages (2Co 11:8).^{* [Note: As we often say, in declining a favour, “I have no wish to rob you.”]} Luk 18:5.-“Lest by her continual coming she weary me.” True of man-but an Hyperbole as applied to God.

See Anthropopatheia.

John 3:26.-“All men come to him.” Thus his disciples said to John, to show their sense of the many people who followed the Lord.

John 12:19.-“Behold, the world is gone after him.” The enemies of the Lord thus expressed their indignation at the vast multitudes which followed Him.

Jas 3:6.-“The tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity.” It is a question here, whethor κόσμος (kosmos) does not mean ornament or adorning, as in 1Pe 3:3 : i.e., the decking or adorning of iniquity, glozing it over and making that which is sinful, appear to be innocent, etc.

Jas 4:1.-“From whence come wars and fightings among you.” The word “war” is used hyperbolically when applied to the quarrels of social life. So Jer 1:19; Jer 15:20 (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). See above.

Other examples of Hyperbole may be seen in 2Sa 17:13. 2Ki 19:24. Job 40:18. Isa 14:14; Isa 34:3-4; Isa 34:7. Eze 26:4; Eze 32:5-8. Amo 9:13. Nah 2:3. Gal 4:15.

Examples pertaining to comparisons are frequent, where one thing is compared with another, when there is nothing common between them:- The sand of the sea and the dust of the earth are constantly used to express a vast number. (See under Idiom).

Gen 13:16; Gen 22:17; Gen 28:14. 1Ki 4:20. 2Ch 1:9. Heb 11:12 : of Abraham’s seed.

Jdg 7:12 : of the Midianites.

1Sa 13:5 : of the Philistines.

1Ki 4:29 : of Solomon’s largeness of heart.

Job 29:18 : of the days of a man’s life.

Psa 78:27 : of the feathered fowl in the wilderness.

Isa 29:5 : of other peoples.

Jer 15:8 : of Judah’s widows.

Other comparisons may be seen.

2Sa 1:23.-Saul and Jonathan “swifter than eagles,” “stronger than lions.” So Jer 4:13, and Lam 4:19, to express great velocity.

1Ki 10:27.-Silver and gold as stones. So 2Ch 1:15; 2Ch 9:20.

Job 6:3.-Job’s grief heavier than the sand.

Job 41:18.-Leviathan’s sneezings causing light to shine.

Hab 2:5.-To express great rapacity.

Lam 4:7-8.-To express and contrast the dignity and indignity of the sons of Zion. hypotheses.

Sometimes we have Hyperbolical Hypotheses, which are impossible in themselves, but are used to express the greatness of the subject spoken of.

Psa 139:8; Psa 139:10.-To show the wondrous omnipresence of God.

Pro 27:22.-To show the folly and incorrigibility of the fool.

Obadiah 1:4.-To emphasize the certainty of the coming judgment of Edom. Compare Jer 49:16, and Mat 11:23 as quoted above.

Mark 8:36. Luk 9:25.-To express the utmost gain and make the strongest contrast.

1Co 4:15.-To express the difference between pedagogues and parents.

1Co 13:1-3.-There are many hyperbolical hypotheses in these verses, to show the all-importance of the love of God shed abroad in the heart by the Holy Ghost.

Gal 1:8.-An angel from heaven preaching a different gospel is inconceivable. The hypothesis is used in order to show the importance of the Gospel of God.

1Ki 20:10.-“The boasting of Benhadad.”

Mat 5:29.-“If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out …”

Mat 5:30.-“If thy right hand offend thee, etc.”

It is perfectly clear that Christ does not wish us to mutilate our bodies: so that this must be an hyperbolical or emphatic exhortation to avoid and remove everything and anything that causes us to stumble.

Luk 10:4 is an hyperbolical command not to loiter or delay in ceremonious salutations (such as are common even to the present day).

John 21:25 is also Hyperbole. The verb χωρῆσαι (chōreesai) is to be taken in the same sense, as it is in Mat 19:11, where the Lord says, “All men cannot receive this saying;” and in Mat 19:12, “He that is able to receive it, let him receive it.” The “world” is also put by Metonymy for mankind.

Hence, Thophylact expounds χωρῆσαι (chōreesai), to receive, by νοῆσαι (noeesai), to understand.

Rom 9:3.-“For I could wish that myself were accursed from Christ” is an hyperbolical supposition. Or we may take this sentence as being in a parenthesis, and render the imperfect tense ηὐχόμην (eeuchomeen) in the sense of I used to wish. The passage would then read, “I have great heaviness and continual sorrow in my heart for my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh, (for I used to wish myself to be a cursed thing from Christ).”

Jude 1:23.-“Hating even the garment spotted by the flesh.” This is an hyperbolical prohibition as to avoiding all contact with defilement. In the statements of the Lord Jesus there often seems to be an Hyperbole when there is really none: e.g., Mark 16:15. John 3:32.

-------- Anabasis; or, Gradual Ascent An Increase of Sense in successive Sentences

A-năb´-a-sĭs. Greek, ἀνάβασις, from ἀνά (ana), up, and βαίνειν (bainein), to go; βάσις (basis) means a stepping, or a step. So that Anabasis means a going up^{* [Note: Hence, the journey or expedition of Cyrus up from the coast into Central Asia is called his Anabasis, by Xenophon.]} or ascent. The Figure is so called when a writing, speech, or discourse, ascends up step by step, each with an increase of emphasis or sense. This figure was called by the Latins INCREMENTUM (In´-crē-men´-tum), growth or increase, from incresco, to grow on or upon. Hence our words “increase” and “increment.” When this increase or ascent is from weaker to stronger expression, and is confined to words, it is called Climax (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ).

[N.B.-When the sense or gradation is downward instead of upward, it is called Catabasis, see below.] The figure was also called AUXESIS (aux-ee´-sis), growth or increase. This increase is often connected with Parallelism (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). When the increase is not a mere increase of vehemence, or of evil, but leads up from things inferior to things superior; from things terrestial to things celestial; from things mundane to things spiritual; the figure is called ANAGOGE (an´-a-gō-gee), from ἀνά (ana), again or up, and ἄγειν (agein), to lead, a leading up.

Psa 1:1.-“Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly, nor standeth in the way of sinners, nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful.”

Here is a triple Anabasis depending on Parallelism (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). The first are impious, as to their mind. The second are sinners, who not only think, but carry out the workings of their evil minds. The third are scorners, glorying in their wickedness and scoffing at righteousness.

Again, the first continue in that mind, taking evil counsel. The second carry it out, as the principle of their walk. The third settle down in their evil, as on a seat.

These three are exemplified in the first three verses of the next Psalm, where a corresponding Anabasis is seen:-

Psa 2:1-3.-First, we have the “heathen”: i.e., the Gentile nations; then “the peoples”: i.e., the Tribes of God, Israel imagining vain things; and in the third, we have “kings” and “rulers,” all conspiring together.

Acts 4:27 gives us the fulfilment:-(1) we have the kings and rulers taking counsel; (2) we have the rage and vain imaginations; and (3) the open and actual rebellion. On Psa 1:1, see page 350.

Psa 7:5.- “Let the enemy persecute my soul, and take it;

Yea, let him tread down my life upon the earth. And lay mine honour in the dust.”

Psa 18:37-38.- “I have pursued mine enemies, And overtaken them:

Neither did I turn again till they were consumed.

I have wounded them that they were not able to rise:

They are fallen under my feet.”

Isa 1:4.- “Ah sinful nation, A people laden with iniquity, A seed of evildoers, Children that are corrupters.”

Eze 2:6.-“And thou son of man, be not afraid of them, neither be afraid of their words, though briers and thorns be with thee, and thou dost dwell among scorpions: Be not afraid of the words, nor be dismayed at their looks, though they be a rebellious house.” And why this Anabasis? To impress upon us that whatever opposition we may encounter, we are to speak and give forth the word of God, whether men will hear or whether they will forbear (Eze 2:5 and Eze 2:7), and not to corrupt it or alter it to please the people: to distribute versions of it, not “the best that people will take,” but the best that we can make.

Dan 9:5.- “We have sinned, and have committed iniquity, and have done wickedly, and have rebelled, even by departing from thy precepts and from thy judgments.”

Hab 1:5.- “Behold ye among the heathen, and regard, and wonder marvellously: For I will work a work in your days, which ye will not believe, though it be told you.”

Zec 7:11.- “But they refused to hearken, And pulled away the shoulder, And stopped their ears that they should not hear.

Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant stone, lest they should hear the law, etc.”

Thus the Anabasis powerfully and emphatically sets forth the secret cause of Israel’s trouble.

Zec 8:12.- “For the seed shall be prosperous, The vine shall give her fruit, And the ground shall give her increase, And the heavens shall give their dew, And I will cause the remnant of this people to possess all these things.”

1Co 4:8.- “Now ye are full, Now ye are rich, Ye have reigned as kings without us.”

See under Asyndeton.

1Jn 1:1.- “That which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon, and our hands have handled, of the Word of life.” As contrasted with Anabasis, we here introduce Catabasis, instead of including it under Figures involving Omission, in order that the contrast may be more clearly seen:-

-------- Catabasis; or, Gradual Descent The Opposite of Anabasis

Cat-ab´-a-sis, a going down: from κατά (kata), down, and βάσις (basis), a going. This is the opposite of Anabasis, and is used to emphasize humiliation, degradation, sorrow, etc. The Latins called it DECREMENTUM, i.e., decrease-an increase in the opposite direction, an increase of depreciation.

Isa 40:31.-“They that wait upon the Lord shall renew their strength; they shall mount up with wings as eagles, they shall run, and not be weary, they shall walk, and not faint.” The figure Catabasis here illustrates the effect of growth in grace. At first the believer flies; but as his experience increases, he runs, and at the end of his course he walks. Like Paul, who first said “I suppose I was not a whit behind the very chiefest apostles” (2Co 11:5; 2Co 12:11). Later he writes, I “am less than the least of all saints” (Eph 3:8); while at the end of his life he says, I am the chief of sinners! (1Ti 1:15).

Jer 9:1.- “Oh that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people!” (See above.) Lam 4:1-2.-“How is the most fine gold changed! The stones of the sanctuary are poured out in the top of every street. The precious sons of Zion, comparable to fine gold, How are they esteemed as earthen pitchers, the work of the hands of the potter!”

Eze 22:18.-“Son of man, the house of Israel is to me become dross: all they are brass, and tin, and iron, and lead, in the midst of the furnace; they are even the dross of silver.”

Dan 2:1-49 -The Figure Catabasis is seen in the four successive world-powers, showing a deterioration and a growing inferiority. Gold, silver, brass, iron and clay. Not only is this deterioration in power and authority shown in the decrease of value, but in the decrease of specific gravity:-Gold is equivalent to 19∙3; silver, 10∙51; brass, 8∙5; iron, 7∙6; and clay, 1∙9. Down from 19∙3 to 1∙9.^{* [Note: See Ten Sermons on the Second Advent, by the same author and publisher.]}

Amo 9:2-3.- “Though they climb up to heaven, thence will I bring them down: And though they hide themselves in the top of Carmel, I will search and take them out thence: And though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the serpent, and he shall bite them.”

Thus powerfully is shown the impossibility of escaping from the judgments of God.

Php 2:6-8.-“Who, being in the form of God, 1.Thought it not robbery to be equal with God:

2.    But made himself of no reputation.

3.And took upon him the form of a servant, 4.And was made in the likeness of men, 5.And being found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself, 6.And became obedient unto death, 7.Even the death of the cross.”

These seven downward steps in the Saviour’s humiliation, are followed in Php 2:9-11 by seven steps upward in His glorification. The word “robbery” is ἁραγμός (harpagmos), and means, not the thing grasped or seized, but the act of seizing. The contrast is between the first man and the second: the first Adam and the last. The Tempter promised our first parents that they should “be as gods” (i.e., as God Himself), and they grasped at equality with God. The second man, on the contrary, did not yield to the temptation, but humbled himself, and reached the highest position in glory through suffering and death, even the death of the cross.

There is also probably a reference to John 6:15. Our Lord was perfectly aware that He was “a born King” (Mat 2:2). And Herod and all Jerusalem knew it too. Hence the consequent alarm. But the Lord knew also that Cæsar had, for the time, been allowed of God to lord it over His people, for their sins, and the fulfilment of His designs. He would therefore countenance no unauthorized attempt on the part of those who did not believingly own Him either as to His Divine or His human nature and rights.

Note also as to the words used: “Thought.” The verb ἡγεῖσθαι (heegeisthai), to bring one’s self to think. Adam and his wife may have “brought themselves to think,” at the serpent’s instigation, that the thing he suggested was something to grasp at, and therefore worth the grasping effort. Eve, at any rate, would seem to have thought so. Adam we cannot, perhaps, say the same of, for “Adam,” we are expressly told, “was not deceived.” Hence, apparently, his deeper guilt. But no “subtil serpent” could for a moment-(notice the Aor. ἡγήσατο, He never once admitted the thought)-induce the “second Man,” “the Lord from heaven,” to think it possible to become equal with God, any more than he could induce Him to deny or forget that essentially He was so in His Divine nature: Son of God, as truly as Son of Man. Hence we may suggest such a rendering as this: “Who, being originally in the form of God, never considered the being on an equality with God a usurping (or usurper’s) business.” To be what one is is no usurping business. Nor is it so, either, to know and assert that one is so.

-------- Merismos; or, Distribution An Enumeration of the Parts of a Whole which has been mentioned

Mĕ-ris´-mos. Greek, μερισμός (merismos), division, from μέρος (meros), a part. The figure is so called because, after mentioning a thing as a whole, the parts are afterwards enumerated.

Also EPIMERISMOS, which is merismos with ἐπί (epi), upon, prefixed (Ep´-i-mĕ-ris´-mus).

It was called also DIALLAGE (Dī-al´-la-gee), διαλλαγή, interchange, from διά (dia), through, or asunder, and ἀλλάσσειν (allassein), to make other than it is, to change throughout. The Latins called it DISTRIBUTIO (Dis-tri-bu´-ti-o), and DISCRIMINATIO (Dis-crim´-i-na-ti-o). Also DIGESTIO (Di-ges´-ti-o), i.e., reduction to order, classification.

Though these names express, in the first instance, division, we have classed the figure under figures of addition; because, after the thing has been named and mentioned, it is divided up, and the various parts are added together to enhance the effect, increase the emphasis, and amplify the sense.

Isa 24:1-3 where, after stating the fact, “Behold, the Lord maketh the earth empty,” the statement is amplified, and the way in which God will do this and scatter the People is afterwards enumerated.

Eze 36:4.-After saying “Ye mountains of Israel, hear the word of the Lord God (Adonai Jehovah),” the word is spoken, not only to the mountains, but to the hills and rivers, and valleys, and desolate wastes, and the cities that are forsaken. And all this to show how complete shall be the blessing for the land of Israel.

Rom 2:6-8.-Here, after stating that God “will render to every man according to his deeds” in Rom 2:6-8 go on to enumerate the particulars of the two great classes of deeds.

Gal 5:19-21.-“The works of the flesh” are first mentioned as a whole, and then the whole sixteen are named and enumerated.

Gal 5:22-23.-“The fruit of the Spirit” is first mentioned, and then the nine manifestations of it are enumerated. It is “fruit” in the singular, though made up of many parts like a cluster of grapes.

-------- Synathrœsmos; or, Enumeration The Enumeration of the Parts of a Whole which has not been mentioned

Syn´-ath-rœs´-mos. Greek, συναθροίσμος (syn-ath-rois-mos), gathering together, assembling. It is used of an assemblage of terms or species brought together without being first mentioned as a whole, and not being necessarily the distribution of the parts of any one thing. The figure is also called APARITHMESIS (ap-a-rith´-mee-sis), from ἀπό (apo), from or off, and ἀριθμεῖν (arithmein), to count. Hence, to count off, enumerate. The Latins, from this, called it ENUMERATIO, which has the same meaning. The Latin term for Synathrœsmus is CONGERIES (con-ge´-ri-ees), from con, together, and gerere, to bear, carry or bring; and denotes a heap, or combination. From the fact that such enumeration or combination sometimes made the argument or statement drag, the figure was called SYRMOS, which is the Greek συρμός (syrmos), a trailing, from σύρειν (surein), to drag, trail along. And, because a number of different words were thus united, it was also called EIRMOS (eir´-mos), from εἴρω (eirō), to string together.

It differs from Merismus in that the things enumerated are not first briefly mentioned under one head: and it differs from Synonymia, in that they are not synonymous, but may be of many kinds and descriptions.

It also differs from Symperasma, in that they do not occur at the conclusion, but in the course of what is said. The use of the figure is to enrich a discourse, or part of it, by enumerating particulars, or by multiplying epithets.

All the figures which we are grouping under this head are figures of Amplification; otherwise this is called by some Amplificatio. But we have used this as a general term for the whole group and have not restricted it to any one particular figure.

Isa 1:11; Isa 1:13.-“To what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me? saith the Lord: I am full of the burnt offerings of rams, and the fat of fed beasts; and I delight not in the blood of bullocks, or of lambs, or of he-goats … Bring no more vain oblations; incense is an abomination unto me.”

One sentence would have expressed the whole, “your sacrifices are not pleasing to me.” But, by the figure Synathrœsmos, all kinds of sacrifices are enumerated, and the sense is thus amplified and emphasized to show that, with all their outward show of “religion,” there was no true worship of the spirit and heart. So with the feasts, in Isa 1:14, and with prayers, in Isa 1:15. The figure is used here to emphasize the fact that religious ordinances and services are nothing in themselves. In the days of our Lord there was plenty of “religion”: Isa 1:1-31 describes the abundance of it; but there was no heart in it. It was all form! and it was these very religious people (and not the rabble) who crucified the Lord!

Isa 3:16-23.-Here, the various ornaments of women are heaped together, to heighten the effect, and to emphasize the awful judgment of verses 24-4:1.

Rom 1:29-31.-Here, many abominations of the heathen are enumerated to show what is the outcome of the “reprobate mind.”

There are other figures in this passage. See under Paronomasia, Ellipsis, and Asyndeton.

It will be easy to recognize this figure whenever it is met with.

1Ti 4:1-3.-Here, is an enumeration of the characters which will make the “latter times” so perilous. Also in 2Ti 3:1-7, we have another enumeration.

1Pe 4:3.-Here, are enumerated the things which characterize the condition of the Gentiles.

-------- Epitrochasmos; or, Summarising A running lightly over by way of Summary When the enumeration called Synathrœsmus is made, not for the sake of amplifying, but only for the sake of abbreviating, by summarising, so as to hurry over what is being said (rather than for the sake of dwelling upon it), so as to pass on quickly to another subject, it is then called EPITROCHASMOS (Ep´-i-tro-chas´-mos), from ἐπί (epi), upon or over, and τροχάζειν (trochazein), to run along quickly. Hence Epitrochasmus means a running lightly over. The Latins called it PERCURSIO, which means a running through. In this connection, it is practically the same as Asyndeton (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), where examples may be found. See Exo 15:9-10.

Epitrochasmus is therefore a figure of Omission; in that the conjunction “and” is omitted for the sake of running quickly through the enumeration; and an omission of sense also, in that it abbreviates and summarises. On the other hand it comes under the head of figures involving addition in that it at the same time certainly amplifies by a copious pouring forth of words.

Thus, while there is an actual addition of words, that very addition is for the purpose of avoiding a longer statement.

We have therefore mentioned this figure here in this division.

Heb 11:32 is an example; where a number of persons are named or alluded to, but not dwelt upon.

-------- Diexodos; or, Expansion A lengthening out by copious Exposition of Facts When Synathrœsmos is used of facts, etc., instead of single words or things, it is called DIEXODOS (Di-ex´-od-os), a way out through, from διά (dia), through; ἐξ (ex), out of; and ὁδός (hodos), a way. The figure is employed when there is a copious statement or exposition of facts, not so much for the purpose of amplification, or of abbreviation, as of digression. Indeed, it is the opposite of Syntomia: which means a cutting off short, abridgment: whereas Diexodos is a lengthening out by a digression in order to expand.

See 2Pe 2:13; 2Pe 2:15; 2Pe 2:17. Jude 1:12-13; Jude 1:16, etc.

-------- Epitheton; or, Epithet A Naming of a Thing by describing it

E-pith´-e-ton. Greek, ἐπίθετον, from ἐπίθετος (epithetos), placed upon, or added. The figure is so-called when an adjective or noun is used, which adds to the sense of the thing spoken of by simply holding forth some attribute, character, or quality descriptive of it. The adjective or the noun used for it by Enallage (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) is thus placed in apposition to it for the purpose of amplification by way of distinction, explanation, or description.

Hence it was called by the Latins APPOSITUM, and is so put by apposition. When the epithet is continued and used, after the reason for its being given has ceased, it is then called Ampliatio (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). Most of the examples will be found under that name. An Ampliatio is a change; an Epitheton is an addition.

Gen 21:16.-“And she (Hagar) went, and sat her down over against him, a good way off, as it were a bowshot”: the bowshot being an Epithet for a certain distance.

Exo 25:25; Exo 37:12. 1Ki 7:26. 2Ch 4:5. Psa 39:5. Eze 40:5.-An hand-breadth is used as an Epithet for a certain thickness.

Num 24:20.-“And when he looked on Amalek, he took up his parable, and said, Amalek was the first of the nations, But his latter end shall be that he perish for ever.” The last phrase “he perish” is an epithet, the result of the war which Jehovah would wage with him. The marginal reading shows the difficulty felt by the translators. Literally it is “The first of the nations is Amalek, And his end-for ever he perisheth”: i.e., “The first of the nations is Amalek, And his end is destruction.” For Amalek was the first who fought against Israel (Exo 17:8), and Jehovah will fight against Amalek to the end (Exo 17:16).

We may compare Amo 6:1.

Jdg 20:16.-A “hair-breadth” is used as an epithet of a minute width. See Hyperbole.

John 17:3.-“That they might know thee, the only true God.” Here “true” is not a mere adjective qualifying God, but is an epithet: “That they might know Thee-God, the only God, the true (or very) God.” So 1Jn 5:20. 1Th 1:9.

Such epithets are used of God, not to qualify but to distinguish Him from them who are no gods. See Gal 4:8. 1Co 8:5-6.

Luk 22:41.-A “stone’s-throw” is used as an epithet of a certain distance.

1Pe 4:3.-“Abominable idolatries”-abominable things: i.e., the worship of idols.

-------- Syntheton; or, Combination A placing together of two Words by Usage

Syn´-the-ton. Greek, σύνθετον, from σύν (sun), together, and τιθέναι (tithenai), to place. Hence, σύνθετος (synthetos) means put together.

It is used of this Figure because two words are by common usage joined by a conjunction for the sake of emphasis, as when we say “time and tide,” “end and aim,” “rank and fortune.”

It differs from Synthesis (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). And also from Hendiadys, where only one thing is meant, though two are used (see Hendiadys).

Gen 18:27.-“Dust and ashes.”

Psa 115:13.-“Small and great.”

Acts 7:22.-Moses was “mighty in words and in deeds.”

There are many examples where certain words thus become linked together by usage: e.g., “rich and poor,” “old and young,” “bread and wine,” “meat and drink,” “babes and sucklings,” “sins and iniquities,” “faith and works,” “God and man,” “thoughts and deeds,” etc., etc. The opposite of this Figure is Hendiadys (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), by which, though two words are used, only one thing is meant.

Here, in Syntheton, much more is meant than is expressed and embraced by the conjunction of the two words.

-------- Horismos; or, Definition A Definition of Terms

Hor-is´-mos. Greek, ὁρισμός (horismos), a boundary, from ὁρίζω (horizo), to divide, mark out, settle, define. Hence, it is called DEFINITIO, definition.

It is the figure by which the meaning of terms is defined and fixed, briefly and precisely: the definition of terms, so important in all kinds of argumentation.

3. Descriptio By way of Description In this division the addition to the sense is made by giving a description of a person, place, time, thing, or action. Hence, the term Descriptio is applied to some eleven different forms which the Description takes according to its nature or character. The first is

-------- Hypotyposis; or, Word-Picture Visible Representation of Objects or Actions by Words

Hy´-po-ty-po´-sis. Greek, ὑποτύπωσις, from ὑποτυποῦν (hypotypoun), to sketch out; from ὑπό (hypo), under, and τυποῦν (typoun), to impress; and this from τύπος (typos), impression. It occurs twice in the New Testament (1Ti 1:16 and 2Ti 1:13). In the plural it would express what we call “outlines.” The name is given to this figure because it describes an action, event, person, condition, passion, etc., in a lively and forcible manner, giving a vivid representation of it. In Latin, therefore, the name is REPRÆSENTATIO, representation, and ADUMBRATIO, a shadowing out or a sketching out in words.

Other Greek names of this figure are DIATYPOSIS (di´-a-ty-po´-sis), from διά (dia), through, and τυποῦν (typoun), to impress. The verb meaning to form thoroughly, to give a thorough form.

ENARGEIA, ἐνάργεια (en-ar-gei-a), vivid description, visible representation (in words).

PHANTASIA, φαντασία (phan-ta´-si-a), a making visible, a presentation of objects to the mind.

ICON (εἰκών, eikōn), an image, figure, likeness; and Latin IMAGO, an imitation, copy, or picture, but especially a statue, visibly presenting the object to the eye or mind.

EICASIA. Greek, εἰκασία (ei-ca´-si-a), a likeness, or image, from εἰκάζω (eikazo), to make like to, represent by a likeness.

Thus the nature of this figure is quite clear from the various names given to it. Hypotyposis is employed whenever anything is so described as to present it forcibly and vividly to the mind.

There are many examples in Scripture: but it is not necessary to transcribe whole passages, and in some cases whole chapters, in full.

Examples may be classified, in which things are thus vividly presented to the eye, and so described as to seem very real.

(1) The blessings on the obedience of Israel (Deu 28:1-14).

(2) The curses and the judgments (Deu 28:15-45. Isa 1:6-9; Isa 34:1-17. Jer 4:19-31). The greater part of Lamentations (esp., Lam 4:4-8).

(3) The captivity and scattering of Israel (Deu 28:49-68).

(4) The executioners of God’s judgments (Isa 5:26-30).

(5) The hollowness of mere religion, such as existed when Christ was on earth (Isa 1:11-15).

(6) The folly of idolators and idols and idolatry (Isa 44:9-17; Isa 46:6-7).

(7) The sufferings of Christ (Psa 22:1-31; Psa 59:1-17. Isa 53:1-12).

(8) The glory and triumph of Christ (Col 2:14-15, etc.).

(9) Certain similitudes: as when the blessings of Christ’s coming are compared to the rising sun (Mal 4:2), or a warrior (Rev 19:11-16); or when God is compared to a wine-refreshed giant when He arises to avenge His people (Psa 78:65-66); or when the godly remnant of Israel is compared to a Bride (Psa 45:1-17); or when the prosperity of the wicked is likened to a green bay-tree (Psa 37:35); and that of the righteous to the palm and the cedar (Psa 92:12-14).

-------- Prosopographia; or, Description of Persons

Pros´-ō-po-graph´-i-a, from πρόσωπον (pros´-ō-pon), a face, one’s look, or countenance, and later, a person; and γράφειν (graphein), to write, or describe. Hence Prosopographia is a vivid description of a person by delineating the general mien, dress manners, etc.

Called by the Latins PERSONÆ DESCRIPTIO, description of a person.

See Mat 3:4, where John’s appearance, etc., is described.

See also the graphic description of the Lord, after the execution of His judgments in the day of His vengeance (Isa 63:1-6). (Compare, for the interpretation of the passage, Isa 34:8; Isa 61:2).

Also the description of Jerusalem compared with a person when she was caused “to know her abominations” (Eze 16:4-26). When the description is confined to the personal appearance, or features, it is called

-------- Effictio; or, Word-Portrait

Ef-fic´-ti-o, from Latin, effingo, to form, fashion artistically, to portray. Hence, the name is given to the figure when a portrait is given in words, and the features, etc., are delineated and described. When the description is confined to the character, morals, of a person, it is called

-------- Characterismos; or, Description of Character

Char´-ac-ter-is´-mos. Greek, χαρακτηρισμός (characteerismos), designation by a characteristic mark. Hence, the name is given to the figure which gives a description of the character or morals of a person. When the description is confined to manners, it is called

-------- Ethopœia; or, Description of Manners

Ēth´-o-pœ´-i-a. Greek, ἠθοποιΐα (eethopœïa), expression of manner or custom; hence, used of a description of a person’s peculiarities as to manners, caprices, habits, whether in voice, gestures, or otherwise.

Called by the Latins NOTATIO, a marking or noting. Hence, a description of any manner or custom, etc., that a person is peculiarly noted for.

Called also MORUM EXPRESSIO.

Isa 3:16.-“The daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched forth necks, and wanton eyes, walking and mincing as they go, and making a tinkling with their feet.”

See also Jer 48:3-46; and Luk 18:9-14, where the Pharisee and the Publican are described by their manner, gesture, etc. In 1Pe 3:3, where women are exhorted to show the disposition of mind by avoiding the outward costume which is described. When the description or expression is confined to the feelings it is called

-------- Pathopœia; or, Description of Feelings

Path´-o-pœ-i-a. Greek, παθοποιΐα, from πάθος, feeling, and ποιεῖν (poiein), to make. Hence, the figure is so named, when the feelings and affections are described or expressed. For examples, see Isa 22:4; Isa 49:15. Jer 9:1-2; Jer 23:9; Jer 31:20. Hos 11:7-9. Mark 3:5; Mark 6:32; Mark 7:34; Mark 10:14; Mark 10:21. Luk 19:41. 2Co 2:4. Gal 4:19-20.

We have included this figure here, and also under those involving change, because sometimes this description is given by way of additional information, and sometimes it is given instead of naming or otherwise indicating the person or thing spoken of. The reader must distinguish these examples himself. When the description is confined to sayings, it is called

-------- Mimesis; or, Description of Sayings

Mi-mee-sis, from the Greek μίμησις (mi-mee-sis), imitation, from μιμεῖσθαι (mimeisthai), to imitate. The name is used when the sayings (and sometimes motions and thoughts) of another are described or imitated by way of emphasis.

Hence called by the Latins IMITATIO, imitation.

See Exo 15:9 (see Asyndeton). Psa 137:7; Psa 144:12-15 (see Ellipsis). Isa 14:13-14; Isa 28:15. Hos 14:2-3. Eze 36:2. Mic 2:11; Mic 3:11. So also 1Co 15:35, and Php 3:4-5.

Sometimes there is a use of a word which another is wont to use, and which is repeated so as delicately, but yet acutely, to direct him aright. As in 2Co 10:1; 2Co 10:10; and Gal 6:2.

-------- Pragmatographia; or, Description of Actions

Prag´-mat-o-graph´-i-a, from πρᾶγμα (pragma), an action or event, and γράφειν (graphein), to write: i.e., a description of an action or event. Hence, called by the Latins, REI AUT ACTIONIS DESCRIPTIO.

See Joe 2:1-11, where the description of the actions connected with the great people and strong which should come upon Zion is minutely and graphically given.

Mat 24:1-51 and Mark 13:1-37 describe the events of the Great Tribulation; and Luk 21:12, etc., the events which should long precede it.

See also some minute touches, especially in the Gospel of Mark: e.g., Mark 8:33; and Acts 6:15; Acts 7:55-56. When the description is confined to places, it is called

-------- Topographia; or, Description of Place

Top´-o-graph´i-a, from τόπος (top´-os), a place, and γράφειν (graphein), to write or describe.

Hence it is used of the figure which adds something to what is said by describing a place; or any peculiarity which marks the place, and throws light on what is being treated of.

Called by the Latins LOCI DESCRIPTIO.

Topographia is such a description of a place as exhibits it to our view; as the description of Sheol, Isa 14:9-12; Isa 30:33 : The new Heaven and Earth, Isa 65:17, etc.; Rev 21:1, etc.: The future glory of Jerusalem and the Land, Isa 33:20-21; Isa 35:6-10. Psa 46:5-6; Psa 60:6-9. In Psa 89:12, the description shows that the points of the compass are always^{* [Note: Excepting perhaps parts of Ezekiel written in Babylon.]} reckoned with reference to Jerusalem, “The north and the south thou hast created them: Tabor (in the west) and Hermon (in the east) shall rejoice in thy name.”

Thus the description of these places completes the four points of the compass. The names of the places in Isa 10:28-32 give us the course of the invasion of the land by the King of Assyria. The “Sea” is frequently mentioned by way of description to show that the West is intended: the Mediterranean being on the West of the Land. See Num 2:18 (Heb.). Jos 16:5-6. Eze 42:19 (Heb.). In Psa 107:3, however, the Sea evidently denotes the Red Sea; and though the word “sea” is in the Hebrew, it is rendered “South.” The emphasis put upon the wonderful Exodus is thus quietly but very powerfully introduced:” And gathered them out of the lands, from the east, and from the west, from the north, and from the sea!” because the deliverance from Egypt was through the sea. In Psa 72:8, “from sea to sea” means from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Compare Exo 23:31.

Sometimes a description of place is added and thrown in to convey a lesson, e.g., John 6:10, “Now there was much grass in the place.” Acts 8:26, “Which is desert,” to show that it mattered not to the true servant whether he ministered in a city (Acts 8:5), and gave joy to crowds of people (Acts 8:8), or whether he ministered to one soul in the desert (Acts 8:26).

See also Isa 65:17-25. Joe 2:3. Luk 16:24-26. John 11:18. When the description is confined to time, it is called

-------- Chronographia; or, Description of Time

Chron´-o-graph´-i-a, from χρόνος (chronos), time, and γράφεῖν (graphein), to write. It is called by the Latins, TEMPORIS DESCRIPTIO, a description of the time. The Figure is used, when, by the addition of the time, something explanatory is given which helps to the understanding of what is said; or, supplies some important fact; or, implies some extra lesson.

All such expressions, as “then” or “at that time,” should be noticed; and attention should be directed to the time to see when it was, and why the particular time should have been thus described or referred to. See

Mat 11:25-26.-“At that time Jesus answered and said, I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because thou hast hid these things from the wise and prudent, and hast revealed them unto babes. Even so Father: for so it seemed good in thy sight.”

Why is this specially marked by the words “at that time”? Because it was the time when John the Baptist questioned Him (Mat 11:2-6); when the people are rebuked for having said that John had a devil, and Christ was a glutton and drunkard (16-19); when the cities, in which most of His mighty works were done, repented not, and had their “woe” pronounced (20-24). “At that time,” Jesus said, “Even so, Father: for so it seemed good in thy sight.” In other words, He found rest “at that time,” in the hour of what man would call disappointment and failure, in the Father’s will. And then, He turns to His weary and heavy-laden servants, and invites them to come and find their rest where He found His; and thus to wear His yoke, and find His rest. (See this passage under other Figures: viz., Synecdoche, Catachresis, Idiom, and Parechesis.)

John 10:22.-“And it was winter.” This brief description of time, is intended to convey to us a sense of the humiliation and rejection of the Lord Jesus. The next verse tells how He “walked in Solomon’s porch,” on the bleak summit of Mount Moriah, to keep Himself warm; no one asking Him to house or inviting Him even into such of the Temple Chambers as had fires in them.

We may compare John 18:18.

See also Mark 6:48. Acts 2:15; Acts 10:3; Acts 10:9, etc. When the description is confined to the circumstances, it is called

-------- Peristasis; or, Description of Circumstances

Per-is´-ta-sis´, from the Greek περιστασις, anything that is round about, circumstances; and this from περι (peri), around, and στάσις (stasis), a standing, setting, or placing.

Peristasis is the name of the figure which describes the circumstances; and hence, it was called by the Latins, CIRCUMSTANTIÆ DESCRIPTIO.

See John 4:6; John 18:18, etc. When this figure is used for the purpose of moving the passions by a graphic description of circumstances, it is called

DIASKEUE.

Di-as-keu´-ee´ (διασκευή), from διασκευάζεσθαι (diaskeuazesthai), to arm, equip, or prepare oneself: the argument being made out of the particular circumstances of a case. When the description is confined to the order of certain persons, things, events, or circumstances, it is called

-------- Protimesis; or, Description of Order

Pro´-ti-mee´-sis (προτίμησις), a putting of one thing before another: from πρό (pro), before, and τιμή (timee), honour. Hence, the figure is employed when things are enumerated according to their places of honour or importance, using the particles “first,” “again,” “then,” or “firstly,” “secondly,” “thirdly,” etc. This figure; therefore, increases the emphasis of a particular statement by setting forth the order in which the things treated of stand, or take place.

1Co 15:5-8.-Speaking of the resurrection of Christ, it is written: “He was seen of Cephas; then of the twelve: after that, he was seen of above five hundred brethren at once: … after that, he was seen of James; then of all the apostles: and, last of all he was seen of me also, as of one born out of due time.” In like manner we have the same words employed of the resurrection of “those who are Christ’s”:

1Co 15:22-24, where, after saying that, as all who are in Adam die, even so all who are in (the) Christ will be made alive (see Synecdoche), “but every man in his own order (or rank).

“Christ the first-fruits;

“Afterward they that are Christ’s at His coming.

“Then cometh the end”; or, “then, τὸ τέλος, the end” or the last final rank of this great army of raised people. So that there is no such thing as what is called a “general resurrection”; for as nearly nineteen hundred years have elapsed between the “first-fruits” and “them that are Christ’s,” so there will be a thousand years between then and the last or second resurrection (Rev 20:1-6). See page 87, under Ellipsis.

1Th 4:15-17.-Here, We have the order of events at the coming forth of Christ into the air to receive His people unto Himself, before His coming unto the earth with them. This new revelation was given to the apostle “by the word of the Lord,” and contains facts not before made known. The resurrection, here revealed, is altogether different in time and order from the “first” and “second” resurrections in 1Co 15:22-24 and Rev 20:1-6. These were never a secret, but known, and referred to in the Old Testament Scriptures (Dan 12:1-2. Psa 49:14 (Psa 49:15), etc.), as well as in the Gospels (John 5:28-29, etc.). This resurrection takes its place with that which is told as a secret in 1Co 15:51-57 : “Behold, I show you a mystery”: i.e., “Behold, I tell you a secret.”

So, here, it is revealed that “we which are alive and remain unto the coming of the Lord shall not prevent (i.e., precede) them which are asleep. For the Lord Himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of the archangel, and with the trump of God; and the dead in Christ shall rise first: then, we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air: and so (i.e., thus, in this manner) shall we ever be with the Lord.”

4. Conclusio By way of Conclusion This figure is the addition of a short sentence at the end of a paragraph or statement, for various purposes: either by way of moral, deduction, approbation, apology, or reflection, etc. Different names are given to it, according to the purpose for which it is employed. The sense being complete without it, the figure comes under the head of an addition.

-------- Epicrisis; or, Judgment Addition of Conclusion by way of Deduction

Ep´-i-cri´-sis, from the Greek ἐπὶ (epi), upon, and κρίσις (krisis), a judgment sentence. Hence Epicrisis is used as an adjudication.

It is a short sentence added at the end by way of an additional conclusion, other and more than has been already stated: not necessary to the sense of it, but as showing that there is something more and something deeper than what lies on the surface.

It notes a cause or a consequence arising from the place, occasion, end, or effect, of things, actions, or speeches. A few examples will explain better the use of this figure.

John 1:24.-The sentence, “And they which were sent were of the Pharisees,” is added to remind us of the fact that the Pharisees made a great point of Baptism; which compelled them therefore to acknowledge the baptism of John to be a matter of great importance.

John 1:28.-“These things were done in Bethabara beyond Jordan, where John was baptizing.” This is to explain that the people had come a long way.

John 3:24.-“For John was not yet cast into prison.” This is why John had not ceased to baptize.

John 5:39-40.-Here we have in two verses a double Epicrisis, the first approving, and the second condemning, but both adding a solemn truth, independent of the statement that goes before.

A    “Search the Scriptures;

B    For in them ye think ye have eternal life.

A    And they are they which testify of me:

BAnd ye will not come to me, that ye might have life.” The structure agrees also with this. It is thus exhibited in four members. In the first and third members (A and A), we have the Scriptures; while in the second and fourth (B and B, the Epicrisis), we have the action and the conduct of those who possessed them.

Note that the verb “search” is imperative, and not indicative, as we never find the verb in the indicative commencing a sentence without the pronoun or some other word; while the imperative is frequently so used. See John 14:11; John 15:20. The Jews read, but they did not “search.” The verb “think” also means to hold as an opinion, believe (see Acts 15:28. 1Co 4:9; 1Co 7:40, etc.).

John 6:4.-“And the passover, a feast of the Jews, was nigh.” This is added to explain how it was that so many were going out of the country up to Jerusalem before the Passover in order to purify themselves.

John 7:5.-“For neither did his brethren believe in him.” This solemn addition explains a great deal: especially Mark 3:1-35; from which it is clear, by comparing Mark 3:21 and Mark 3:31 that His mother and brethren set out to lay hands on Him, bringing on themselves the rebuke of Mark 3:32-35. See under Correspondence (page 384).

John 8:20.-“These words spake Jesus in the treasury, as he taught in the Temple: and no man laid hands on him; for his hour was not yet come.” This Epicrisis is used to show how easily (humanly speaking) He might have been taken where there were so many people assembled.

John 8:27.-“They understood not that he spake unto them of the Father.” By means of this additional explanatory conclusion, we are made astonished at the unbelief and blindness of the Jews. See John 12:37.

John 9:14.-“And it was the sabbath day when Jesus made the clay, and opened his eyes.” The Epicrisis here explains much concerning the events recorded in this chapter.

John 9:22.-“These words spake his parents, because they feared the Jews:” etc. This is added to explain the action of the parents of the man born blind.

John 10:22-23.-“And it was at Jerusalem the feast of the dedication, and it was winter, and Jesus walked in the temple, in Solomon’s Porch.” This is added to show that Christ happened to be at that feast, and that he had not gone up to it as to the other feasts. After He had accomplished His journey to the feast of Tabernacles (John 7:8), He made a delay there, so as to remain over the feast of Dedication. (For this feast, see 1Ma 4:59). See page 455.

John 11:13.-“Howbeit Jesus spake of his death: but they thought that he had spoken of taking of rest in sleep.” This Epicrisis is used to explain the meaning of what the Lord Jesus had said.

John 11:30.-“Now Jesus was not yet come into the town, but was in that place where Martha met him.” This explanation is needed to enable us to understand the course of events.

John 12:33.-“This he said, signifying what death he should die.”

John 12:37.-“But though he had done so many miracles before them, yet they believed not on him.”

Acts 19:20.-“So mightily grew the word of God and prevailed.”

1Jn 3:1.-After the words “sons of God,” the best Texts with R.V. [Note: The Revised Version, 1881.] add καὶ ἐσμεν (kai esmen), and we are; or, and such we are. This is a short parenthetical reflective comment. 1Jn 1:2.

-------- Epitasis; or, Amplification Addition of Conclusion by way of Emphasis

E-pit´-a-sis (ἐπίτασις), a stretching, from ἐπί (epi), upon, and τείνειν (teinein), to stretch or extend. The Figure is used when a concluding sentence is added by way of increasing the emphasis. It is not independent of what has gone before, but it is some emphatic increase added to it by way of conclusion. The Latins called it INTENTIO, which means the same thing, a straining, or tension; increase, or augmentation. The difference between this figure and the figure of Amplification is that it comes by way of Conclusion.

Exo 3:19.-“And I am sure that the king of Egypt will not let you go, no, not by a mighty hand.”

Mark 10:43-44.-In Mark 10:43, “Whosoever will be great among you, shall be your minister (or servant).” And in the next verse the meaning is the same, but the Epitasis is added, “of all”:-“Whosoever will be the chiefest, shall be the servant of all.”

John 13:34.-“A new commandment I give unto you, That ye love one another-(then the Epitasis is added)-as I have loved you, that ye also love one another.”

Acts 7:5.-“And he gave him none inheritance in it, no, not so much as to set his foot on.”

Rom 13:1.-“The powers that be are ordained of God.” This is an Epitasis to explain and augment the force of the previous enunciation.

2Co 3:1-18 : where 2Co 3:6 is an Epitasis to 2Co 3:5, explaining and emphasizing what has been before said.

-------- Anesis; or, Abating Addition of Conclusion by way of lessening the Effect

An´-e-sis (ἄνεσις), a loosening, relaxing, abating. This is the opposite of Epitasis; the addition of a concluding sentence which diminishes the effect of what has been said.

2Ki 5:1.-“Now Naaman, captain of the host of the king of Syria, was a great man with his master, and honourable, because by him the Lord had given deliverance unto Syria: he was also a mighty man of valour, but he was a leper”: and therefore all his grandeur and importance counted for nothing.

-------- Epiphonema; or, Exclamation Addition of Conclusion by way of Exclamation

Ep´-i-phoō-nee´-ma (ἐπιφώνημα), from ἐπί (epi), upon, and φωνεῖν (phoōnein), to speak. Hence, something uttered besides; an exclamation at the conclusion of a sentence. When the exclamation occurs as an independent separate passage, then it is called Ecphonesis or Exclamatio (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ), and does not come under this division as a mere addition of words; but rather under their application as an expression of feeling. See Ecphonesis. And note, further, that, when the exclamation is thrown in parenthetically, it is called Interjectio (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ).

Epiphonema is called also DEINOSIS when it is very brief and emphatic, from δείνωσις, an enhancing, exaggerating.

Jdg 5:31.-“So let all thine enemies perish, O Lord.”

Psa 2:12.-“Blessed are all they that put their trust in him.”

Psa 3:8.-“Salvation belongeth unto the Lord. Thy blessing is upon Thy people.”

Psa 14:7.-At the conclusion of the Psalm, this exclamation is added: “Oh, that the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion!” etc.

See under Paronomasia and Metonomy.

Psa 135:21.-“Praise ye the Lord”: i.e., Hallelujah, comingat the end of this and other Psalms, is an Epiphonema.

Jon 2:9.-“Salvation is of the Lord.”

Mat 11:15.-“He that hath ears to hear, let him hear.”

Also in all the sixteen occurrences of this Epiphonema. (See under Polyptoton).

Mat 17:5.-“This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.” And, then, the beautiful Epiphonema is added, “Hear ye Him” as an appended exhortation.

Mat 20:16.-“For many are called, but few are chosen.”

See also Mat 22:14.

Mat 24:28.-“For wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered together.”

See under Parœmia.

Rev 22:20 is a beautiful Epiphonema, not only to the chapter and the book, but to the whole Bible: “Even so, come, Lord Jesus.”

-------- Proecthesis; or, Justification Addition of Conclusion by way of Justification

Pro-ec´-the-sis (προέκθεσις), from πρό (pro), before, and ἔκθεσις (ekthesis), a setting out by way of conclusion, from ἐκτίθημι (ektitheemi), to set out. A conclusion from what has been before set out or put forth. The figure is employed when a sentence is added at the end by way of justification. It is a conclusion by way of adding a justifying reason for what has been said.

Mat 9:13.-“I will have mercy, and not sacrifice: for I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.”

Mat 12:12.-“How much then is a man better than a sheep? Wherefore it is lawful to do well on the sabbath days.”

-------- Epitherapeia; or, Qualification Addition of Conclusion by way of Modification

Ep´-i-ther-a-pei´a, from ἐπί (epi), upon, and θεραπεία (therapei´-a), a waiting on, especially of medical attendance, from θεραπεύειν (therapeuein), to serve as an attendant, to tend, especially medically.

Hence, the compound Epitherapeia is used of applying an additional remedy. And the figure is employed when a sentence is added at the end, to heal, soften, mitigate, or modify what has been before said, so that modesty or other feeling might not be offended or injured. It may be added by way of apology. But where this is added beforehand, to secure indulgence, it is called Protherapeia (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ); and where this is done to prepare for a shock it is called Prodiorthosis (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ).

Mat 26:40-41.-“What, could not ye watch with me one hour? Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation: the spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.”

Php 4:10.-“I rejoiced in the Lord greatly, that now, at the last, your care of me hath flourished again; wherein ye were careful also, but ye lacked opportunity.” When what has been said concludes with an example, it is called

-------- Exemplum; or, Example Addition of Conclusion by way of Example This is not the same as using examples in the course of argument. We do this latter when in any reasoning we adduce one known object or thing as a sample of another in respect to some particular point.

Exemplum, on the other hand, is when we conclude a sentence by employing an example as a precedent to be followed or avoided:-

Luk 17:31-32.-“In that day, he which shall be upon the house top, and his stuff in the house, let him not come down to take it away; and he that is in the field, let him likewise not return back. Remember Lot’s wife.”

-------- Symperasma; or, Concluding Summary Addition of Conclusion by way of a brief Summary

Sym´-per-as´-ma (συμπέρασμα), a finishing or end. In logic it is the conclusion of a syllogism. It is from σύν (sun), together with, and περαιόω (peraioō), to carry over or across.

Hence, Symperasma means to conclude along with, to end together, and is used when what has been said is briefly summed up, and when certain foregoing enumerations are given in a brief epitome.

It is called also ATHRŒSMOS (a-thrœs´-mos), from ἀθροίξω (athroizō), to collect or gather together.

It differs from Synathrœsmus (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) in that it is used at the end and as the conclusion of what has been before said, and not in the course, and as part of the statement.

Mat 1:17.-Here, in this one verse, is given a brief summary of Mat 1:1-16.

John 20:30.-Here is a brief reference to much that is not contained in the whole Gospel.

Heb 11:39.-Here, after having enumerated a number of persons, and of facts concerning them, one brief sentence includes and is true of them all: “And these all, having obtained a good report through faith, received not the promise.”

5. Interpositio By way of Interposition This figure is the addition of a sentence, not at the end, but in the midst of another sentence, which has no grammatical connection with what precedes or follows. It has a close connection with it, but it may or may not be necessary to the sense. The current of the language is interrupted by the interposition of another sentence, which requires to be considered separately. There may, however, be more than one such sentence interposed.

These interpositions are of various kinds, according to their nature, and to the object in view.

Sometimes the interposition requires the leading word to be repeated after it: such repetition is called Apostasis (see under Epanalepsis).

Sometimes it is not put down at all till after the interposition. In the structure of a passage, (see under Correspondence), the various members are more or less parenthetical with relation to those that precede and follow. For example, in an alternate structure such as the first and second chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews:- AHeb 1:1-2.

B    Heb 1:2-14.

A    Heb 2:1-4.

B    Heb 2:5-18.

B is parenthetical with reference to A and A, while A is parenthetical with reference to B and B: A reading on in continuation of A; and B the same with reference to B. So also in an introverted structure:

A-- B-- C-- C-- B-- A-- The whole of B, C, C, and B are parenthetical with relation to A and A; while C and C are the same with reference to B and B. The observation of this is often necessary to the true understanding and indeed the interpretation of many passages of Scripture. But these are not true interpositions, and do not come under the class of figures called INTERPOSITIO.

They are not always marked, either in the Greek Text or in the translations. Modern editors of the Greek Text mark them sometimes by commas, and sometimes by colons. The translators have sometimes indicated them by the use of the curved lines (--), or by dashes - and -, or simply by commas. But there are many more beside those that are thus pointed out.

--------

Parenthesis Parenthetic Addition, by way of Explanation: Complete in Itself

Pa-ren´-the-sis, παρένθεσις, from παρα (para), beside, and ἐντιθέναι (entithenai), to put or place in. The figure is used when a word or sentence is inserted which is necessary to explain the context. As to grammar, the context is complete without it, but not as to clearness and sense. A true Parenthesis is not complete without the context. When it is, it is called Parembole. (See below.) Parentheses are for the most part indicated; but there are others which are not marked.

Heb 2:9.-“But we see Jesus, who was made a little lower than the angels

(for the suffering of death crowned with glory and honour);
that He, by the grace of God, should taste death for every^{* [Note: I.e., without distinction, not without exception.]} man.” This shows that the Lord was made a little lower than the angels in order that He might die. And that he was crowned with glory and honour on account of His sufferings.^{† [Note: See Christ’s Prophetic Teaching, by the same author and publisher.]}

2Pe 1:19.-“We have also a more sure word of prophecy; whereunto ye do well that ye take heed (as unto a light that shineth in a dark place, until the day dawn, and the day-star arise) in your hearts.”

Here, it is clear that there must be a parenthesis, for it is prophecy that is the light that shines, and Christ and His appearing are the Day-star and the Day-dawn. Surely, the meaning cannot be that we are exhorted to take heed to the prophetic word until Christ is revealed in our hearts! No; but we are to take heed in our hearts to this prophetic word, until the fulfilment comes in the appearing of Christ-the rising of Him who is called “the Morning Star.” See under Ellipsis, page 92. When the interposed sentence is thrown in by way of remark, it is called

-------- Epitrechon; or, Running Along Parenthetic Addition by way of Statement thrown in, not complete in itself

Ep´-i-tre-chon, from ἐπί (epi), upon, and τρέχειν (trechein), to run: to run over or along, to overrun. The figure is so-called because the sentence, more or less short, is rapidly thrown in as an explanatory remark.

SUBCONTINUATIO is the name given to it by the Latins; because sentences thus thrown in, by the way, as a kind of undercurrent, continue one thought or statement underneath another, or follow another immediately after.

Gen 15:13.-“Know of a surety that thy seed^{* [Note: I.e., from the birth of Isaac, Abraham’s “seed,” not from the call of Abraham, as Exo 12:40.]} shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs (and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them;)
four hundred years.” The Epitrechon, like a true Parenthesis, is the result of Structure, or Correspondence: a“Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs: band shall serve them; band they shall afflict them; afour hundred years.”

Here in “a” and “a” we have the whole sojourn, while in “b” and “b” we have the servitude in Egypt.

Gen 46:26.-“All the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt (which came out of his loins)
besides Jacob’s sons wives, all the souls were three-score and six. This Epitrechon points us to the difference between the enumeration here (66) and Acts 7:14, where it is 75 souls, because it there includes “all his kindred.”

Exo 12:40.-“Now the sojourning of the children of Israel (who dwelt in Egypt)
was four hundred and thirty years.”

It does not say (as most commentators read it) that they were or had been in Egypt 430 years. It was “the sojourning of the children of Israel” which continued during that time, while the Epitrechon, “who dwelt in Egypt,” is a parenthetical interposition thrown in as a further explanation as to these children of Israel.

1Ki 8:39; 1Ki 8:42.

Psa 68:18 (19) is a beautiful Epitrechon.

“Thou hast ascended on high, Thou hast led captivity captive:

Thou hast received [and given^{* [Note: See Ellipsis, page 74.]} ] gifts for men, (Yea, for the rebellious also), That the Lord God might dwell among them.”

How blessed and full of precious truth and teaching is the fact thus thrown in. Reaching out and stooping down to the most unworthy recipients of such divine gifts.

Mat 9:6.-“But that ye may know that the Son of Man hath power on earth to forgive sins, (then saith he to the sick of the palsy)
Arise, take up thy bed, and go unto thine house.”

John 2:9.-“(but the servants which drew the water knew).”

John 4:7-9.-“Jesus saith unto her, Give me to drink
(For his disciples were gone away into the city to buy meat).
Then saith the woman,” etc.

Acts 1:15.-“And in those days Peter stood up in the midst of the disciples, and said
(the number of names together were about an hundred and twenty):
Men and brethren,” etc.

Rom 3:7-8.-“Why yet am I also judged as a sinner? And [why] not [say]
(as we be slanderously reported, and some affirm that we say):
Let us do evil that good may come?”

Rom 8:19-21.-This parenthesis is better shown by exhibiting the four alternate members:- ARom 8:19. Expectation.

B    Rom 8:20. Reason. (Creation made subject).

A    Rom 8:20. Expectation.

B    Rom 8:21. Reason. (Creation delivered).

See under Ellipsis (page 87), and note that the words “not willingly, but by reason of Him who hath subjected the same” are an Epitrechon, and the previous statement requires to be taken up-“[waiteth, I say] in hope.”

Rom 9:2-3.-“I have great heaviness and continual sorrow in my heart

(for I used to wish, even I myself, to be accursed from Christ) for my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh.” The word ηὐχόμην (eeuchomeen) is by Hyperbaton (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ) put (out of its usual place) at the beginning of the sentence in order to attract our attention; and, when we look further at it, we notice that it is in the imperfect tense, and is best as well as most correctly rendered: “I used to wish.”

See under Euche, a figure so called on account of this very word, eeuchomeen.

Rom 10:6-7.-“Say not in thine heart, Who shall ascend into heaven?

(that is, to bring Christ down from above);
or, Who shall descend into the deep?

(that is, to bring up Christ again from the dead).”

Eph 2:5 “(by grace ye are saved).”

Col 2:21-22 is an important Epitrechon, which writes folly on all the attempts to improve the old nature, by vows and pledges and badges.

Heb 12:20-21.

-------- Cataploce; or, Sudden Exclamation Parenthetic Addition by Way of Exclamation

Cat´-a-plok´-ee (καταπλοκή), from κατά (kata), down, and πλοκή (plokee), a twining or plaiting. The figure is so called because the short sentence so interposed is intertwined with another. This name is given to a parenthesis when it takes the form of a sudden exclamation.

Eze 16:23-24.-“And it came to pass after all thy wickedness (woe, woe unto thee! saith Adonai-Jehovah)
That thou hast also built unto thee,” etc.

Rom 9:2-3.-This is a kind of Cataploce as well as Epitrechon (see page 428), and Euche.

-------- Parembole; or, Insertion Parenthetic Independent Addition

Par-em´-bol-ee´ (παρεμβολή), from παρά (para), beside, ἐν (en), in, and βολή (bolee), a throwing or casting (from βάλλω, ballō, to throw).

Hence, a Parembole is an insertion beside, between, or among others; and the name is used when the sentence interposed is independent and complete in itself; and would make complete sense if it were separated from the sentence which it divides.

It is called also EPEMBOLE (Ep-em´-bol-ee, ἐπεμβολή), from ἐπί (epi), upon, ἐν (en), in, and βολή (bolee), a casting. A casting in upon. And PAREMPTOSIS (Par-emp-to´-sis, παρέμπτωσις), from παρά (para), beside, ἐν (en), in, and πτῶσις (ptōsis), a falling (from πίπτω, to fall), a falling in beside.

Isa 60:12 is a Parembole, complete in itself.

Mark 7:3-4.-These two verses are interposed, and are independent of the context.

Luk 17:9 is an independent question and answer thrown in, in the midst of the argument.

Acts 2:8-11 form a Parembole.

See also Rom 3:27-31; Rom 6:13-17.

Rom 8:2-15 is a long Parembole setting forth the further relation between flesh and spirit: i.e., the Old man and the New man, the Old nature and the New divine and spiritual nature, the πνεῦμα (pneuma), or πνεῦμα χριστοῦ (pneuma-Christou) which is given to all who are in Christ. Consequently the “s” in spirit should be a small “s,” and not a capital letter, in all these verses: the Holy Spirit Himself not being mentioned, or referred to, as a Person until Rom 8:16. The whole of the interpretation of this important passage depends on this Parembole.^{* [Note: See article on Rom 8:1-39, Things to Come, May, 1899.]} 1Co 15:20-28 is an independent digression: and the sense reads on from 1Co 15:19-29. Thus:- (1Co 15:19). “If in this life only we have hope in Christ, we are of all men most miserable …

(1Co 15:29). Else, what shall they do who are being baptized? It is for the dead, if the dead rise not all?” etc. (see under Ellipsis, page 41).

2Co 3:7-16.

Php 3:18-19.-These verses are an independent Parembole.

Eph 1:19-23 is a Parembole, and the sense reads on from 1:19 to chap. 2:1: “And what is the exceeding greatness of his power to us-ward who believe (…), even you who were dead in trespasses and sins,” etc. But see under Ellipsis (page 109).

Eph 3:2-13 is a Parembole, and a digression explaining Paul’s special ministry in connection with the Gentiles.

1Ti 5:22-23.-“Keep thyself … infirmities” forms a Parembole.

Heb 12:18-29.

1Pe 3:19-21.^{* [Note: See The Spirits in Prison, by the same author and publisher.]}

1Jn 1:2.

-------- Interjectio; or, Interjection Parenthetic Addition by Way of Feeling

In´-ter-jec´-ti-o, from the Latin, inter, between, and jacio, to throw: something thrown in between. While, therefore, the word is similar in meaning to the former figure, this term is confined to an exclamation which is thrown in by way of parenthesis. But note that, when the exclamation is added at the end of a passage, it is called Epiphonema (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ). And when it is quite independent of the context, and forms a definite part of it, it is called Ecphonesis (q.v. [Note: Which see.] ).

Psa 42:2 (Psa 42:3).-“My soul is athirst for God, for the living God;” and then is thrown in, parenthetically, the exclamation, “When shall I come and appear before God?”

Eze 16:23-24.-“And it came to pass after all thy wickedness (woe, woe unto thee! saith Adonai Jehovah), That thou hast also built thee a brothel-house in every street” (i.e., an idol’s temple).

See also under Cataploce.

-------- Ejaculatio; or, Ejaculation Parenthetic Addition by way of Wish or Prayer

E-jac´-u-la´-ti-o, from the Latin e, out; and jaculari, jaculatus, the throwing of a javelin, from jaculum, a javelin (from jacere, to throw). This name is confined to a parenthesis which consists of a short prayer, such as “God forbid,” “God be praised,” “Thank God.”

Hos 9:14.-Here, the prayer is in the form of a question:-“Give them, O Lord: what wilt thou give? give them,” etc. See under Aposiopesis.

-------- Hypotimesis; or, Under-Estimating Parenthetic Addition by way of Apology or Excuse

Hy-po-ti-mee´-sis (ὑποτίμησις), from ὑπό (hypo), under, and τίμησις (timeesis), a valuing, or estimating, from τιμάω (timaō), to deem, or hold worthy. Hence, an under-estimating, under-valuing. A parenthetical remark is so called when it is apologetic, in order to excuse some bold or extravagant use of language, such as “If I may so say,” or “So to speak,” or, “As it were.” The name MEILIGMATA is given to the words so used, from μείλιγμα (meiligma), anything that serves to soothe. And this from μειλίσσω (meilissō), to soothe, propitiate.

Rom 3:5.-“I speak as a man.”

2Co 11:23.-“I speak as a fool.”

-------- Anæresis; or, Detraction A Parenthetic Addition by way of Detraction.
(Parenthetic Tapeinōsis) An œ´-re-sis (ἀναίρεσις), from ἀνά (ana), up, and αἱρέω (hairē), to take away. Hence Anœresis means a taking up or carrying off. The parenthesis is so called, when, by a negative expression, we appear to take something away from the sense, but really add to it, and thus emphasize it.

Anœresis is the figure Tapeinōsis (or Antenantiōsis) used parenthetically.

6. Ratiocinatio By way of Reasoning This class of additions to what is said does not relate to the sense, description, conclusion, or parenthesis, but to argumentation, or reasoning.

These figures are not often used in Scripture, and are artifices of argument invented for human reasoning.

We give them, in order to make our subject complete.

-------- Paradiegesis; or, a Bye-Leading Addition of Outside Facts by way of Reasoning

Par-a-di-ee-gee´-sis, from the Greek παρά (para), beside, διά (dia), through, or by means of, and ἡγεῖσθαι (heegeisthai), to lead, or guide. Hence the figure is used when there is an addition of facts which are beside the case, yet help to establish it.

-------- Sustentatio; or, Suspense Addition suspending the Conclusion, by way of Reasoning

Sus-ten-ta´-ti-ō: i.e., suspension. The figure is used when additions to the argument are made by which the conclusion is kept in suspense.

It is called also CREMAN from κρεμάννυμι (kre-man-nu´-mi), to hang up, suspend.

Also EXARTESIS (ἐξάρτησις), ex-ar-tee´-sis, a hanging from, connection of parts with one another, from ἐξαρτάω (exartaō), to hang upon, suspend.

-------- Paraleipsis; or, a Passing by Addition (brief) of that which is professedly ignored

Par-a-leips´-is, παράλειψις, a passing over, omitting, from παρά (para), beside, and λείπω (leipō), to leave behind. Sometimes spelt PARALEPSIS.

Called also PARASIOPESIS, παρασιώπησις, a passing over in silence, from παρά (para), beside, and σιώπησις (siōpeesis), a being silent, from σιωπάω (siōpaō), to be silent. The Latins called it PRÆTERMISSIO, a leaving aside, prœtermission, a passing over, and PRÆTERITIO, a going past, passing by. This figure is used when the speaker professes a wish to pass something by in silence, which he nevertheless adds by a brief allusion to it.

Heb 11:32.-“And what shall I more say? for the time would fail me to tell of Gedeon and of Barak,” etc., and then proceeds to allude briefly to them all in Heb 11:33-38.

-------- Proslepsis; or, Assumption Addition (full) of what is professed to be ignored

Pros´-leeps´-is (πρόσληψις), a taking or assuming besides. From πρός (pros), to, toward, or beside, and λῆψις (leepsis), a taking, from λαμβάνω (lambanō), to take. By the Latins it was called ASSUMPTIO, an assuming, or taking to, and CIRCUMDUCTIO, a leading round. This name is given to the preceding figure of Paraleipsis, when it is expanded beyond its proper limits; and the speaker or writer, after having professed to omit it, proceeds actually to add and describe the particulars.

-------- Apophasis; or, Insinuation Addition of Insinuation (implied) by way of Reasoning

A-poph´-a-sis (ἀπόφασις), denial, negation, from ἀποφάναι (apophanai), to speak off, and this from ἀπό (apo), off, and φάναι (phanai), to speak or say. The figure is used when, professing to suppress certain matters or ideas, the speaker proceeds to add the insinuation, negatively: e.g., “I will not mention the matter, but,” etc.; or, “I will not mention another argument, which, however, if I should, you could not refute.”

Phm 1:19.-“I Paul have written it with mine own hand, I will repay it (albeit I do not say to thee how thou owest unto me even thine own self besides).” When the matter or argument is actually added, the figure is then called

-------- Cataphasis; or, Affirmation Addition of Insinuation (stated) by way of Reasoning

Cat-aph´-a-sis, Greek, κατάφασις, an affirmation, or affirmative proposition, from κατά (kata), down, and φασις (phasis), a speaking, from φάναι (phanai), to say. In this case the insinuation is added, not negatively, but positively: e.g.: “I pass by his deceit,” etc., and thus adds the insinuation as to his deception.

-------- Asteismos; or, Politeness Addition by graceful disclosure of what is professedly concealed

As-te-is´-mos. Greek, ἀστεϊσμός, clever talk, from ἀστεῖος (asteios), of the city, polite, from ἄστυ (astu), city. The figure is used when, by pretending to conceal something, the speaker adds some graceful language which discloses it.

It comes in here when it is used as an addition by way of reasoning. We have included it also in Figures involving change, where the application of words is affected by way of feeling. (See below).